Study Centre February 20, 2018

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CONT R IBUTOR S
ENGLISH LANGUAGE MATHEMATICS SOCIAL STUDIES INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Shawnette Myers-Lawrence Kamau Karenga Charmaine Fuller-Wallace Shandeen Robinson-White
HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS INTEGRATED SCIENCE
Leroy Munroe Hilary Bassaragh Tedmore Clarke Marlene Grey-Tomlinson
ENGLISH LITERATURE COMMUNICATION STUDIES CARIBBEAN STUDIES CAREER TALK

Simone Gibbs Peta-Gaye Perkins Bryan Debgeri Whitely Heart Trust NTA
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www.jamaicaobserver.com JOL LECTURE SERIES Jamaica Observer Limited

ENGLISH
LANGUAGE Lesson 19
with
Shawnett Myers-Lawrence
NARRATIVE WRITING:
PUTTING IT TOGETHER
Hello everyone.
Having gone through some of the elements of a story it is

time to look at putting it all together. I know that some of
you may still have concerns about being creative under
exam conditions but you need to remember that the way
to improve your craft is to read good stories and practice
writing stories of your own. In today’s lesson we will look
at a sample story and discuss the ways in which this story
may be graded and improved. One of the changes to the
syllabus is the mark scheme for the story which has moved
SAMPLE STORY
from 30 marks to 25 marks. This change however, does not
affect the standard of what qualifies as a good story.
Story Prompt:
Points to remember
“Jamila turned and walked away. I knew then that I
• The suggested time for writing a story is 45 minutes
had lost a friend.” Write a story in which this sentence
so you should try as best as possible to finish during
plays an important part.
this time.
• You are expected to write primarily in Standard

English. Creole may only be used in dialogue. The story must be given a title.
• You are given a word limit of between 400 and 450
words. This word limit must be adhered to. As I walked through the boring hallways of Cresswell
High School, I noticed my two best friends from afar,
• You will be assessed on how well you used the Jamila who was a giant compared to my five feet one inch
stimulus provided and how well you have developed stature and Brad who was just as tall as her she. As I
and organized the story. walked closer I realised they were in I a heated
conversation. The only thing I heard was, “she is involved
• You are also assessed on your use of language
including correctness of punctuation and grammar. with everything”, before they ended their conversation
abruptly, on noticing my presence.
• You must avoid inappropriate and graphic content
related to sex and violence. “Hey Janelle,” they both greeted.
• You must give your story a title if you are not given
one as a prompt. JOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE continues on next page
JOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE continued from previous page
“Hey, what were you guys talking about,? “ I replied asked. “Jamila is a rotten poor girl who has to work at night
to provide for her family”’.to the whole class. Her
“Nothing,” they both said. biggest secret that she trusted me her best friend with.,
her best friend There was an eruption of gasps because I
It was a lie., I knew my best friends. I could see it in their was punched so hard I didn’t even realize it until Jamila
eyes they were lying. I wasn’t going to argue; I just left it turned and walked away and I was left alone looking like
alone. I turned to my locker to exchange books and while the biggest idiot ever. Rephrase this sentence like this:
I was doing that Brad and Jamila continued their There was an eruption of gasps as Jamila punched me so
conversation (clearly to my understanding) I am not sure hard that I didn’t even realise until she walked away and
what this means. They were so deep into their I was left looking like the biggest idiot ever.
conversation that they didn’t even realize they were
talking about ‘me’ in my presence. I closed my locker to It was later reported to the principal that Jamila punched me
get their attention and told them I was going to class. The and didn’t show up hadn’t shown up to my history class. We
narrator could have indicated at this point the content of were both punished but I think I got it worst, emotionally. I
her friends’ conversation. It would justify her anger. knew I had lost my best friend. I apologised a million times,
She she accepted it but we didn’t remain friends.
As I was walking to my history class seething with anger about
my best friends speaking openly about me I collided into the Jamila and I could eventually talk to each other but we
school’s ‘mix up’ biggest gossip. I didn’t even stop to help her were never friends again.This is repetitive and adds
pick up her books because I didn’t like her and I was so angry nothing to the story. What I did was the lowest of the
but something she said stopped me in my tracks. low and was the biggest mistake of my life. I lost a my
very best friend.
“What did you say?’ I queried.
“Nothing,’ she smugly said. COMMENTARY
The writer could have inserted something her like, I stood

In general the story has positive elements. The expression
staring at her expectantly with my arms folded and
and language use are fairly good however there are some
tapping my foot.
weaknesses in punctuation. The narrative point of view is
consistent and there is some use of dialogue to develop
“Okay,” she finally gave away. “Jamila is spreading
the characters and advance the plot. There is evidence of
rumours about you”., she She said with that her trademark
a conflict which needs to be resolved. The plot is however,
smirk.
shaky as the conflict was not sufficiently developed and
the resolution is rather abrupt. Some attempt could have
My anger went into overdrive. I totally forgot about history
been made to develop the narrator a bit more for example
and stormed straight into Jamila’s Math class.
why she was so suspicious of her best friends and ready
to believe the worst of them. She seems to overreact which
Fortunately for me Ms. James was absent. As I entered the
suggests that she is driven more by paranoia than reality.
room. I spotted her talking to Missy., How I hated her in
One major thing that must be pointed out is that the
that moment. She saw me and greeted me with her
prompt was not properly integrated into the story. This
chirpy “Hey Janelle” but I wasn’t hear here for that. I
quickly confronted her sending rapid questions at her was paraphrased rather than incorporated verbatim. If you
about why she was spreading rumours about me. She are given a line to include in your story you are expected
could barely respond because I was set in attack mode. to use it as given. A story such as this would not be
S so in my This word is used in the Jamaican sense. classified as superior but as an example of competence.
That is inappropriate here and anger I did the
unthinkable that no best friend should do; I blurted out, JOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE continues on next page
JOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE continued from previous page
HOW COULD THE STORY BE IMPROVED?
This story focuses on characters and conflict more than any of the other elements. Since the protagonist is also the
narrator then a greater effort could have been made to give the reader a sense of who she is. Is it that she is jealous
of the relationship between her other friends and feels left out? Did she have a bad start to her day which made her
short tempered? Is she just a paranoid person? It should be clear to the readers what her challenge is as it would
impact on how she deals with the conflict that arises. A rule of thumb when writing dialogue is to use it for specific
purposes and not just for its own sake. In this story the dialogue could have been used to show the tension among the
friends. Their tone of voice and nonverbal behaviours would indicate that the protagonist has every reason to believe
she was being discussed or not. The climax was not sufficiently climactic as we do not get a full sense of the magnitude
of the confrontation. Also, why would Jamila be so offended and hurt by the revelation that she is poor and has to
work? If these holes in the story were plugged then it would certainly be classified as demonstrating superiority.
Writing creatively can be a difficult prospect for many students and if you believe that you are in this category you are
not alone. Hopefully, by now you would have garnered some additional skills and are more comfortable with this aspect
of the course. I cannot emphasize enough the necessity of reading good stories and practicing writing some of your
own. You should also try to assess your own stories. Revision is also a part of the writing process.
Shawnett Myers-Lawrence is on the staff of St. Hugh’s High School

! Email: shawnomyl@yahoo.com
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MATHEMATICS Lesson 19
with Kamau Karenga
7 8 9
MEASUREMENTS
+
Greetings to all of my wonderful students in ‘cyberspace’!
4 5 6 –
Today we look at the concept of measurements.
It is also called MENSURATION. How do we measure lengths,

areas, volumes, time, mass and temperatures? For many
1 2 3 –:
centuries in the Caribbean we used a British or Imperial
system that included inches, feet, yards, chains, furlongs,
miles, rods, perches, acres, pounds, stones, ounces, pints,
quarts, gallons, bushels and degrees Fahrenheit.
The metric system was introduced to the world about 1800

with the French Revolution, and introduced to the
0 • = +
Caribbean in the 1970s.Today we use (officially) the metric
system of metres, grams, litres and degrees Celsius. The
CSEC syllabus is designed to use the metric system of
MULTIPLICATION
measure. PREFIX SYMBOL
FACTOR
kilo (thousand) k 1,000 = 103
QUANTITY SYMBOL NAME hecto (hundred) h 100 = 102
Deka (ten) da 10 = 101
length m metre
deci (one tenth) d 0.1 = 10–1

mass g gram
centi (one hundredth) c 0.01 = 10–2
temperature °C degree Celsius milli (one thousandth) m 0.001 = 10–3
time s seconds The metric system uses a number of prefixes to compute

multiples or fractions of all quantities and symbols. The
prefix is used with any of the quantities being described.
Electric current A ampere
Example: 1,000 grams is equivalent to a kilogram and
1,000 metres is equivalent to a kilometre. A centimetre is
The metric system is, like our decimal number system, a one hundredth of a metre and a milligram is one
base 10 design. However, the units of time remain base thousandth of a gram.
60; thus, 60 seconds equal one minute and 60 minutes
equal one hour. JOL MATHEMATICS continues on next page
JOL MATHEMATICS continued from previous page
CIRCLE:
AREAS OF SIMPLE PLANE FIGURES
Area = ϖr 2
RECTANGLE: The SECTOR OF A CIRCLE

Area = length × width A sector is a fraction of the circle:
θ
Area = ––––– X ϖr2
360
The SQUARE is a rectangle with equal length and width.
TRIANGLE:
Area = ½ × base × height
The height is a perpendicular distance.
TRAPEZIUM
A trapezium has two parallel sides:
Area = ½ (a + b) × h
JOL MATHEMATICS continues on next page

A CUBOID is a rectangular PRISM:

VOLUMES OF UNIFORM SOLIDS
Volume = length × breadth × height
It is important to understand the concept of dimensions

in measurements.
– LENGTHS have a single dimension (metres) to form

a line.
– AREAS have two dimensions: a length and a width

(metres squared or m2) to form a surface.
– VOLUMES have three dimensions: length, width and

A CYLINDER is a circular PRISM:
height (metres cubed or m3) to form a solid or a
three-dimensional space.
Volume = ϖr 2 × height
A PRISM is a solid figure with a uniform cross sectional
area.
The cross-sectional area may be square, rectangular,

triangular, circular, or it may be an irregular shape. What
makes it a prism is the UNIFORM cross section.
Volume of a PRISM is always the uniform cross-sectional

area × length.
A CUBE is a prism with all three dimensions equal:
Volume = (length)3
A WEDGE is a triangular PRISM:

Volume = (½ × base × height) × length

Example: b) Volume of a prism = cross sectional area × length

The diagram shows a rectangular prism with a length of ! volume = 12 cm2 × 30 cm
30cm and a width of 3cm. The cross sectional area of the Answer: the volume = 360 cm3
rectangle is 12cm2.
c) There are 1,000 cubic centimetres in a litre.
To convert from cm3 to litres, we divide by 1,000.
! volume in litres = 360 cm3 / 1,000
Answer: the volume = 0.36 litre
d) Total surface area: there are 6 surfaces on a

rectangular prism (which is a cuboid).
Calculate:
a) The height of the prism Calculate the area of each surface and then find the
b) The volume of the prism in cm3 sum.
c) The volume of the prism in litres
d) The total surface area of the prism ! top: 3 cm × 30 cm = 90 cm2
Solution 1: ! bottom: 3 cm × 30 cm = 90 cm2
! right side: 4 cm × 30 cm = 120 cm2
a) The cross sectional area of a rectangle ! left side: 4 cm × 30 cm = 120 cm2
is length × width. ! front: 3 cm × 4 cm = 12 cm2
In this case the area is given, the width is given and ! back: 3 cm × 4 cm = 12 cm2
the height is unknown. TOTAL = 444 cm2
! Area = width × height
! 12 cm2 = 3 cm × height NOTE: Top and bottom have the same area; left and
12cm2 right sides are the same; front and back are
! height = ––––––– the same. This is because the rectangular
3cm
nature of the shape makes opposite sides
Answer: height = 4 cm parallel to each other.
EVALUATION
The diagram a) Calculate the:
at right, not i) length of arc ADB
drawn to scale, ii) perimeter of the sector OADB
shows the iii) area of the sector OADB, to the nearest cm2.
cross section b) The prism is 30 cm long and is a solid made of
of a prism in aluminium.
the shape of Calculate the:
a sector of a i) volume of the prism, to the nearest cm3
ii) volume of the prism in litres
circle, centre O,
iii) mass of the prism in kg, accurate to 1 decimal
and radius
place, given that 1 cm3 of aluminium has a
7 cm. mass of 2.7 g.
[ Use ϖ= 22 ]
The angle at the centre is 135°. –––– JOL MATHEMATICS continues on next page
7
SOLUTION TO EVALUATION
a) i) The arc is a fraction of the circumference of the whole circle. The fraction is found by dividing the angle of the sector by
the total angle in a circle, 360°. The length of the circumference of a circle is 2ϖr
θ
Length of arc = –––– × 2ϖr
360
135
! Length of arc = –––– × 2 × (22/7) × 7 ! Length of arc ADB = 16.5 cm
360
ii) The perimeter is the total distance around the sector. If we start at point A and travel along the arc to point
D, and then to point B, then to the centre O and back to point A, we would have completed one perimeter.
Perimeter = arc length + radius + radius

Perimeter = 16.5 + 7 + 7
! Perimeter = 30.5 cm
iii)The area of the sector is a fraction of the area of the whole circle.
The area of a circle is ϖr2
θ
Area of sector = –––– × ϖr2
360
135 22
Area of sector = –––– × ––– × 72
360 7
Area of sector = 57.75 cm2
Area of sector OADB = 58 cm2 (to nearest cm2)
b) i) Volume of prism = cross-sectional area × length.

Using 58 cm2 for the cross-sectional area:
! Volume = 58 cm2 × 30 cm ! Volume of the prism = 1,740 cm3
ii) There are 1,000 cm3 in one litre. Therefore, we divide 1,740 cm3 by 1,000.
Volume of prism in litres = 1.74 litres
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
(iii) Density = –––––––––
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
and 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = Density × Volume
The density is given as 2.7 grams per cubic centimetre.
Therefore,
Mass of prism = 1,740 cm3 × 2.7 g / cm3
Mass of prism = 4,698 g
! Mass = 4.698 kg
Mass of prism = 4.7 kg (to 1 decimal place).

WATCH THE VIDEO BELOW FOR MORE.
In the next lesson we will continue with further discussions on MEASUREMENTS. PEACE and LOVE.
Kamau Karenga is on the staff of Portmore Community College ! Email: kkarenga@pcc.edu.jm
LECTURE SERIES NOW

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COPIES

SOCIAL
STUDIES Lesson 19
with
Charmaine Fuller-Wallace
DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF RESOURCES

IN THE CARIBBEAN: LAND
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson students should be able to:
1. Explain and use correctly the concepts, crop rotation, mono-cropping, food security
2. State at least four uses of the land
3. Explain three ways humankind has misused the land
4. Discuss three ways in which the land can be conserved
5. Discuss the causes of food insecurity and solutions to maintaining food security
LAND AS A RESOURCE
The land is one of the most important renewable physical/natural resources. It is the source of the Caribbean’s
agricultural resources, forest and minerals. Land use and land management practices have numerous impacts on the
earth’s natural resources such as water, soil and nutrients. Land use has to do with the management and alteration of
the land by humankind. In the Caribbean, the land is used for a number of activities such as mining, forestry, agricultural
practices (farming, fishing and horticulture), trading, construction, tourism, urban development and transportation.
USES OF THE LAND
AGRICULTURE: The land supports peasant farming as well as the production of livestock and crops for commercial use. It
is also used to support forestry, fishing and horticulture. Agriculture supplies food for local consumption as well as it
provides raw materials that are used by food processing industries in the Caribbean region.
TOURISM: It is on the land that hotels, motels, beaches and parks are built to support tourism.
MINING: Minerals such as petroleum, bauxite, gold, diamonds, sand, stone, asphalt can be found on the land. These are
mined to support the economic activities of countries in the Caribbean Region.
CONSTRUCTION: The land is used for the construction of buildings such as industrial plants, housing, commercial complexes
and hotels; roads, bridges, railways that are used to support transportation; parks and other entertainment facilities.
JOL SOCIAL STUDIES continues on next page

JOL SOCIAL STUDIES continued from previous page
TABLE SHOWING WAYS THE LAND IS MISUSED AS WELL AS HOW THE LAND CAN BE CONSERVED
HOW THE LAND IS MISUSED CONSERVATION METHODS
Instead of mono-cropping, farmers should practice:

• crop rotation, and
• mixed farming
Crop rotation is the successive planting and

MONO-CROPPING: This is where farmers repeatedly cultivation of different crops on the same piece of
plant the same crop on the same piece of land. This land in order to main the fertility of the land.
practice leads to the soil becoming infertile, as Remember that not all crops use the same nutrients.
valuable nutrients are lost.
Mixed farming is an agricultural system in which a
farmer conducts different agricultural practices
together, such as cash crops and livestock. Mixed
farming systems maintain soil fertility and soil
biodiversity and minimize soil erosion.
DEFORESTATION: This is where farmers and

lumber-jacks permanently remove a large number of
Implementation of reforestation and forestation
trees from forested areas without replanting. When
programmes.
this happens the topsoil is left exposed and
vulnerable to erosion.
QUARRYING-MINING: During the extraction of • Replanting of vegetation.

minerals such as bauxite, the topsoil and vegetation • Reintroducing nutrients such as with the use
are usually removed and many times re-afforestation of humus and fertilizers into the soil to
does not take place. maintain soil fertility.
• Encourage contractors to build apartment

POOR PLANNING: Sometimes the government allows complexes/ townhouses so as to use less land
agricultural land to be used for the construction of space.
houses and industrial complexes. • Encourage the building of industrial complexes
and houses in non-agricultural areas.

HOW THE LAND IS MISUSED CONSERVATION METHODS
OVERGRAZING: This is where farmers allow their

animals to graze on the same plot of land/pasture for Rotational Grazing: Farmers should subdivide land to
an extended period of time until the land loses its allow for this practice.
vegetation and become infertile.
SHIFTING CULTIVATION: This is where large plots of

• Replanting of vegetation.
land are cleared of its vegetation by farmers to plant
• Reintroducing of nutrients whether artificial/
crops. After the soil becomes infertile the land is left
natural into the soil
fallow and this practice is repeated in other areas.
PLOUGHING: This is where farmers plough along

hillsides from the top of the hill to the bottom, Farmers should plough the land along the contours
causing gullies and furrows to be formed. When it (around a hill). This practice will help to prevent the
rains all the soil is washed downhill. soil from being washed downhill by rain.
SLASH-AND-BURN AGRICULTURE: This farming practice

is used my many farmers in Jamaica. It is where
farmers cut down trees that are in woodlands or
Farmers should clear land by using machines instead
forested areas to create fields for agricultural
of burning.
activities. This farming practice can result in forest
fires, deforestation, erosion (soil, wind and water),
loss of bio diversity and soil infertility.

ACTIVITY 1
Instruction: Match the Caribbean countries in the box below with their corresponding agricultural crop.
Jamaica Dominica Grenada Haiti Cuba Trinidad and Tobago
Guyana St. Lucia Puerto Rico Barbados Dominican Republic
MAIN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS PRODUCED IN THE CARIBBEAN COUNTRY
1. Coffee, sugarcane, bananas, ground provisions
2. Sugarcane, bananas, ground provisions
3. Sugarcane, coffee, bananas, cocoa, citrus fruits, ginger
4. Coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits, sugarcane, bananas, coconuts, ground provisions
5. Tobacco, sugarcane, coffee, citrus fruits
6. Bananas, sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits
7. Bananas, coffee, sugarcane, citrus fruits
8. Cocoa, bananas, spices, sugarcane
9. Rice, sugarcane, forestry, cattle rearing
10. Bananas, cocoa, coconuts
11. Forestry, coconuts, citrus, bananas

FOOD SECURITY WHAT CAN BE DONE

TO ENSURE THAT THERE IS FOOD INSECURITY
Food security is where there is an adequate supply of food
from local producers as well as from imports available for
the population. It can also be defined as when people The following are some ways in which the Caribbean can
have access at all times to safe and nutritious food to ensure that there is food security.
maintain a healthy and productive life.
1. People should be encouraged to consume a wide
variety of local and imported foods.
MAIN THREATS TO FOOD SECURITY IN THE REGION
2. Consumers should be encouraged to have a
‘backyard garden’ where they plant crops to
Threats to food security can also be referred to as causes supplement what they purchase.
of food insecurity. Threats to food security include:
3. The agricultural ministry and businesses should
Increasing Food Prices: If the prices of food items increase, assist small farmers with improved road access to
people may not have enough money to buy what they their farms, technical assistance and planting
need. Sometimes the cost of energy increases which materials.
sometimes leads to an increase in the cost of food items
(such as flour) produced by the manufacturing sector. If 4. Supermarkets, hotels and other businesses that use
the price of food items increases people won’t be able to produce should buy from farmers at a fair price.
buy what they need.
5. Farmers should be encouraged to not only focus on
the quantity of their product but also the quality.
Economic Difficulties: Countries that depend a lot on the
importation of agricultural goods sometimes may not
have enough money to pay for the importation of enough ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 1
food items to feed the population.
1. Haiti 7. Puerto Rico
Poverty: Families with low or uncertain income often do
not have enough money to buy food which would enable 2. Barbados 8. Grenada
them to have an adequate diet.
3. Jamaica 9. Guyana
Drought: Farmers often depend on rainfall to water their
4. Trinidad and Tobago 10. St. Lucia
crops. If there is no rainfall or not enough rainfall, the
families who rely on the land to provide their needs will 5. Cuba 11. Dominica
not have enough to feed their family or to sell.
6. Dominican Republic
Climatic Changes: Changing weather patterns, pests
and diseases, and natural disasters such as hurricanes Have a wonderful week!!
are among the obstacles to ensuring that all people
have access to safe, affordable, and nutritious food. Charmaine Fuller-Wallace is on the staff of
With these climatic changes, sometimes there is a St. Andrew Technical High School
! Email: charmief2@yahoo.com
shortage of food crops.

INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY Lesson 19
with
Shandeen Robinson-White
ARRAYS IN PASCAL
Hi there! How are you doing? Today we continue to

explore the topic of Arrays. We will begin by reviewing
what is an array, and then we will get into some question
analysis. Refer to lesson 17 where Arrays was introduced
and explained using everyday life analogies.
STARTER QUESTIONS
3. What is the difference between a flowchart and
pseudocode?
Attempt these questions and then check your responses at
the end of the lesson. A. A flowchart is diagrammatic whilst pseudocode
is written in a programming language (E.g. Pascal
1. What is an algorithm? or Java)
A. A flowchart B. A flowchart is textual but pseudocode is

diagrammatic
B. Step by step instructions used to solve a problem
C. A flowchart is a diagrammatic description of an
C. A flowchart or pseudocode algorithm whilst pseudocode is a textual
description of an algorithm
D. A decision
D. A flowchart and pseudocode are the same thing
2. What are the three algorithm constructs?

4. In a flowchart an input or output instruction is
A. Sequence, selection, repetition represented by
B. Input, output, process A. A rectangle C. A parallelogram
C. Input/output, decision, terminator B. A rhombus D. A circle
D. Loop, input/output, process JOL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY continues on next page

JOL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY continued from previous page
5. In a flowchart a calculation (process) is represented by 7. A flowchart needs to represent a situation where the
A. A rectangle user is asked to enter his age, the age is read into the
B. A rhombus system and the system outputs a ‘Thank You’ message.
This is an example of which of the algorithm
C. A parallelogram
constructs?
D. A circle
A. Decision
B. Loop
6. A flowchart needs to represent a situation where for C. Sequence
each mark a student is awarded ‘Pass’ or ‘Fail’...the D. All of the above
system will consider the mark and if it’s 50 or over
award ‘Pass’, else it awards ‘Fail’. This is an example of 8. A flowchart needs to represent a situation where the
user is asked to enter 20 marks in succession. This is an
which of the algorithm constructs?
example of which of the algorithm constructs?
A. Decision A. Decision
B. Loop B. Loop
C. Sequence C. Sequence
D. All of the above D. All of the above
The objective of today’s lesson is for you to be able to:
" write programs (codes) using PASCAL syntax with arrays
Arrays reviewed
An array is a highly useful data structure that stores variable data having the same data type. It is just like a small
fixed number of boxes linked together one after the other storing things that are related to each other.
An array is said to be a static data structure because, once declared, its original size that is specified by the programmer
will remain the same throughout the whole program and cannot be changed.
JOL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY continues on next page

Up until now, we have used single variables only as a tool to store data. Now we will be using the array data structure
and here is how it is declared:
Var
<arrayName> : Array[n..m] of <Data Type>;
Example: myArray : Array[1..20] of Integer;
Every candidate is expected to know how to declare an array. So take 2 mins to look at it again before you
continue to read. An array data structure defines the size of the array and the data type that it will use
for storing data. In the above example, the array stores up to 20 integers however it is okay to have 30
integers or more. This size depends on your program requirements. Arrays are used just like ordinary variables. They
are used to store typed data just like the ordinary variables.
ASSIGNING DATA TO ARRAYS AND READING DATA FROM ARRAYS

Here is another skill that you need to master before you go into the examination. To assign values to a particular
integer of an array, we do it like this:
<arrayName>[index] := <relevant data>;
Examples:
You just take the array in subject, specify the index of the variable of the array and assign it a value relevant to the
data type of the array itself.
Reading a value from an array is done as follows:

Self-Assessment
Before we continue, let us do a self-check to see how much we are understanding.
Question: Declare an array name ‘a’ of size 10, to store integer values. Then assign the values 10, 15 and the sum of
10 and 15 to the first 3 elements in the array. Output the values on the screen.
Check the end of the lesson for the answer.
TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS & ANALYSIS
Question # 1
A one-dimensional array named FAMILY is used to store the number of children in each of four families. Write Pascal
code to do the following:
(a) declare the array FAMILY ___________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Assign six children to the fourth family ___________________________________________________________________________
(c) Initialise the variable CHILDREN to zero ___________________________________________________________________________
(d) Add the number of children in the four families and store the total in a variable named CHILDREN
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Answers
(a) Var FAMILY: Array[1…4] of integer;
(b) FAMILY [4] := 6;
(c) CHILDREN := 0;
(d) For x := 1 to 4 do This is the use of a For loop. The index value
CHILDREN := CHILDREN + FAMILY [x];
in ‘x’ will change each time the program loops.
This is a very easy question. And the truth is it will not get any easier than this. Remember your semi colons (;), the
use of := for assignment (and not =). When declaring the array remember the data type.

Question # 2
Study the following program code and then answer the questions that follow:
Questions:
(a) What is the name of the program?

(b) What is the name of the array?
(c) What is the size of the array?
(d) What is the output when the program is executed?
Refer to the IT Booklet, 3rd edition and lesson 18 for details.

Answers:
I cannot emphasize enough how important it is for you to know and understand Arrays in Pascal. If you
are finding it to be extremely challenging, make sure you are able to do the basic stuff, such as identifying
and writing the:
1) name of the program
2) name of the array
3) size of the array
4) output when the program is executed
Let us examine another possible question
Question # 3
Study the following array named TOPIC.

(a) What is the size of the array?

(b) What is the data type of the contents of the array?
(c) What is the output produced from the array after executing the following fragment:
For count := 4 to 7 do
Write (TOPIC[count – 1]);
(a) The size of the array is 6 Conclusion
(b) The data type of the contents of the array is CHAR The mastery of problem solving and programming comes
with practise.
(c) The output would be: F O R M. It would be displayed
in one line because of “Write” was used and not Word to the wise: “It doesn’t matter who you are, where
“Writeln”. you come from. The ability to triumph
begins with you. Always.” Learning is
not attained by chance. It must be
sought for with ardor and attended to
with diligence.
ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION – Abigail Adams
var
a : array[1..10] of Integer; STARTER ACTIVITY ANSWERS:
Begin 1. B 5. A
a[1]:=10;
a[2]:=15; 2. A 6. A
a[3]:=a[1]+a[2];
3. C 7. C
writeln(a[1]);
writeln(a[2]); 4. C 8. B
writeln(a[3]);
End. JOL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY continues on next page
I trust you are understanding Pascal a little better now.

This is where we will stop for this week. Study the examples.
WATCH THE VIDEO FOR MORE.
Have a good week and keep practising!
Shandeen Robinson-White is affiliated with Maths Unlimited and Hillel Academy.

! Email: teacherrobwhite@hotmail.com

HUMAN & SOCIAL
BIOLOGY Lesson 19
with
Leroy Munroe
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Welcome to another week’s lesson in Human and Social

Biology.
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson students should be able to:

1. Explain the purpose of the circulatory system
2. Explain the difference between systematic and
pulmonary circulation
3. Identify and give functions of the different
components of the blood
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
4. Explain the mechanism of blood clotting
5. Identify and explain the structure of arteries, There are two types of circulations that are responsible for
veins and capillaries. the circulation of blood around the human body. They are
pulmonary and systemic circulations.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Our circulatory system consists of three systems that work
independently together. These are the cardiovascular Pulmonary circulation is the movement of deoxygenated
(heart), pulmonary (lungs) and systemic (blood vessels). blood from the heart to the lungs to get oxygen, the blood
It is responsible for transporting materials throughout the
rich in oxygen then flows back to the heart from the lungs.
entire body. It transports nutrients, water, and oxygen to
the body cells and carries away wastes such as carbon Pulmonary circulation is important, as the lungs have to
dioxide that body cells produce. The blood circulates re-oxygenate the blood and return it to the heart to be
through body organs such as the liver and kidneys where circulated around the body. Simply put, pulmonary
wastes are removed, and back to the lungs for a fresh circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to the
supply of oxygen. This process of circulation is necessary lungs and back to the heart from the lungs.
for continued life of the cells, tissues and even of the whole
organisms. The circulatory system also transports
nutrients to the tissues of the body. JOL HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY continues on next page
JOL HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY continued from previous page
In the heart, the blood flows from the right atrium into The blood performs a lot of important functions. By means
the right ventricle; the atrioventricular or tricuspid valves of the haemoglobin contained in the red blood cells, it
prevent the backflow of blood from the right ventricle back carries oxygen to the tissues and collects carbon dioxide
into the right atrium when the ventricle contracts. When (CO2) made in these tissues. It also carries nutrients such
the right ventricle contracts, blood is forced into the lungs as amino acids, glucose, mineral salts and gathers the
through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. In the lungs excreted waste materials which are eliminated through
oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is eliminated as a the renal filters of the kidney. The blood also carries
waste product. This oxygenated blood returns to the heart hormones, enzymes and vitamins. It also defends the body
by way of the pulmonary veins, thus completing the against disease organisms or pathogens.
circuit. In pulmonary circulation, the pulmonary arteries
carry deoxygenated blood, and the pulmonary veins carry
oxygenated blood.
COMPONENTS OR PARTS OF THE BLOOD
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION Plasma

This is the liquid part of blood, in which the blood cells,
white blood cells and platelets are suspended. It makes up
Systemic circulation is the movement of blood from the more than half of the blood’s volume. It is composed of
left ventricle of the heart throughout the body and back ninety percent (90%) water and ten (10%) solutes. It also
to the heart. In systemic circulation, nutrients, oxygen and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors,
water are transported to all parts of the body. In reverse, mineral ions, hormones and carbon dioxide. A major
it transports carbon dioxide that the body produces in the function of the plasma is to transport food nutrients to the
cells during respiration back to the heart. cells of the body from the intestines and transport wastes
out of the cells of the body to the kidneys. It is also a
In systemic circulation, blood flows from the left atrium transport system for blood cells, and it plays a critical role
into the left ventricle, the atrioventricular or bicuspid
in maintaining blood pressure. Plasma contains protein
valves prevent the backflow of blood into the left atrium
that helps the blood to clot.
from the left ventricles. When the left ventricle contracts,
blood is forced under high pressure into the aorta. The
Serum
semi-lunar valves in the aorta prevent the backflow of
blood into the left ventricle. The coronary artery takes This is the part of blood which is similar in composition
oxygenated blood to the heart; the carotid arteries supply with plasma but it lacks clotting factors. When plasma is
the oxygenated blood to the neck, head and arms, the allowed to clot, fibrinogen converts to fibrin, trapping the
mesenteric arteries to the intestine and spleen, the hepatic cellular elements of blood. The resulting liquid, devoid of
arteries to the liver, the renal arteries to the kidneys, thecells and fibrinogen, is called serum. Fibrinogen is a
iliac arteries branch into the lower trunk and become the protein that is involved in blood coagulation. Fibrinogen
femoral and popliteal arteries that supply the thigh and is an inactive protein and it performs its functions by
legs respectively. converting into fibrin (active form of fibrinogen). Serum
makes up about fifty-five (55%) percent of the protein in
The Blood the blood. Anti-serum, which is prepared from
the blood of animals or humans that have been exposed
to a disease and have developed specific antibodies are
Blood is the bright red fluid that is pumped from the heart
used to protect persons against disease to which they have
and is circulating in the human body through arteries, veins
been exposed.
and capillaries. Blood is mainly composed of plasma, serum,
white blood cells and red blood cells. The blood consists
of a suspension of special cells in liquid called plasma. JOL HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY continues on next page
Red blood cells HOW THE BLOOD CLOTS

The red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. They are
the most abundant blood cells in the human body. The
main function of the red blood cells is to carry oxygen to When the blood vessels are cut or damaged the platelets
the body cells. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin that sticks to the damaged walls forming a plug. This is a lump
binds to oxygen and carbon dioxide. Haemoglobin is the of blood that clumps over the wound and seals it to
protein in the blood that transports oxygen to the body prevent any further bleeding. This also helps to prevent
cells. Red blood cells also carry carbon dioxide from the the entry of microorganisms such as bacteria and the
cells to the lungs where it is exhaled. They also control the further loss of blood. The skin by itself cannot prevent the
pH of the blood by acting as an acid-base buffer. entry of bacteria when it is cut or damaged, hence the
Haemoglobin is the bright red colour in the blood. In clotting of the blood is important.
humans, red blood cells develop in the bone marrow, take
the form of flexible biconcave disks, and lack a cell nucleus.
When you get a cut, the platelets and damage blood
The average life cycle of a red blood cell is 120 days.
vessels release a protein called thromboplastin, which in
the presence of calcium ions acts on an inert blood protein
White blood cells
in the plasma called prothrombin and turns into thrombin.
The white blood cells are also leucocytes. They are the
Thrombin acts on a soluble protein, called fibrinogen and
blood cells of the immune system that defend the body
changes it to insoluble fibrin. This fibrin forms a tangled
against infectious disease and foreign materials. One type
of white blood cell is a phagocyte. Phagocytes are the mass of fibres which traps red blood cells to form a clot.
white blood cells that protect the body by engulfing The clot blocks the wound, preventing the entry of foreign
harmful foreign particles such as, bacteria, protozoa, dead bodies such as bacteria and also prevents excess blood
or dying cells and other small particles. The process is loss. Prothrombin is made in the liver. Vitamin K is
called phagocytosis, which means to engulf. They are essential in the diet to make prothrombin.
essential for fighting infectious diseases. They are usually
irregular in shape. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD VESSELS
The other type of white blood cell is called lymphocyte and The blood vessels, arteries, veins, and capillaries are
is the main constituents of the immune system, which is responsible for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the
a defense against the attack of pathogenic tissues. Oxygen-rich blood enters the blood vessels
micro-organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and through the heart’s main artery called the aorta. The
protozoa. Lymphocytes produce antibodies and arrange
forceful contraction of the heart’s left ventricle forces the
them on their membrane. An antibody is a molecule that
blood into the aorta which then branches into many
is able to bind itself to molecules of a complementary
smaller arteries which run throughout the body. The inside
shape called antigens, and recognize them.
layer of an artery is very smooth, allowing the blood to
flow quickly. The outside layer of an artery is very strong,
Platelets allowing the blood to flow forcefully. The oxygen-rich
Platelets are called thrombocytes. They are small blood enters the capillaries where the oxygen and
fragments that are lacking in nuclei. Their function is to nutrients are release. The waste products are collected and
stop the loss of blood from wounds. They are responsible the waste-rich blood flows into the veins in order to
for blood clotting and the repairing of damaged tissue by
circulate back to the heart, where pulmonary circulation
releasing a hormone known as the platelet growth factor.
will allow the exchange of gases in the lungs.
Platelets work with clotting factors to form solid lumps
that seal leaks, wounds, cuts, and scratches and prevent
bleeding inside and on the surfaces of our bodies. JOL HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY continues on next page
Diagram of arteries, veins and capillaries
The Arteries: The walls (outer layer) of the arteries contain smooth muscle fibres that contract and relax under
instruction from the systematic nervous system.
• Arteries have thick muscular and elastic walls because they have to withstand high pressure blood caused by
the pumping of the heart.
• They have no valves, except for the semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary artery and aorta.
• They transport blood under high pressure; therefore, if an artery is cut the blood will spurt out.
• All arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• All arteries carry oxygenated blood EXCEPT the pulmonary artery that transport deoxygenated blood.
• Arteries have narrow lumens.
• Arteries branch into tiny vessels called arterioles that further branch to form capillaries. Arterioles transport
blood from arteries to capillaries.
• They are also the main regulators of blood pressure and flow.
Veins: The blood in veins is under lower pressure than the blood in arteries. Veins have thin walls thin layers of muscle
and elastic fibres. Unlike arteries, veins have one-way valves in them to keep the blood moving in the correct direction.
• They have thinner walls and are less elastic than arteries.
• Veins have valves that aid in the return of blood to the heart by preventing the backflow of blood into the wrong direction.
• Veins transport blood under low pressure that flows smoothly.
• Veins transport blood towards the heart.
• They transport deoxygenated blood to the heart EXCEPT the pulmonary vein that transports oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the heart.
• They have a wider lumen than the arteries.
• Veins branch into smaller vessels called venules. Venules drain blood from capillaries into veins, for return to the heart.
JOL HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY continues on next page

Capillaries: These are tiny blood vessels with very thin walls. There are networks of capillaries in most of the organs
and tissues of the body. These capillaries are supplied with blood by arterioles and drained by venules.
• Capillary walls are only one cell thick, which permits exchanges of material between the contents of the capillary
and the surrounding tissue.
• Valves are absent in capillaries
• Capillaries are responsible for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, salts, and nutrients between the
blood and the surrounding body tissues.
• They remove waste from the surround cells.
WATCH THE THE VIDEO BELOW FOR MORE.
Have a good week.
Leroy Munroe is on staff of the Trench Town Polytechnic College ! Email: leroy_munroe@yahoo.com

PRINCIPLES OF
BUSINESS Lesson 19
with
Hilary Bassaragh
ESTABLISHING A BUSINESS – BUSINESS PLAN
THE ROLE OF KEY FUNCTIONAL AREAS IN THE Finance: This department is responsible for the accounting
OPERATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUSINESSES procedures and processes of the business. Its staff is also
involved in the investment of funds in plant and
machinery, as well as in the purchasing of the needs of
In establishing your business, you must ensure that you
other departments of the business. Where shareholders
have the required functional areas of the business. These
are paid dividends, this department will make it a reality
refer to specialized departments within a business. These for them.
departments carry out specific functions that assist the
business overall. Marketing: The marketing function includes market
research, publicity, distribution, selling, merchandising
Businesses can vary greatly in size. When a business is and after-sales services, advertising and sales promotion.
small, there are no definite functional areas evident. This
is so because the owner usually produces and markets his Personnel: This department is sometimes referred to as
own products and does his own accounting and personnel the human resource department. The functions and duties
work. As the business expands, however, specialized of this department concern mainly the employees of the
departments (functional areas) become necessary. Most business. Primary concerns are: planning and forecasting
large businesses have four functional areas: production, manpower requirements; recruitment and selection of
employees; job analysis and job description; job
finance, marketing and personnel. In very large businesses,
specifications and employee training, etc.
there are two additional functional areas: research and
development and social.
Research and Development: The work of this department
includes many types of research, for example consumer
We will now take a brief look at what takes place in these research, product research and motivation research.
specialized departments. Feasibility studies and pilot projects are carried out and
communication with research institutes takes place.
Production: In this department, raw materials are
combined to produce goods, and services are also Social: This may include trade union negotiations, efforts
provided. Designers make specifications which are fully to reduce pollution and dumping of waste products,
developed and tested. Sample products are also made. provision of health facilities and provision of clean
There will be no production department, however, if the working environments and the initiation of social groups
business is only engaged in retailing or wholesaling, since in the business, for example clubs and credit unions.
they are buying and selling already-manufactured goods
or they are in the service industry. JOL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS continues on next page
JOL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS continued from previous page
SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH (b) Stratified - A subgroup of the population is
INTO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUSINESS selected, for example using age, sex, occupation,
etc. Only those in the subgroup will be in the
The research plan can call for the gathering of primary sample.
data, secondary data or both.
(c) Where a quota is set. Data is collected until the
Primary Research (Field Research) target quota is met. The larger the sample size,
Primary data, also known as field research, is research that the more expensive and time consuming it is to
collects original or new data using various techniques. collect the data.
These techniques include:
Secondary Research (Desk Research)
• Questionnaires. The questionnaire is the most
This type of research uses existing information, such as
common survey method. It may be written or orally
information in the firm’s own records. This may include:
administered. It is designed specifically for the task
and is normally completed face to face, by telephone
• sales records
or through the post or email.
• official publications
• Test marketing. A potential new product is marketed • statistical and newspaper reports
on a small scale regionally to gauge people’s • government publications
reaction to it, before committing the firm to • trade association studies
production and national launch. • university journals
• websites
• Consumer panels. A panel consisting of a small • textbooks, etc.
number of consumers is set up. They receive the
product and comment on it. The major advantage of this type of research is that the
information is readily available and can be stored for the
• Interviews. These may be formal or casual. They may future. Among the disadvantages is the fact that it is
be conducted on an individual or a group basis. sometimes out of date and the research is more time
consuming than the primary type of research.
• Observation. People’s reactions are quietly watched
or noticed while they shop. This provides
information from the marketplace. PLANNING AND OPERATION OF A BUSINESS
Sampling in primary or field research The link between the planning and operation of a business
If primary research is to provide relevant information, it is that the planning stage is the first stage and the
must use a representative sample, that is, consumers operation stage is the last stage. Between these two
forming the sample must represent the market as a whole. important steps there are a number of other steps which
The researcher must also decide how the respondents will
include research and the acquisition of funds for the
be chosen and how large the sample will be.
business. The plans are short term, medium term and long
term. The long-term plans are the overall plans of the
Sampling methods
business.
(a) Random - This is where everyone in the
population has an equal chance of selection,
since no special criteria for selection are used. JOL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS continues on next page
However, in order to achieve these plans, interim or • Identifies the reasons not to proceed; therefore
short-term plans and medium-term plans must be saving time, money and heartache later on.
established in line with the long-term or overall plans. In • Ensures that the business venture chosen will
other words, once the interim or short-term plans and the generate adequate cash flow and profits, withstand
medium-term plans have been achieved, the long-term or risks, remain viable in the long run and meet the
overall plans would have been achieved. objectives of the founders.
• Helps to frame and “flesh out” or shape specific
The short-term and medium-term plans are the stepping business alternatives so they can be studied in
stones to the long-term plans. If the entrepreneur tries to depth.
achieve long-term plans without short-term and • Outlines and narrows down the business
medium-term plans, he is likely to fail in the achievement alternatives.
of such plans. Without proper planning, operation of any • Provides quality information for decision making.
business is not likely to succeed. • Helps to increase investment in the business.
• Provides documentation that the business venture
THE FEASIBILITY STUDY was thoroughly investigated.
• Helps in securing funding from lending institutions
and other sources.
A feasibility study is a detailed investigation to determine
whether a business idea or project is technically,
financially and economically viable, and if it will be BUSINESS PLANS
successful before committing large sums of money to it.
A business plan is a written document indicating an
It is a screening exercise and is often described as a entrepreneur’s proposed venture. It shows its proposed
likelihood study. To some, the feasibility study is a way of production, marketing and finance. The business plan is
determining if a business idea is capable of being the entrepreneur’s “road map” on the journey towards
achieved. The question is asked: can it work and produce building a successful business.
the level of profit necessary?
The business plan describes the direction the business
Factors relating to feasibility study
intends to take, its goals, where it wants to be in the future
• It is done before the business plan and usually after
and how it is going to get there. Some regard the business
a series of business ideas have been discussed.
plan as a document that tells the entrepreneur’s story by
• It includes cost-benefit analysis.
looking at the vision, current status, expected needs,
• It results in the development of a feasibility report.
defined markets and projected results of the business.
• Small teams of experts from marketing, production,
finance and development produce this estimate.
Functions of the Business Plan
• Past information is used to produce trends.
1. It guards the operations of the business by charting
its future course and devising a strategy to get to
Purpose of feasibility study
the end of that course. It gives managers and
A feasibility study:
employees a sense of direction.
• Determines if a business opportunity is possible,
2. It is used to attract lenders and investors.
practical and viable.
3. It is used as a sales tool.
• Enables one to take a realistic look at both the
positive and negative aspects of the business
opportunity. JOL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS continues on next page
Who are the users of the business plan?

1. Lending institutions. Commercial banks, for example, may require the business plan as part of the processing of
loan applications.
2. Strategic partners or investors. Such persons would want to assess the viability of the business of which they
will be stakeholders.
3. Landlords. They need to ensure that the activities of the business will be viable so that tenants will be able to
make their regular monthly rent payments.
Sections of the Business Plan
A business plan usually has four main sections:
THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This is the first part of the business plan, but it is usually done last. It summarizes all the necessary points of the proposed
venture. If there is a financial request, it should explain the purpose of the financial request, the dollar amount required,
how the funds will be used and how the money (loan) will be repaid.
The executive summary is useful in instances where individuals are too busy to read the whole business plan, but need
some vital information about the proposed business.
JOL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS continues on next page

The executive summary includes:
• Sources of equipment (places where they can be

THE PRODUCTION PLAN
obtained and the costs)
• Planned capacity (how much they will be able to
Information that may be included in the production plan: produce)
• The production process
• Terms of purchase of assets (cash or hire purchase)
• Type of production (primary, secondary, tertiary, etc)
• Location and layout of machinery (time may be lost if
• The level of production (subsistence, domestic or
export/surplus level) machines are far apart)
• Use of technology (state the processes that the • A list of the raw materials needed
machines will be used for (sewing, cutting, dyeing, • Labour - number needed, cost (wages), statement of
etc) availability, skills and experiences needed
• Whether the fixed assets will be rented, leased or • Overheads - all expenses
bought • Production cost (this plus mark-up [profit] equals final
• The expected life of the fixed assets if they will be price)
bought
• Maintenance of the fixed assets (for example, how
much will it cost per year) JOL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS continues on next page
THE MARKETING PLAN THE FINANCIAL PLAN

THE FINANCIAL PLAN
This plan may include: This part of the business plan may include:
• A description of the good or service and a statement
• A statement of how much capital is required, how it
of what makes it different from others already on
will be obtained and the terms of repayment, if any
the market
• Justification of the location of the business • Security for loan if one will be sought
• Market area • How the funds obtained will be used (a budget can
• Main customers be created)
• Total demand • Cash-flow statement
• Market share • Projection of operation costs
• Selling price (note current price (competitors),
• Profit-and-loss statement
customers’ ability to pay and advertising costs)
• Balance sheet
• Sales forecast over a set period of time
• Promotional activities • Break-even point (estimate about how long it will
• Marketing strategies, including advertising, sales take to reach there)
promotions, etc. • Return on investment (percentage projected)
• Potential buyers - who they are, what their
motivation to buy will be, expected annual
purchase, whether the product will be seasonal and, Hilary Bassaragh is on the staff of The Queen’s School
if so, what times of the year the product will be ! Email: ac_teacher@yahoo.com
purchased.
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PRINCIPLES OF
ACCOUNTS Lesson 19
with
Tedmore Clarke
PARTNERSHIP ACCOUNTING
A partnership is generally an association of two to twenty INTEREST ON PARTNERSHIP LOAN

persons engaged in business activities with a view of
making profits. Upon the formation of a partnership, it is Where a partner has lent ‘money’ to the firm, any interest
always wise to have a written agreement (or partnership payable on such lending should be charged to the profit
deed), setting out the terms and conditions of the and loss account as an expense and credited to the
partnership. Where there is no written agreement (the partner’s current account. The loan itself should be shown
partnership agreement is silent), the Courts will assume as a liability on the firm’s balance sheet.
that the following rules laid down by the United Kingdom’s
Partnership Act of 1890 apply:
INTEREST ON CAPITAL
1. Profits and losses should be shared equally
Partners may contend that if they had lent their money to
2. No interest should be paid on partners’ capitals a bank, or other financial institution, rather than investing
in the partnership, then they would have been earning
3. No interest should be charged on partners’ drawings
interest on their money. As a result, the partnership
4. No partner is entitled to any salary agreement might provide for interest to be allowed on
capitals. Any interest allowed on partners’ capitals should
5. If a partner is allowed to contribute more than his be debited to the appropriation account and credited to
required capital (in the form of a loan), then he is their current accounts.
entitled to interest of 5% per annum on the extra
amount contributed. PARTNERSHIP SALARY, BONUS AND COMMISSION
Where there is a written agreement, however, any or all Sometimes a partner might be undertaking greater
of the above may be changed, depending on the features responsibilities than the others, but the partners do not
of the partnership.
wish to change the profit and loss sharing ratio. In order
to compensate the partner for this extra work, the
The trading and profit and loss account of a partnership
partnership agreement might provide for him to be
will be identical to that of a sole-trader. However, beneath
allowed a salary, a bonus or a commission. In this case,
the profit and loss account, there is now a section known
the salary, bonus or commission should be debited to the
as the Profit and Loss Appropriation Account, in which the
appropriation account and credited to the partner’s
net profit (or net loss) for the period will be apportioned.
current account.
In addition, it is usual for each partner to have a current
account (as well as a capital account) in which the
partner’s entitlements (as well as drawings) are entered. JOL PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS continues on next page
JOL PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS continued from previous page
INTEREST ON DRAWINGS THE APPROPRIATION ACCOUNT

In order to prevent partners from taking too much money
out of the business (or from taking money when they do When prepared vertically, the appropriation account will
not really need it), the partnership agreement might be as follows:
provide for them to be charged interest on their drawings.
Where this is the case, the interest charged on partners’ Profit and Loss Appropriation Account for period ended ….
drawings should be debited to their current accounts and Net Profit/(Loss) xx
credited to the appropriation account.
Add Interest on Drawings:
NOTE: Partners drawings should be debited to their A xx
current accounts.
B xx
C xx xx
PROFIT (OR LOSS) SHARING
xx
Since there will be multiple owners of the business, profits Less: Interest on Capitals:
and losses must be shared between (or among) the
A xx
different part-owners, as set out in the agreement (if any).
Partners’ shares of profit should be debited to the B xx
appropriation account and credited to their current
C xx xx
accounts. In the event of a loss, the entries will be the
other way around. Salaries:
A xx
REMINDER: Where no profit sharing ratio is given, profits
(or losses) should be shared equally. C xx xx
Bonus/Commission:
Sharing Profits in Proportion to Capitals B xx xx

Remaining Profit/(Loss) xx
Examiners frequently set questions requiring that profits
be shared in proportion to partners’ capital account ==
balances. Where this is the case, the following approach Shares of Remaining Profit/(Loss):
should be used:
A xx
1. Determine the total capital by summing the capital B xx
balances of all partners.
2. Express each partner’s capital as a fraction of the C xx
total capital, to determine the proportions to be xx
used.
3. Apply the proportion determined for each partner ==
to the profit to be shared, in order to determine the
partner’s share of the profit. JOL PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS continues on next page
CURRENT ACCOUNTS
The current accounts may be prepared in columnar form as follows:
DR Current Accounts CR
Particulars A B C Particulars A B C
Balance b/f - xx - Balance b/f xx - xx
Drawings xx xx xx Profit and Loss:
Appropriation: Loan Interest - xx -
Interest on Drawings xx xx xx Appropriation:
Shares of Loss xx xx xx Interest on Capitals xx xx xx
Balance c/d xx xx - Salaries xx xx
Bonus/Commission - xx -
Shares of Profit xx xx xx
_______________ Balance c/d - - xx
xx xx xx xx xx xx
=========== ===========
Balance b/d - - xx Balance b/d xx xx -
Tutorial Notes
1. Current account balances are deemed to be credit, unless otherwise stated.
2. The current accounts may be prepared as separate (individual) ‘T’ accounts instead of in columnar form as
shown above.
3. Since the current accounts are ledger accounts, they are not normally prepared vertically; hence, the same
format is to be used for the current accounts whether the horizontal or vertical format is being used to
prepare the final accounts.
4. The date columns in the current accounts are left out due to space constraint.
JOL PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS continues on next page

THE BALANCE SHEET
The balance sheet, prepared vertically will then be as follows:
A, B and C
Balance Sheet as at …. .
Fixed Assets (as before) xx

Current assets (as before) xx
Less Current Liabilities (as before) xx
Working Capital xx
xx
==
Financed by:
Capital Accounts:
A xx
B xx
C xx xx
Current Accounts (closing balances):
A xx
B xx
C (xx) xx
xx
Long-term Liabilities (as before) xx
xx
==
Note that neither ‘Net Profit’ nor ‘Drawings’ appears in the balance sheet. This is so because the net profit was divided
up and credited to the current accounts while drawings were debited to the current accounts. The closing balances on
the current accounts, therefore, have already taken account of the effects of net profit and drawings.
Tedmore Clarke is on the staff of Quality Academics

! Email: tedmoreorless@hotmail.com

INTEGRATED
SCIENCE Lesson 19
with
Marlene Grey-Tomlinson
THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT –

PART 5
Hello students, we continue our lesson with explaining the
causes of the different types of volcanic eruptions and
discuss the relationship between earthquakes and
volcanoes.
Volcanoes are openings or vents in the earth’s crust

through which molten rock, rock fragments, gases,
ashes etc. are ejected from deep within the earth.
They form on land as well as on the ocean floor. There
is proof that there is much heat and pressure inside
the earth.
This mixture of magma and gas rises to the surface. As this

happens, it makes gaps in the rocks around it. As more of
the molten rock rises a large reservoir may be formed
below the surface. It is from this reservoir that volcanic
materials erupt.
During an eruption the pressure of the rock around the

reservoir of magma causes a channel to be formed in
broken or weakened parts of the rock. The magma then
moves up through the channel to the surface. The
gas/magma mixture blasts out an opening called the
central vent through which the volcanic materials are
ejected. As these ejected materials pile up around the vent,
a volcanic mountain is formed. After the eruption a
bowl-like crater forms at the top. The vent lies at the
Magma, or molten rock, breaks out because of the action
bottom of the crater.
of pressure and heat on the earth’s crust; when it reaches
the earth’s surface it is called lava. Besides lava, hot gases
Not all the magma reaches the central vent; however,
and solid debris are also produced. When lava comes from
some of it may branch out into smaller channels and
a volcano, we say that it is erupting.
escape through sides of the mountain.
Volcanoes begin as magma inside the earth. When the rock
melts, lots of gas is produced and this mixes with the magma. JOL INTEGRATED SCIENCE continues on next page
JOL INTEGRATED SCIENCE continued from previous page
Volcanoes erupt in different ways:
• A third type is formed by a combination of explosive

and nonexplosive eruptions; these are called
• Violent/explosive or cinder cones volcanoes are composite volcanoes. The cones of these volcanoes
those which explode violently, sending rock are made up of layers of ash and cinder and layers
fragments and lava high into the air. The lava is thick of lava.
and sticky and it hardens quickly. A hill or cone is
built around the vent. One example of such a volcano A volcano may be:
is La Soufriere.
• Active- has erupted recently
• Dormant- shows signs of once having been active
• Extinct- shows no sign of activity and has not

erupted in recorded history
Relationship between Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Like earthquakes, volcanoes occur along lines of

weaknesses in the earth’s crust. Most volcanic activity
occurs where plates collide or move apart, or along fault
lines. Because of this, volcanoes tend to be located along
earthquake belts.
However, most of the severe earthquakes tend to occur

• A second type of volcano forms from quiet lava and
where there are no volcanoes. It is felt that volcanoes are
explosions. This is called a shield type or quiet
safety valves for earthquakes.
volcano. In this case, the lava is runny and it may
flow a long way before it hardens. The volcano it
forms has gentle sloping sides. JOL INTEGRATED SCIENCE continues on next page
Ecological Effects of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are destructive. When a volcano erupts, the lava can cause damage to property and living things nearby. If
there is violent eruption, dust may be sent many kilometers from the volcano. In 1979, when the volcano erupted in
St Vincent, volcano dust was deposited in many of the islands in the Eastern Caribbean causing damage to furniture
and affecting persons with certain types of respiratory illnesses.
On the other hand, volcano eruption is an earth building process. Soils around volcanoes which have erupted are often
rich and good for farming. The type and fertility of the soil around volcanoes vary with elevation. At the lowest, there
are remains of un-weathered lava. These areas are often rocky. The rocks are usually acidic when weathered; this forms
acidic soil which is usually bad for farming.
Most of the island Monsterrat is deserted since 1995 after the volcano erupted
JOL INTEGRATED SCIENCE continues on next page

Dying volcanoes give rise to the formation of sulphur springs. In St. Kitts, St. Lucia, Martinique and Dominica, where
there have been known volcanic eruptions, there are hot springs as well as sulphur springs. The damage done to plant
and animal life when a volcano erupts, upsets the ecological balance in the affected areas. Since the nature of the soil
might be changed, the surrounding areas may never be the same again.
Sulphur springs in St Lucia
Leaching is one of the factors contributing to the depletion of substances in soils. The volcanic soil formed by ash, lava
and pumice offsets this process in areas where it is deposited.
Scientists believe that even small volcanoes have enough energy to produce electricity by converting the heat energy
from volcanoes into useful energy. It is believed that valuable ores can be obtained in the process of getting the heat
out.
It is rather surprising to find large numbers of farms and even villages on the slopes of what appear to be dangerous
volcanoes. The reasons are easily explained, as the lava and ash will be turned into soil by weathering, and in some
cases soils are rich and fertile. Also, the thought or fear of another eruption does not deter settlers. Most volcanic
mountains which are densely settled are so large that local inhabitants consider it unlikely that future eruptions will
occur on their area of the mountain

Besides the effects on living things, volcanoes can have scenic effects. The largest effect igneous activity may have on
scenery is in the formation of plateau resulting from numerous fissure eruptions, such as in the North West, USA.
Another outstanding landscape feature is a large mountain such as Etna or Teide.
Volcanic mountains will often form a nice cone shape because of the way in which successive eruptions pile up
more material near the vent, so that the resulting hill is much higher in the middle. The steepness of the slopes
will vary according to the type of material which has been ejected from the crater. If much sticky acidic lava has
been erupted, the mountain is likely to be quite steep-sided, whereas if free-flowing basic lava is common, the
cone will have gentle slopes.
Crater Lake in Oregon
The top of the volcano may contain a crater which is normally quite small. Craters in dormant or extinct volcanoes may
fill up with water to form lakes. The biggest example is called Crater Lake in Oregon, although this is so large that it is
really a caldera and not a crater. Lake Tobe in Sumatra is another large lake. Lake Bolsena in Italy and the lakes of the
Eiffel district in Western Germany are other examples.

WATCH THE THE VIDEO BELOW FOR MORE.
Until next week when the lesson ends, have fun learning!
Marlene Grey-Tomlinson is on the staff of Excelsior High School ! Email: mgrey.xlcr@gmail.com
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ENGLISH
LITERATURE Lesson 19
with
Simone Gibbs
THE TEMPEST – PART 3
I hope that you enjoyed the break from school and that
you’re ready to return to preparing for the upcoming
examinations. In the last two lessons, I summarised
William Shakespeare’s play The Tempest. Today I will focus
on themes as well as dramatic techniques that
Shakespeare uses in the play.
LOVE
The theme of love can first be seen when the audience

encounters Prospero and his daughter Miranda. The two
have been living on the island for the past twelve years,
ever since his kingdom was taken from him by the Ferdinand willingly takes on these tasks, which not only
treacherous acts of his brother Antonio and his friend proves to Miranda that he is truly in love with her, but it
Alonso. In an attempt to save their lives, the old man also causes her to have compassion on him as he performs
Gonzalo had put the two of them in a boat and had set it the difficult tasks. Prospero’s plan is successful. The love
off. The boat had landed on the island. of the two young people is being cemented because of the
difficulties they have to go through in order to be together.
Prospero had spent the last twelve years not only taking care
of his daughter physically, but he had done his best to
ensure that she was schooled in social graces that a princess MAGIC
should be aware of, despite having very little resources.
Many of the events in the play occur as a result of
Later love is seen when Miranda encounters Ferdinand. Prospero’s magic. The tempest (or storm) in Act 1 Scene 1,
Apart from her father and the dreadful creature Caliban, for example, is not a natural occurrence, but it has come
he is the first man she has seen. As such she finds him about because Prospero is in the process of taking revenge
attractive. Although he has seen many beautiful maidens, on the men who betrayed him. He is aware that they are
his attraction to her is instantaneous as well. It is love at
on the sea (perhaps he was able to identify the flag being
first sight. However, as Shakespeare himself has stated
flown from their ship) and conjures up the storm in order
“the course of true love never did run smooth” (A
to terrify them. When the ship capsizes and the men
Midsummer Night’s Dream Act 1 Scene 2). Prospero
ultimately end up on the island that he lives on, his plan
believes that the two would appreciate each other more
is successfully being carried out.
if they had to fight for love. Hence he accuses Ferdinand of
being a spy and demands that he perform a number of
tasks before he permits him to marry his daughter. JOL ENGLISH LITERATURE continues on next page
JOL ENGLISH LITERATURE continued from previous page
Not only does Prospero use magic to control the elements, but he also uses it to affect and control various characters.
When Caliban refuses to carry out the orders that Prospero gives him, Prospero conjures up magical creatures to torment
him so that he will obey his orders. Later also when Prospero comes face to face with the men who had betrayed him
years ago, he puts them in a trance and renders them incapable of fighting or even running away. In this state they
are at his mercy and he is able to chastise them for the wrong that they did to him. Further, they have no choice but
to listen to what he has to say.
Prospero does not only use his magic for selfish gain, however, as can be seen on the occasion of Miranda and Ferdinand’s
engagement. At this time he provides the young lovers with a masque; filled with music and dancing in order to
celebrate their commitment to marry. Towards the end of the play, when he is advised that his kingdom will be returned
to him and he is about to return home, he agrees to surrender his magic art. This can be seen as evidence that he is
not a selfish character.
Magic is therefore instrumental to the play as it serves to move the plot along.
JOL ENGLISH LITERATURE continues on next page

LOYALTY VERSUS DISLOYALTY DRAMATIC IRONY
Another theme that cannot be ignored in this text is Dramatic Irony occurs when an audience is aware of
Loyalty versus Disloyalty. Prospero and Miranda lost their certain events that are happening within the play, but one
or more characters are not aware. One such example can
kingdom as a result of the betrayal of Prospero’s brother
be seen where the audience learns that it is Prospero who
Antonio and his co-conspirator, Alonso. They had survived,
has conjured up the storm in order to take revenge on his
however, because of the kindness of Gonzalo who had former friends. The men on the ship, however, believe that
packed their small boat with valuable supplies, including it is an act of nature.
Prospero’s books on the art of magic.
The audience also watches as Prospero observes and
Disloyalty can also be seen in Caliban’s attitude and enjoys the negative effects his magic is having on the
behaviour toward his master Prospero who apparently has shipwrecked men on the island. The men do not know that
been good to him. The two share a difficult relationship Prospero is watching them, but the audience does.
marked by Prospero giving orders and Caliban reluctantly
Additionally, when Alonso does not see his son on the
(and often with coercion or force) carrying these out. The
island and makes enquiries about him, he hears that he
disloyalty is further highlighted when Caliban conspires was last seen out at sea, holding on to a piece of debris.
with Stephano and Trinculo to kill Prospero so that He fears the worst and therefore mourns the loss of his
Stephano can take control of the island. son. The audience, however, knows that Ferdinand is not
dead as Shakespeare presents him on another side of the
Caliban’s response to Prospero, however, can be contrasted island. This is another example of Dramatic Irony.
with Ariel’s response. Ariel belongs to the spirit world and
although Prospero summons him from time to time to do This serves to pull the audience in; making them wonder
his bidding, Ariel carries out his functions with not only a how the events will turn out when the other characters
learn the truth. It may also help the audience to predict
light-hearted attitude, but he also completes his task with
what will happen and be curious as to whether their
such skill that it makes his master proud. As a result of his
predictions will come to pass. This leads to another device
loyalty Ariel is rewarded with freedom at the end of the that Shakespeare uses.
play. Caliban on the other hand, is left on the island,
because of his disloyalty.
SUSPENSE
DRAMATIC TECHNIQUES
A skilful playwright will employ a variety of methods in
order to make the audience want to know what will
When they are writing plays, playwrights are mindful that
happen next. One such method is to end a scene with
there is an audience present, whose attention they must unanswered questions or a difficult situation that needs
arrest and maintain. If this is achieved then the play is to be resolved. Act 1 Scene 1, for example, ends with the
seen as a successful one and of course, s/he will be survivors who have washed up on the island. The place is
rewarded in various ways. The playwright will therefore unknown to them and they have no food or supplies. At
use certain tools to engage the audience so that their best, their fate is unknown. The audience will no doubt
interest is maintained throughout the play. These tools are wonder what is going to happen to them.
referred to as dramatic techniques. Here are two such
devices that Shakespeare uses. JOL ENGLISH LITERATURE continues on next page
Another method that a playwright might use to create suspense is foreshadowing. That is, presenting a situation or
scenario that predicts how another situation is likely to turn out. In Act 1 Scene 2 Prospero complains to Miranda about
the ill-treatment he has received at the hands of his brother and others. It is evident that he is angry and bitter about
it. Later, he is seen to enjoy the discomfort they are suffering as he watches them struggle to survive on the island.
These actions will suggest to the audience that when he finally confronts them he intends to do them harm.
This is where this week’s lesson ends. Please feel free to join me for another lesson next week.
Simone Gibbs is on the staff of Calabar High School

! Email: simonecgibbs@yahoo.com
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HEART CAREER TALK continued from previous page
www.jamaicaobserver.com
Article
with Career Development Services 19
THE NATIONAL TRAINING AGENCY
CAREER PLANNING TOOLS
The previous article dealt in depth with career planning Disadvantages of the workbooks are that they do not allow
and how to develop a plan. This week we will be looking for changes (although there is usually some room for
at some career planning templates and different types of upgrade) and persons will more likely be required to
career planning tools that persons can consider using for complete a new book if they require any major changes.
the development of their plan.
Another disadvantage is that the books are not as durable
or flexible as an online version of the career planning tool
CAREER PLANNING WORKSHEET and backing up or duplicating the book may require you
physically writing another book.
This is usually a good way to start your career plan. A
career planning worksheet is a template set out with blank
sections for individuals to fill in the blanks. These
ONLINE CAREER PLANNING TOOLS
worksheets are usually available at a career centre, offices
or department. They allow persons to devise their plans Perhaps the most useful career planning tool is the online
initially. One major advantage of this type of plan is that
version. This is usually a soft copy (online version) of a
it is easy to complete. It is also a useful brainstorming tool
career template that persons can input their relevant data
that helps individuals to think carefully about their plans
and goals in the development stage of the plan so they can in each of the sections. Advantages of online career
accurately develop a guiding plan in the future. planning tools are that they are easy to update, upgrade
Disadvantages of this is that it can easily be lost or and make changes to. Individuals may also easily create
destroyed, does not allow for changes or upgrades and back up versions of the plan incase the original is lost or
usually does not allow for detailed information to be kept. damaged. One major disadvantage is that you may need
to be online or at least able to access the use of a computer
CAREER PLANNING WORKBOOKS in order to retrieve your plan. As long as persons can
ensure access to the plan whenever it is needed, this
Career planning workbooks are books developed specifically version is recommended for everyone to have.
for the development of career plans. The pages are usually
made up of a career planning template from inception to Ideally it is very useful for persons to create all three
where you want to go. It has detailed areas for individuals versions of the plan. This allows for holistic planning and
to complete which is in chronological order, which makes individuals will be less likely to leave out important
your career path easier to follow. Advantages of this is that information. If you are not able to keep all three just
it allows for detailed planning, the plan is connected, and ensure that you have at least one.
the areas are already laid out which allows for easier
planning. The books are more durable than the worksheet
so persons can have them long term if stored properly. HEART CAREER TALK continues on next page
CAREER PLANNING TEMPLATE Plans for the Future

Issued to:
Date Issued:
These are blank versions of the career plan that has only
Name of School:
the headings and provides the area for persons to
Counsellor’s Name:
complete with the relevant information. Not all templates
are the same and you may find some headings on one Year of Graduation:
version which is not on another. Individuals need to try Education Objective:
as best as possible to find a template that covers all the Short Term Objective:
areas for their career plan at the particular point in their Long term Objectives:
career planning stage. You can also add headings that are
not there and delete the ones that are necessary for you.
My Five Year Plan
There are certain headings that you will find on most if
Year 1
not all career plan templates for example goals or career
goals are one such heading. Conduct careful research to Year 2
ensure that any planning template you choose to develop Year 3
your plan has all the basic headings required for an Year 4
effective plan.
Year 5
SAMPLE CAREER PLANNING TEMPLATE

Careers that Interest Me
(Extract from the Passport Planning Tool)
Careers that Interest me Matching Subjects
(choose 5-10) (or subjects required)
Extra Curricular Activities
Clubs
Sporting activities
Community activities
Church activities
Plans for Future Education and Training

Institutions to Courses Length
consider to pursue of study
HEART CAREER TALK continues on next page

The link below provides a sample of a career planning

Goals – Example: To pass 5 CXC subjects (short term) worksheet that you can access by visiting the page:
My Short Term Goals http://www.careers-advice-online.com/support-files/sam

ple-career-development-plan-worksheet.pdf
My Medium Term Goals
My Long Term Goals

The website below provides a view of some online
planning template that you can use to develop your career
plan. Templates may look different in terms of format and
Networking
heading and perhaps even design, the important thing is
Name Address Telephone # to remember that individuals can make the necessary
adjustments to the templates so that it suits them.
http://www.sampletemplates.org/career-plan.html
https://www.google.com.jm/images?q=online+career+pla
nning+templates&hl=en-JM&gbv=2&sa=X&oi=image_result
_group&ei=xs2mVI79HoalNoCXgOAI&ved=0CEgQsAQ
Plans for Employment

Erica Williams, Manager,
Places I would like What I would like Career Development Services
to Work to do on the Job HEART Trust/NTA, National TVET Centre,
Gordon Town Road, Kingston.
! E-mail: Erica_Williams@heart-nta.org.
Telephone: 977-1700-5, 970-2139
Self Employment: Website: www.heart-nta.org
Create own Employment/Start a Business
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COMMUNICATION
STUDIES Lesson 19
with
Peta-Gaye Perkins Bryan
FALLACIES
Hi everyone. Welcome back to another week of

Communication Studies. Today we are going to do a
different type of critique. It is another aspect of your
evaluation and it should be an exciting part of the IA, after
all this is where you are graded for finding the flaws in
something. We will not be saying anything tantamount
to: you are not to be judgemental. It is actually required
AD HOMINEM (ARGUMENT TO THE MAN)
for you to find the flaws in the argument/statement.
This involves attacking the person instead of attacking his

argument. For example, “Von Daniken’s books about
ancient astronauts are worthless because he is a convicted
forger and embezzler.” (Which is true, but that’s not why
they’re worthless.)
A common form is an attack on sincerity. For example,

A fallacy is a misconception resulting from incorrect “How can you argue for vegetarianism when you wear
reasoning. It is an argument which seems to be correct, leather shoes?” The two wrongs make a right fallacy is
but contains at least one error, which is sometimes related.
difficult to find and as a result produces an incorrect result.
Some fallacies include Post Hoc, Hypostatization, etc. JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continues on next page
JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continued from previous page
A variation (related to Argument by Generalization) is to Or perhaps Einstein was just being polite. Or perhaps he
attack a whole class of people. For example, “Evolutionary made his statement in some specific context. And so on.)
biology is a sinister tool of the materialistic, atheistic
religion of Secular Humanism.” Similarly, one notorious To justify an appeal, the arguer should at least present
net.kook waved away a whole category of evidence by an exact quote. It’s more convincing if the quote
announcing “All the scientists were drunk”. contains context, and if the arguer can say where the
quote comes from.
Another variation is attack by innuendo: “Why don’t
scientists tell us what they really know; are they afraid of
public panic?” A variation is to appeal to unnamed authorities.
There was a New Yorker cartoon, showing a doctor and
There may be a pretense that the attack isn’t happening: patient. The doctor was saying: “Conventional medicine
“In order to maintain a civil debate, I will not mention my has no treatment for your condition. Luckily for you, I’m a
opponent’s drinking problem.” Or “I don’t care if other quack.” So the joke was that the doctor boasted of his lack
people say you’re [opinionated/boring/overbearing].” of authority.
Attacks don’t have to be strong or direct. You can merely

3 Appeal To False Authority:
show disrespect, or cut down his stature by saying that he
A variation on Appeal To Authority, but the Authority is
seems to be sweating a lot, or that he has forgotten what
he said last week. Some examples: “I used to think that outside his area of expertise.
way when I was your age.” “You’re new here, aren’t you?”
“You weren’t breast fed as a child, were you?” “What drives For example, “Famous physicist John Taylor studied Uri
you to make such a statement?” “If you’d just listen...” “You Geller extensively and found no evidence of trickery or
seem very emotional.” (This last works well if you have fraud in his feats.” Taylor was not qualified to detect
been hogging the microphone, so that they have had to trickery or fraud of the kind used by stage magicians.
yell to be heard.) Taylor later admitted Geller had tricked him, but he
apparently had not figured out how.
Sometimes the attack is on the other person’s intelligence.
For example, “If you weren’t so stupid you would have no A variation is to appeal to a non-existent authority. For
problem seeing my point of view.” Or, “Even you should example, someone reading an article by Creationist Dmitri
understand my next point.”
Kuznetsov tried to look up the referenced articles. Some of
Oddly, the stupidity attack is sometimes reversed. For the articles turned out to be in non-existent journals.
example, dismissing a comment with “Well, you’re just
smarter than the rest of us.” (In Britain, that might be put Another variation is to misquote a real authority. There are
as “too clever by half”.) This is Dismissal by Differentness. several kinds of misquotation. A quote can be inexact or
It is related to Not Invented Here and Changing the Subject. have been edited. It can be taken out of context. (Chevy
Ad Hominem is not fallacious if the attack goes to the Chase: “Yes, I said that, but I was singing a song written
credibility of the argument. For instance, the argument by someone else at the time.”) The quote can be separate
may depend on its presenter’s claim that he’s an expert. quotes which the arguer glued together. Or, bits might
(That is, the Ad Hominem is undermining an Argument have gone missing. For example, it’s easy to prove that
from Authority.) Trial judges allow this category of attacks. Mick Jagger is an assassin. In “Sympathy For The Devil” he
sang: “I shouted out, who killed the Kennedys, When after
3 Appeal To Authority:
all, it was ... me.”
“Albert Einstein was extremely impressed with this
theory.” (But a statement made by someone long-dead
could be out of date. JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continues on next page
ARGUMENT BY GENERALIZATION
Drawing a broad conclusion from a small number of perhaps unrepresentative cases. (The cases may be unrepresentative
because of Selective Observation). For example, “They say 1 out of every 5 people is Chinese. How is this possible? I
know hundreds of people, and none of them is Chinese.” So, by generalization, there aren’t any Chinese anywhere. This
is connected to the Fallacy Of The General Rule.
Similarly, “Because we allow terminally ill patients to use heroin, we should allow everyone to use heroin”.
It is also possible to under-generalize. For example, “A man who had killed both of his grandmothers declared himself
rehabilitated, on the grounds that he could not conceivably repeat his offense in the absence of any further
grandmothers.” — “Ports Of Call” by Jack Vance
BEGGING THE QUESTION (ASSUMING THE ANSWER, TAUTOLOGY)
This is reasoning in a circle. The thing to be proved is used as one of your assumptions. For example: “We must have a
death penalty to discourage violent crime”. (This assumes it discourages crime.) Or, “The stock market fell because of
a technical adjustment.” (But is an “adjustment” just a stock market fall?)
APPEAL TO WIDESPREAD BELIEF (BANDWAGON ARGUMENT, PEER PRESSURE, APPEAL TO COMMON PRACTICE)
The claim, as evidence for an idea, is that

many people believe it, or used to believe
it, or do it.
If the discussion is about social

conventions, such as “good manners”, then
this is a reasonable line of argument.
However, in the 1800’s there was a

widespread belief that bloodletting cured
sickness. All of these people were not just
wrong, but horribly wrong, because in fact
it made people sicker. Clearly, the
popularity of an idea is no guarantee that
it’s right.
Similarly, a common justification for bribery

is that “Everybody does it”. And in the past,
this was a justification for slavery.
JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continues on next page

ARGUMENT BY EMOTIVE LANGUAGE It is also connected to various rhetorical tricks, such

(APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE) as announcing that there cannot be a question
period because the speaker must leave. (But then he
doesn’t leave.)
This involves using emotionally loaded words to sway the
audience’s sentiments instead of their minds. Many
emotions can be useful: anger, spite, envy, condescension, EQUIVOCATION
and so on.
For example, argument by condescension: “Support the

ERA? Sure, when the women start paying for the drinks!
Hah! Hah!”
Americans who don’t like the Canadian medical system

have referred to it as “socialist”, but I’m not quite sure if
this is intended to mean “foreign”, or “expensive”, or
simply guilty by association.
CHANGING THE SUBJECT (DIGRESSION, RED

HERRING, MISDIRECTION, FALSE EMPHASIS)
This is sometimes used to avoid having to defend a claim,

or to avoid making good on a promise. In general, there is
something you are not supposed to notice.
For example, I got a bill which had a big announcement Using a word to mean one thing, and then later using it
about how some tax had gone up by 5%, and the costs to mean something different. For example, sometimes
would have to be passed on to me. But a quick calculation
“Free software” costs nothing, and sometimes it is without
showed that the increased tax was only costing me a dime,
restrictions. Some examples:
while a different part of the bill had silently gone up by
$10.
“The sign said ‘fine for parking here’, and since it was fine,
This is connected to various diversionary tactics, which I parked there.”
may be obstructive, obtuse, or needling. For example, if
you quibble about the meaning of some word a person All trees have bark.
used, they may be quite happy about being corrected, All dogs bark.
since that means they’ve derailed you, or changed the Therefore, all dogs are trees.
subject. They may pick nits in your wording, perhaps
asking you to define “is”. They may deliberately “Consider that two wrongs never make a right, but that
misunderstand you: three lefts do.”
“Deteriorata”, National Lampoon
“You said this happened five years before Hitler came to
power. Why are you so fascinated with Hitler? Are you
anti-Semitic?” JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continues on next page
FALSE CAUSE REDUCTIVE FALLACY (OVERSIMPLIFICATION)
This involves assuming that because two things happened, This involves over-simplifying. As Einstein said, everything
the first one caused the second one. (Sequence is not should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler. Political
causation.) For example, “Before women got the vote, slogans such as “Taxation is theft” fall in this category.
there were no nuclear weapons.” Or, “Every time my
brother Bill accompanies me to Fenway Park, the Red Sox STRAW MAN (FALLACY OF EXTENSION)
are sure to lose.”
Essentially, these are arguments that the sun goes down Attacking an exaggerated or caricatured version of your
because we’ve turned on the street lights. opponent’s position.
For example, the claim that “evolution means a dog giving

NON SEQUITUR birth to a cat.”
Another example: “Senator Jones says that we should not

Something that just does not follow. For example, “Tens of
fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I
thousands of Americans have seen lights in the night sky
can’t understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like
which they could not identify. The existence of life on other
that.”
planets is fast becoming certainty!”
On the Internet, it is common to exaggerate the
Another example: arguing at length that your religion is opponent’s position so that a comparison can be made
of great help to many people. Then, concluding that the between the opponent and Hitler.
teachings of your religion are undoubtedly true.
False Dilemma - Giving two choices when in actuality there
Or: “Bill lives in a large building, so his apartment must be could be more choices possible.
large. 1. Example: You either did knock the glass over or you
did not. Which is it?
SLIPPERY SLOPE FALLACY (CAMEL'S NOSE) 2. Example: Do you still beat your wife?
Appeal to pity - Urging the hearer to accept the argument

There is an old saying about how if you allow a camel to based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.
poke his nose into the tent, soon the whole camel will 1. Example: You owe me big time because I really
follow. stuck my neck out for you.
2. Example: Oh come on, I’ve been sick. That’s why I
The fallacy here is the assumption that something is wrong missed the deadline.
because it is right next to something that is wrong. Or, it
is wrong because it could slide towards something that is Appeal to the popularity - Urging the hearer to accept a
wrong. position because a majority of people hold to it.
1. Example: The majority of people like soda.
For example, “Allowing abortion in the first week of Therefore, soda is good.
pregnancy would lead to allowing it in the ninth month.” 2. Example: Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn’t
Or, “If we legalize marijuana, then more people will try you?
heroin.” Or, “If I make an exception for you then I’ll have
to make an exception for everyone.” JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continues on next page
Equivocation - Using the same term in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings.
1. Example: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Therefore, a bird is worth more than President Bush.
2. Example: Evolution states that one species can change into another. We see that cars have evolved into different
styles. Therefore, since evolution is a fact in cars, it is true in species.
Cause and Effect - Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together.
1. Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.
2. Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to
run out of gas.
Red Herring - Introducing a topic not related to the subject at hand.

1. Example: I know your car isn’t working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier you’d not be
having problems.
2. Example: I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.
Straw Man Argument - Producing an argument about a weaker representation of the truth and attacking it.
1. Example: The government doesn’t take care of the poor because it doesn’t have a tax specifically to support the
poor.
2. Example: We know that evolution is false because we did not evolve from monkeys.
Have you yet identified how the statement at the beginning of the lesson could be fallacious? If you said yes then you
are correct. Now, which fallacy is it an example of? You are again correct with that thought you are having – that is
of course if you are thinking of non sequitur. With non sequitur the speaker’s conclusion does not logically follow from
the facts presented. Often this is because one step of the argument is omitted or implied. Think about it, it does not
follow to think that morphine is good for everyone just because it is a good pain reliever for cancer patients.
JOL COMMUNICATION STUDIES continues on next page

For homework, have a look at the video below and see if you can identify the fallacies that may be present.
After looking at the video try reading the article linked below and see if you can identify two or three fallacies.
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/career-education/professional-qualification-useless-without-soft-skills-8212-prof-oliver_104219
Have fun!
For next week’s lesson we will look at the different types of discourse and as I always recommend, please read ahead.
Until next week, take care and don’t forget to read and prepare.
Peta-Gaye Perkins Bryan is on the staff of Queen’s High School for Girls
! Email: perkins.pg@gmail.com

CARIBBEAN
STUDIES Lesson 19
with
Debgeri Whitely
CARIBBEAN ARTS AND POPULAR CULTURE

IN THE REGION AND ITS DIASPORA
Hello everyone, welcome back to today’s lesson. We
continue our second to last lap on Module 1: Caribbean
Society and Culture, however this lesson will seek to Caribbean Sea
emphasize Caribbean Arts and Popular Culture in the
Region and its Diaspora. Once again, I ask of you to
continue doing your reading in order to comprehend the
topic(s) that are covered each week. See you next week
and all the best for the remainder of this week.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Define the terms ‘art form’ and ‘popular culture’.

2. Describe the main Caribbean art forms.
3. Explain the influence of arts and popular culture on
human and cultural development in the Caribbean
4. Examine the contribution of individuals to
Caribbean arts.
5. Evaluate the ways in which the arts and popular
culture impact on Caribbean society.
Define the terms Art Form and Popular Culture

■ Art Form: the visual representation of the human
expression of creative imagination, such as
sculptures and paintings.
■ Popular Culture: is usually defined as culture which
has mass appeal, often contrasted with high culture.
Describe the main Caribbean Art Forms ACTIVITY

• Name the different groups of art forms
The nature of Caribbean art reflects their diverse origins
• For each of the groups identified, name TWO specific
(Amerindians – Tainos and Kalinagos; Europeans – Spanish,
expressions in each group.
English, French, and Dutch; Africans), as artists have taken
their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the
reality of their lives in the Caribbean. JOL CARIBBEAN STUDIES continues on next page
JOL CARIBBEAN STUDIES continued from previous page
Answer
Explain the influence of arts and popular culture on human and cultural development in the Caribbean.
HUMAN AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT VIA THE ARTS

Creative expression has a great impact both on the creator and the audience, but it is also the driving force of human civilization.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Contribution to Employment and livelihood Culture can be defined as the practices and beliefs
3 The arts give rise to new types of employment which guide the social living of a people.
and livelihood both for performers and those
that run festivals and look after the 3 Arts contribute to the development and
administration for successful artistes. definition of Caribbean culture. It influences
3 International successes also bring prestige to the both those living in it and those of the diaspora
region and ensures a steady income for the and the wider world.
artistes and garners revenues for the country
when tourist visits because of them.
See page 175 of Caribbean Studies: for CAPE Examinations – 2nd Ed by Jennifer Mohammed
JOL CARIBBEAN STUDIES continues on next page

Examine the contribution of individuals to Caribbean arts.
The impact that individuals have had on Caribbean culture, both in the region and in its diaspora is exemplified by
individuals such as Rex Nettleford (1933 – 2010), Louise Bennett (1919 – 2006), Paule Marshall (1929 - ), Beryl McBurnie
(1914 – 2000), Martin Carter (1927 - ), Aubrey Cummings (1947 – 2010) and Bob Marley (1945 – 1981).
ACTIVITY: Highlight how the individuals mentioned above contribute or have contributed to their society by extension
the Caribbean region. You may use a table to show the information.
See pages 175 – 181 of Caribbean Studies: for CAPE Examinations – 2nd Ed by Jennifer Mohamed (distributed by Macmillan Education)
• Evaluate the ways in which the arts and popular culture impact on Caribbean Society
– Art forms in the diaspora, Carnivals, for example, Notting Hill, Caribana and the West Indian Day Parade.
ACTIVITY: Research on how the Carnival identified below was introduced and make mention of how they keep
individuals in the diaspora connected with their mother land/country.
ART FORMS IN THE DIASPORA – CARNIVALS INFORMATION ABOUT THE CARNIVAL

London’s biggest street party.
The carnival was first held in 1964 as a way to
cement links between local Afro-Caribbean
immigrants in London and to help them retain and
celebrate their cultural traditions.
The carnival is held on the last Sunday and Monday
in August of each year.
First staged in 1967. This carnival takes place in

Toronto at the end of July. There are plenty of
parties associated with this event and as a result it
draws people form diverse backgrounds to
engage/take part in the festivities.
Held in New York over a five-day period, every

August/September in Brooklyn which is home to a
large Caribbean community.
JOL CARIBBEAN STUDIES continues on next page

References
1. CAPE Caribbean Studies for self-study and distance learning (distributed by Nelson-Thornes Ltd)
2. Caribbean Studies: for CAPE Examinations – 2nd Ed by Jennifer Mohamed (distributed by Macmillan Education)
3. CAPE Caribbean Studies: An Interdisciplinary approach by Jennifer Mohamed – 1st Ed ( distributed by Macmillan
Education)
4. CAPE Caribbean Studies by Ottley, Gentles and Dawson (distributed by Pearson Education Ltd)
5. CAPE Revision Guide Caribbean Studies by Thompson, Lawson-Downer, St John and Thomas-Hunte (Distributed
by HarperCollins Publishers Ltd)
6. https://prezi.com/3dfzig9slcio/caribbean-art-popular-culture-in-the-regionstep-1/
7. https://ourpastimes.com/art-forms-in-the-caribbean-12510045.html
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_art
Debgeri Whitely is on the staff of St. Hugh’s High School

! Email: dwhitely@sthughshigh.org
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MAKING HISTORY &

ENGLISH LANGUAGE MATHEMATICS SOCIAL STUDIES INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ENGLISH LITERATURE COMMUNICATION STUDIES CARIBBEAN STUDIES CAREER TALK

WE WELCOME COMMENTS & SUGGESTIONS ► CALL: 936-9458 OR 384-2810 ► EMAIL: BOOKPUBS@JAMAICAOBSERVER.COM

www.jamaicaobserver.com JOL LECTURE SERIES Jamaica Observer Limited

Having gone through some of the elements of a story it is

• You are expected to write primarily in Standard

“Nothing,’ she smugly said. COMMENTARY

The writer could have inserted something her like, I stood

HOW COULD THE STORY BE IMPROVED?

Shawnett Myers-Lawrence is on the staff of St. Hugh’s High School

LECTURE SERIES NOW

www.jamaicaobserver.com JOL LECTURE SERIES Jamaica Observer Limited

It is also called MENSURATION. How do we measure lengths,

The metric system was introduced to the world about 1800

deci (one tenth) d 0.1 = 10–1

time s seconds The metric system uses a number of prefixes to compute

RECTANGLE: The SECTOR OF A CIRCLE

JOL MATHEMATICS continues on next page

A CUBOID is a rectangular PRISM:

It is important to understand the concept of dimensions

– LENGTHS have a single dimension (metres) to form

– AREAS have two dimensions: a length and a width

– VOLUMES have three dimensions: length, width and

The cross-sectional area may be square, rectangular,

Volume of a PRISM is always the uniform cross-sectional

A CUBE is a prism with all three dimensions equal:

A WEDGE is a triangular PRISM:

JOL MATHEMATICS continues on next page

Example: b) Volume of a prism = cross sectional area × length

d) Total surface area: there are 6 surfaces on a

Perimeter = arc length + radius + radius

b) i) Volume of prism = cross-sectional area × length.

JOL MATHEMATICS continues on next page

WATCH THE VIDEO BELOW FOR MORE.

Kamau Karenga is on the staff of Portmore Community College ! Email: kkarenga@pcc.edu.jm

LECTURE SERIES NOW

www.jamaicaobserver.com JOL LECTURE SERIES Jamaica Observer Limited

DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF RESOURCES

USES OF THE LAND

JOL SOCIAL STUDIES continues on next page

HOW THE LAND IS MISUSED CONSERVATION METHODS

Instead of mono-cropping, farmers should practice:

Crop rotation is the successive planting and

DEFORESTATION: This is where farmers and

QUARRYING-MINING: During the extraction of • Replanting of vegetation.

• Encourage contractors to build apartment

JOL SOCIAL STUDIES continues on next page

HOW THE LAND IS MISUSED CONSERVATION METHODS

OVERGRAZING: This is where farmers allow their

SHIFTING CULTIVATION: This is where large plots of

PLOUGHING: This is where farmers plough along

SLASH-AND-BURN AGRICULTURE: This farming practice

JOL SOCIAL STUDIES continues on next page

Jamaica Dominica Grenada Haiti Cuba Trinidad and Tobago

Guyana St. Lucia Puerto Rico Barbados Dominican Republic

MAIN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS PRODUCED IN THE CARIBBEAN COUNTRY

1. Coffee, sugarcane, bananas, ground provisions

2. Sugarcane, bananas, ground provisions

3. Sugarcane, coffee, bananas, cocoa, citrus fruits, ginger

4. Coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits, sugarcane, bananas, coconuts, ground provisions

5. Tobacco, sugarcane, coffee, citrus fruits

6. Bananas, sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits