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Converging Technologies for Electric/Hybrid
Vehicles and More Electric Aircraft Systems
Kaushik Rajashekara
Rolls-Royce Corp.
ABSTRACT
The aerospace industry is facing challenges similar to those
of the automotive industry in terms of improving emissions,
fuel economy, and cost. Another similarity is the move
toward replacing mechanical and pneumatic systems with
electrical systems, thus transitioning toward “more electric”
architectures. To meet these challenges in the automotive
industry, significant work has been done in the areas of
electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. In the case of
airplanes, more electric architecture is the emerging trend.
The intent is to move as many aircraft loads as possible to
electrical power, resulting in simpler aircraft systems leading
to the potential for lower fuel consumption, reduced
emissions, reduced maintenance, and possibly lower costs.
Electric-powered environment control systems (ECS),
electrical actuators, electric de-icing, etc. are some examples
of aircraft systems under consideration. Electric starting of
the engine and the conversion of all the pneumatic and
hydraulic units on the accessory gearbox (AGB) to an electric
system are also being investigated. This paper examines the
synergies between the electrical components for electric/
hybrid vehicles and more electric aircrafts systems and how
the technology of the components being developed for these
systems are converging to be modular, more efficient, smaller
size, lower weight, and capable of operating over a wide
temperature range.
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. government has proposed a new national
automotive fuel economy program which adopts uniform
federal standards to regulate both fuel economy and
greenhouse gases. The program covers model year 2012 to
model year 2016 and ultimately requires an average fuel
economy standard of 35.5 miles per US gallon (6.63L/
100km) in 2016 (39 miles per gallon for cars and 30 mpg for
2010-01-1757
Published
11/02/2010
Copyright © 2010 SAE International
trucks), a jump from the current average of 25 miles per
gallon for all vehicles. It is also proposed that fuel economy
and pollution limits be imposed for big trucks, and that the
rules for future cars and SUVs be tightened. Several other
countries are also setting stringent fuel use and pollution
limits for automobiles and trucks. The Advisory Council for
Aeronautics Research in Europe (ACARE) has set several
goals to be achieved by 2020 for Air Transportation. These
include a fifty percent reduction of CO2 emissions through
drastic reduction of fuel consumption; an eighty percent
reduction of NOx emissions; a fifty percent reduction of
external noise; and a green design, manufacturing,
maintenance and disposal product life cycle.
The increasing use of electrical and electronic features to
improve vehicle performance, fuel economy, emissions,
passenger comfort, safety, and convenience has resulted in
the growth of electrical loads in the vehicle. It is estimated
that by 2015, the demand for electrical loads may rise to
approximately 3 kW for large cars and approximately 1.8 kW
for small cars (Figure 1). The potential electrical loads in
future vehicles include: engine cooling fan, engine coolant
pump, active suspension, electric assist power steering,
electrically heated catalytic converter, electric power take-off,
electric brake-by-wire, heated windscreen, telematics,
navigation, etc [1].
The electrical power being used by both civil and military
aircrafts is also growing [2]. Passenger aircrafts such as
Boeing 787 and Airbus 380 are employing a number of new
electrical technologies including bleedless environmental
control systems (in 787). These loads are creating a
substantial increase in the total electrical power drawn from
the aircraft engine driven generators. In Table 1 is shown the
power generation capability in some of the aircrafts [11]. The
A380 is already in service and B787 is expected to be in
service by the end of this year.
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To meet the new challenges in the automotive industry, a
significant amount of work has been done in the area of
electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. Also, the use of fuel
cells as an auxiliary power unit instead of as an engine driven
generator has been investigated by several auto companies.
Currently, there is a move toward replacing mechanical and
pneumatic systems with electrical systems, thus transitioning
toward “More Electric” architectures. Moving as many
aircraft loads as possible to electrical power could simplify
aircraft systems and possibly lead to lower fuel consumption,
reduced emissions, reduced maintenance needs, and lower
costs. Electric powered Environment Control System (ECS),
electrical actuators, electric de-icing, etc. are some examples.
Use of electric starting and conversion of all the pneumatic
and hydraulic loads, such as oil, fuel, and hydraulic pumps on
the Accessory Gearbox (AGB) to electric are also being
investigated for engines.
There is a great deal of similarity between the Electric/Hybrid
Electric Vehicle (EV/HEV) and More Electric Aircraft
(MEA) technologies particularly in the area of power
electronics systems, including electric machines [3, 4, 5, 6].
Common components include light weight high voltage
batteries, power controllers, electric motors, controllers,
integrated generators, etc. In addition, certain components
such as capacitors, diodes, inductors, solid state power
devices, thermal management systems, and advanced power
and control circuit topologies are essential to both systems.
The common goal for both MEA and EV/HEV systems is to
have reliable, high efficiency, low cost, and high performance
electrical power components and systems.
The intent of this paper is to investigate the synergies
between the electrical components for electric/hybrid vehicles
and more electric aircrafts. The technologies being developed
to meet the requirements of these systems, and how these
technologies are converging to be modular, more efficient,
smaller, lower weight, and capable of operating over a wider
temperature range are being discussed. A brief introduction to
electric/hybrid vehicles and more electric aircraft systems
will be presented, followed by a comparison of the operating
environments and the trends in the more electric architectures
for automotive and aircraft systems. The paper will examine
the power electronics requirements, operating temperatures,
system dc voltage trade-offs, electric machines, and energy
storage. The current trends and advances in the research and
technology of automotive suppliers for EV/HEVs and of the
aircraft component suppliers for the MEA systems will also
be presented.
ELECTRIC SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURES
Hybrid vehicles have two or more sources of energy and/or
two or more sources of power on-board the vehicle [7-8].
They save energy and minimize pollution by combining an
electric motor and an internal combustion engine in such a
way that the most desirable characteristics of each can be
utilized. Hybrid vehicles are generally classified as series
hybrids or parallel hybrids (Figure 2). In a series hybrid
vehicle, the engine drives the generator, which in turn powers
the electric motor. A series hybrid vehicle is essentially an
electric vehicle with a battery being charged on-board by the
engine driven generator or by a fuel cell. In a parallel hybrid
vehicle, the engine and the electric motor are used to drive
the vehicle. Hybrid vehicles are classified as micro hybrids,
mild hybrids, or full hybrids depending on the role played by
the engine and the electric motor and the mission that the
system is designed to achieve. In a micro hybrid such as
Toyota Crown, the electric machine power is of the order of 2
to 3 kW replacing the alternator in the automobile. The
electric machine functions as a belt-driven starter/generator
system. In addition to the function of recharging the 12V
battery in the vehicles, the system is used for start/stop
operation and part regeneration. The mild hybrid system such
as in Honda Insight provides part electric propulsion by
assisting the engine in passing other vehicles and in climbing
hills. The electric machine is generally mounted between the
transmission and the engine and is used for starting the
engine and for regenerative operation. The electric machine
power is of the order of 10-20kW. The full hybrid system
such as in Toyota Prius provides the possibility of full electric
propulsion. The engine and the electric motor together can
provide the propulsion power when needed and also has full
regeneration energy capture capability. The power of the
electric motor is of the order of 50-80kW. A plug-in hybrid
vehicle (PHEV) is any hybrid vehicle for which the batteries
may be charged off-board by plugging them to an electric
outlet using a battery charger. The PHEV provides greater
electric vehicle range by providing an alternative to using the
onboard fuel powered engine to charge the batteries [9].
There is no particular standard for the dc bus voltage in
electric and hybrid vehicles. The dc bus voltage in hybrid
vehicles is of the order of 144V- 650 V DC. The dc bus
voltages in some of the familiar hybrid vehicles are:
• Toyota Prius: 500 V DC with 202 V NiMH battery (202 V
is boosted to 500V; it is 650V in 2010 Prius)
• Lexus RX400 hybrid: 650V DC with 288 V NiMH battery
(288 V is boosted to 650V)
• Hybrid Honda Accord: 188V DC (NiMH battery)
• Tesla Roadster electric car: 375 VDC (lithium ion battery)
• Chevy Volt: 325 VDC (lithium ion battery)
Modern military aircrafts are equipped with powerful radars,
sensors, weapon systems, and sophisticated cockpit displays
that require large amounts of electricity to operate.
Commercial airliners too must provide power for
environmental systems, galley equipment, cockpit displays,
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communication systems, weather radar, and in-flight
entertainment systems. In MEA, the jet engine is optimized to
produce the thrust and the electric power. Primary power is
usually provided by ac generators driven by the jet engines.
The same ac machine is used for starting the engine.
Commercial and many military aircrafts are equipped with an
auxiliary power unit (APU), which is essentially a relatively
small jet engine driven generator that can be used as an
additional power source.
Aircraft electrical components operate on many different
voltages, both ac and dc. However, most of the aircraft
systems use 115 volts ac at 400 Hz and/or 28 volts dc.
Different types of electrical power generation systems
currently being considered in airplanes are shown in Figure 3
[10-11].
• The Constant Frequency (CF) 115V AC, three-phase, 400
Hz generation types are typified by the Integrated Drive
Generator (IDG). The IDG is used for powering the majority
of civil transport aircrafts today.
• Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF)
Cycloconverter
• Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) with
intermediate dc link
• Variable Frequency (VF) 115V and 230V, three-phase
power generation (380-760Hz)
• Variable frequency(VF) at 115V and then converted to
270V DC bus voltage
• Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs) used for generating
28V DC emergency electrical power for high integrity
systems.
The A380 was the first large civil aircraft to incorporate More
Electric architecture system with variable frequency power
generation. The main characteristics of the A380 electrical
power generation systems are [11, 12, 13]:
• 4 × 150 kVA variable frequency Generators (370-770 Hz).
• 2 × 120KVA constant frequency APU Generators (nominal
400 Hz)
• 4×External Power Connections (400 Hz) for ground power
The main electrical loads include:
• cabin lighting about 15 kVA;
• galleys about 120-240 kVA intermittent load depending
upon the meal service;
• galley cooling of about 90 kVA permanent load;
• In Flight Entertainment of about 50-60 kVA or about 100
W/seat permanent load.
The dc system is based on 28V and is derived from the ac bus
using a transformer rectifier unit. The dc system also provides
power to the critical loads in case there is a power
interruption from the main power dc bus. The dc is also used
to charge the batteries and to power the control computers.
The Boeing 787 has most of the features of a More Electric
aircraft system [11, 14-15]. The use of bleed air from the
engines for powering environmental control systems and
other systems is essentially eliminated and the hydraulic
actuators in use are powered electrically. A key feature is the
generation of three-phase 230V AC electric power with
variable frequency (about 360 to 800Hz) compared with the
conventional three-phase 115V AC, 400Hz power system.
The increase in voltage to 230V AC decreases losses in the
electrical distribution system resulting in wire size reduction.
There are two 250 kVA variable frequency starter/generators
per engine, resulting in 500 kVA of generated power per
engine. In addition, there are two 225 kVA APU starter/
generators, each one being driven by the APU engine. Each
main generator feeds its own 230V AC main bus before being
fed into the power distribution system. In addition to
powering 230V AC loads, electrical power is converted into
115V AC and 28V DC power to feed many of the legacy
subsystems that require more conventional power. Also
±270V DC is derived from 230V AC using autotransformer
rectifier for powering the environmental control systems and
for starting the engine. The use of 230V phase voltage, (or
400 V line-to-line) and ±270V dc does require considerable
care during design to avoid the possible effects of partial
discharge, otherwise known as ‘corona’. The main electrical
loads are:
• Environmental Control System (ECS) & Pressurization,
approximately 520kW
• Electrical heated cargo bay
• Cooling loop for high power motor controllers and galley
refrigerators.
• Anti-Icing and de-icing
• Flight controls-
◦ 4 electric motor pumps driven by 88 HP motor.
◦ Secondary controls are powered electrically
• Electric Brakes
• Landing gear (raised electrically)
• Centralized Computer (for avionics and utility functions)
The airframers and the suppliers are also investigating the
feasibility of operating at higher dc bus voltages within the
airplane. Because of the similarity of the dc voltages in MEA
and EV/HEV, the components developed for automotive
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systems could also be used in MEA systems, wherever switched reluctance, and axial gap machines. Most of the
possible with little or no modifications. commercially available hybrid vehicles use either induction
or permanent magnet machines for propulsion. Automotive
INTEGRATED STARTER/ manufacturers and suppliers have significantly improved the
power electronics and electric machine technologies to be
GENERATOR SYSTEM AND used in electric and hybrid vehicles. For example, Tesla
EMBEDDED GENERATION SYSTEM Roadster induction motor peak power density is more than
two times that of the induction motor used in GM EV1.
In hybrid electric vehicles, the power electronics and the
Today, the interior permanent magnet (IPM) synchronous
electric motor are mounted close to the engine. In the
motor is widely used in automotive propulsion because of its
integrated starter/generator system (Figure 4), the electric
high efficiency, high torque, high power density, and relative
machine is mounted between the engine and the transmission
ease of field weakening operation. Toyota Prius, Ford
[1]. Similar arrangement is used in the Honda Insight hybrid
Escape, Chevy Volt all use IPM machine for propulsion.
vehicle [34-35]. Therefore, the electric machine must be
LaunchPoint Technologies [21] has reported the development
designed to meet the engine operating temperature
of a high power density, high efficiency axial flux Halbach
environment (Figure 5) [16]. Generally, the power electronics
array motor/generator. It has 8.2 kW/kg, 7 hp @ 8400 rpm
unit is also installed in the engine compartment. Hence, novel
and 95% efficiency, weighs 0.64 kg, and has a 6″ diameter.
heat management techniques are needed to extract heat in
The technology is based on brushless permanent magnet
high-power density systems.
motor/generator with axial flux configuration (pancake
shape). This allows for smaller gaps and higher efficiency
In order to improve reliability, reduce the component counts,
than a radial configuration
meet the demand for future increases in aircraft electrical
power requirements, and also operate the generators in
The PM machines are not inherently fault tolerant. A key
variable frequency mode, the airframers are examining the
requirement for many aircraft and automotive generation
use of embedded generators mounted directly onto the engine
systems is a degree of fault-tolerance, i.e. an ability to
shafts [17-18]. Using the embedded electric machine as a
continue operating at or near rated power in the event of a
motor provides the immediate benefit of electrical engine
single point fault in the electric machines or its associated
starting, thus making the conventional air starter obsolete.
power converter. One way of achieving fault tolerance is to
Also, direct coupling of the electrical machine to the engine
isolate the phase windings physically, magnetically and
shafts means that the power take-off shaft and associated
electrically. These can be three phase or higher phase
gearbox can be removed, reducing the size and weight of the
machines, where each phase of the machine is fed separately
aircraft. Furthermore, the oil, fuel, and hydraulic pumps could
by a single phase bridge inverter/converter. Consequently, a
be driven electrically instead of from the HP shaft of the
fault in one phase will not readily propagate to the adjacent
engine (Figure 6).
phases. In addition, each phase winding is designed to have
one per-unit self-reactance in order to limit short-circuit
In embedded generation applications, the inaccessibility of
current at fault conditions to its rated value. Further, by
the location, the harsh operating environment, and ambient
employing a multiphase (usually >4) design, the machine can
temperatures possibly exceeding 250°C (Figure 7) require the
continue to provide useful power output even with a fault in
use of materials such as permanent magnets and insulation
one of the phases. Several studies have reported the
materials close to or beyond their operating limits. Hence
possibility of using five phase fault tolerant permanent
special cooling and use of alternative materials and processes
magnet machines for embedded aircraft generator
are required to enable the electric machine and the power
applications which could also be used in automotive
electronic systems to withstand these temperatures. As can be
applications [22].
seen, both for HEVs and for MEAs, it is necessary to develop
machines and power electronic systems capable of operating
Recently, concentrated winding permanent magnet (CWPM)
at high temperatures.
machines are gaining importance [23-24]. Some automotive
companies and researchers are working to further improve its
ELECTRIC MACHINES performance. Honda is already using one form of this type of
For both EV/HEV and MEA, the electric machine machine in their hybrid vehicles [25]. The concentrated
requirements include high power density, wide speed range, winding offers shortened machine length, increased electric
wide operating temperature range, low volume, rugged loading to increase torque density, wide constant-power
structure, reliability, and ease of control. Several types of speed range, improved machine fault tolerance, and increased
electric machine technologies have been investigated for machine modularity. The CWPM machine is more fault
automotive propulsion and for aircraft power generation tolerant for interwinding short circuits than the regular PM
[19-20]. These include induction, permanent magnet (PM), machines. These concentrated winding machines currently
 Downloaded from SAE International by Steven Sullivan, Wednesday, November 28, 2018
being developed for automotive propulsion need to be
explored for use in aircraft generation applications.
The three phase wound field synchronous generator has been
traditionally used in aerospace applications. This is a high
performance machine and is inherently safe. The field can be
de-energized in case of over voltage or over speed. The
advantages of wound field synchronous machine are that it is
a known technology in aerospace applications, the voltage
can be easily controlled by controlling the field, the power
electronics and control requirements are fairly well
understood, and it is robust. However, for embedded
generation applications, the electric machine has to have high
power density and have a shorter diameter for convenience of
mounting. Hence, the above technologies being developed for
EV/HEVs could be applied for aircraft engine starter and
power generation applications.
Induction generators have not been used in aircraft power
generation. They are robust, have fault tolerant capability,
and can operate at high temperatures. With active rectifier
and field orientation control, use of induction machine as an
embedded starter/generator needs to be further explored for
aircraft applications. The Electrodynamics Company has
developed high efficiency (> 93%) induction machines for
U.S Air Force to provide a compact, efficient generator
system for stable and safe operation; which also provides the
electric start function [26]. Special cooling techniques have
been incorporated to achieve optimum operation under
various load conditions.
POWER ELECTRONICS
Power electronics and high power density electric machines
are the enabling technologies for the successful development
of EV/HEV and MEAs. In EV/HEV, power electronics is
required for:
• Conversion of dc bus voltage to ac to control the propulsion
motor speed and torque
• DC-DC Conversion from high voltage to 12 V for charging
the 12V battery
• Converter for charging the batteries
• Inverter for controlling the air conditioner motor
Although power electronics technology is well advanced, the
automotive companies continue to work on the new
generation of power electronic systems with emphasis on [27,
28, 29, 30]:
• Power device packaging with high thermal cycle capability,
improved thermal management and cooling techniques that
withstands large temperature variations
• Non-wire bond power devices to improve reliability
• Effects of EMI and EMI mitigation.
• Fault tolerant power conversion topologies.
• High temperature operation of power electronics systems
using silicon carbide and gallium nitride devices.
• Alternative power conversion topologies with inherently
reduced passive components.
• Passive components with reduced weight, volume, and high
temperature capability with increased operating frequency.
The main objectives are to obtain high power and volume
density, high efficiency, reliability, and ability to withstand
harsh environments. In addition, closer integration of power
electronics and the electric machine may be required for
operation in the hostile engine environment, particularly in
hybrid vehicles.
In addition to the above requirements, achieving lower
weight and volume are very critical in “More Electric
Aircraft” systems. Also, reliability and redundancy take on a
new importance. The power conversion topology for starter/
generators is similar to the EV/HEV propulsion inverter,
which can be used for starting the engine and for converting
the ac output of the generator to dc. Additional power
conversion systems are required for charging the batteries,
deriving the 28V DC from high voltage dc, and for
controlling the oil, fuel, and hydraulic pump motors.
For the past fifteen years, the auto manufacturers and the
suppliers have significantly improved the power electronics
and electric machine technologies to be used in electric and
hybrid vehicles. For example, General Motors has improved
the power density of the power electronic system from 4.8
kVA/kg in 1996 (used in EV1) to 26 KVA/kg and 24 KVA/1
in the recent 2-Mode hybrid electric vehicles [29-30]. Toyota
has developed dedicated power converters and integrated
modules using IGBT modules for the hybrid vehicles. Several
companies are developing inverter prototypes based on
silicon carbide (SiC) switches that show significant size
reduction up to 1/6 of the size of silicon devices. Silicon
Carbide and Gallium Nitride devices further reduce the
cooling requirements and enable the integration of power
electronics with electric machines to achieve overall high
power density and reduce the cable lengths. These high
power density power converters are the enabling technology
for the advancement of MEA systems.
ENERGY STORAGE
Energy storage is a very important component for the
advancement of electric and hybrid vehicles. Several
companies and research organizations have spent billions of
dollars to develop and advance the right technology that will
improve the specific energy and power of the batteries. The
main considerations in the selection of EV/HEV batteries are:
power density, energy density, weight, volume, cycle life,
temperature range, and environmental conditions. Lithium
 Downloaded from SAE International by Steven Sullivan, Wednesday, November 28, 2018
based technologies and lithium ion batteries are leading the
way to meeting the requirements of EV/HEVs. The most
prevalent chemistry is the carbon/graphite anode and lithium
metal oxide cathode, with the metal being either cobalt,
manganese, nickel, or a mixture of these, and a lithium salt
dissolved in an organic solvent. Another prevalent chemistry
is a lithium titanate anode with a lithium manganese cathode.
Integrated thermal, electrical, and mechanical pack design
has significantly increased the pack metrics of specific power
and specific energy in combination with electrode and
material advancement. In addition to the pack integration, the
cell metrics are also progressing [31].
Nissan Motor was able to double the specific power and
energy metrics with the combined benefits of laminated cells
in place of cylindrical cells and the use of a spinal structure.
With Saft's introduction of the VL5U cell, the lithium ion
battery now rivals electrochemical double layer capacitors in
specific power, and nearly doubles the nearest battery
chemistry in specific energy. The Saft VL5U cell is capable
of 14kW/kg continuous discharge and higher for pulsed
discharge. Panasonic recently delivered its 3.1 Ah lithium ion
cells to Tesla Roadster. The technology is based on the nickel
oxide positive electrode and carbon anode [32]. Panasonic
and other companies are also developing lithium ion batteries
with energy densities of the order of 200-250Whr/kg. A123
Systems Nanophosphate technology offers a combination of
power, safety, and life [33]. Its low impedance
Nanophosphate based cell and electrodes are designed to
deliver low cost/watt and cost/watt-hour performance. It
claims to have the highest power density in W/kg of a
commercially available lithium-ion battery. The cell can be
continuously discharged to 100% depth-of-discharge at 35C
and can endure discharge pulses as high as 100C [The charge
and discharge current of a battery is measured in C-rate. 1C is
often referred to as a one-hour discharge]
Lithium-ion batteries have the potential to deliver about 585
Whr of electricity per kilogram, while lithium-sulfur has a
theoretical potential of about 2,600 Whr, and lithium-air
batteries might reach targets well above 5,000 Whr. Several
companies and organizations are developing lithium air
batteries. In a lithium air battery, a lithium anode is
electrochemically coupled to atmospheric oxygen through an
air cathode. This enables it to achieve high energy densities.
In MEA, the batteries are required to provide the transient
power needed for the electric loads, for capturing the
regenerative energy, for emergency power, and for providing
the additional power(as needed) to balance the rectified dc
power from the engine driven ac generator. Advances in
battery technologies for EV/HEVs could be simply adapted
for MEA systems, thus reducing the total weight of the
overall system for a given power and energy requirement.
SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
Automotive companies have worked extensively on the
research, development, and manufacturing of electric
machines, power electronics, and energy storage systems
required for electric and hybrid vehicles. In addition,
significant work has been done in the area of fuel cells,
passive components, and electromagnetic interference (EMI)
technologies. For the past twelve years, Toyota has sold more
than one million hybrid vehicles, and GM, Ford, and other
companies are close behind.
More Electric Architecture is expected to play a significant
role in the future of overall airplane system design, operation,
and performance. The Boeing 787 has most of the features of
a More Electric Aircraft system. But it still uses the
traditional engine driven accessory gearbox and its associated
pumps.
“More Electric” is a technology driver for power generation,
energy storage, conversion systems, and other technologies in
transportation systems. There will be an exponential growth
in electrical power demands in transportation systems. The
basic technologies of electric machine, power electronics,
energy storage, and modeling & simulation are equally
applicable for electric/hybrid vehicles and MEA systems.
Fuel cells being developed for automotive propulsion could
be used as APUs or powering a dedicated load such as galley
or wing deicing load in MEA. Developing each of these
technologies from the ground-up by both the automotive and
aerospace industries is quite expensive and time consuming.
The automotive companies have invested a lot of money,
time, and effort to solve many of the problems related to
distribution, protection, safety aspects, and standards related
to high voltage dc inside an automobile. Due to similar
voltage and power ranges, the electrical systems for aircrafts
could be developed using the same technologies with
modifications to meet the MEA requirements, particularly
related to high altitude conditions, wide temperature
variations, and safety. The common goal for both EV/HEV
and MEA systems is to have high reliability, and high
performance electrical power components and systems that
would improve the performance, reduce the fuel usage, and
lower the emissions.
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CONTACT INFORMATION
Dr. Kaushik Rajashekara (“RAJA”)
Chief Technologist
Propulsion & Power Systems Engineering
Rolls-Royce Corporation
2001 South Tibbs Avenue, Speed Code U-31
Indianapolis, IN 46241, USA
Tel: (317)230-5313
k.rajashekara@rolls-royce.com
Downloaded from SAE International by Steven Sullivan, Wednesday, November 28, 2018

Figure 1. Estimated power demand in automobiles for accessory loads

Figure 2. Hybrid vehicle architectures

 Downloaded from SAE International by Steven Sullivan, Wednesday, November 28, 2018

Figure 3. Electrical Power Generation Strategies

Figure 4. Concentrated Winding Honda Hybrid Motor that could be used in a typical Integrated Starter Generator System
Downloaded from SAE International by Steven Sullivan, Wednesday, November 28, 2018

Figure 5. Automotive engine compartment thermal environment

Figure 6. Typical more electric engine system

 Downloaded from SAE International by Steven Sullivan, Wednesday, November 28, 2018

Figure 7. Operating Temperatures (in °C) in a typical jet engine

Table 1. Power generation capability in some of the aircrafts

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doi:10.4271/2010-01-1757