Structures and Buildings Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Volume 166 Issue SB8 Structures and Buildings 166 September 2013 Issue SB8
Pages 381–391 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/stbu.12.00054
Distortional–global interaction in lipped Paper 1200054
channel columns Received 01/08/2012 Accepted 21/02/2013
Published online 10/05/2013
Camotim and Dinis Keywords: buildings, structures & design/columns/steel structures

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Distortional–global interaction
in lipped channel columns
j
1 Dinar Camotim PhD j
2 Pedro B. Dinis PhD
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ICIST, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and
Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Architecture, ICIST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of
Portugal Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

j
1 j
2

This work presents and discusses numerical results concerning the post-buckling behaviour (elastic and elastic–
plastic) and ultimate strength of cold-formed steel lipped channel columns experiencing distortional–global inter-
action. The analyses cover columns with (a) geometries selected to ensure very close global and distortional buckling
loads, and (b) the support conditions usually adopted in experimental investigations: fixed-ended and pin-ended
columns. A fairly large number of columns are analysed, differing in the initial geometrical imperfection shape and/
or yield stress – the various initial geometrical imperfection shapes are linear combinations of the competing
buckling modes with amplitudes equal to (a) 10% of the wall thickness, t (D) and (b) L/1000 (G). For clarification
purposes, the column pure global elastic post-buckling behaviours are also addressed. These results are (a) elastic
(mostly) and elastic–plastic non-linear equilibrium paths, (b) figures and curves providing the evolution, along the
elastic paths, of column deformed configurations and, for the elastic–plastic columns, (c) figures showing the plastic
strain location and growth, as well as the natures of the failure mechanisms.

Notation used cold-formed steel member geometries may lead to quite

CD:0 amplitude of the initial imperfection distortional similar distortional and global buckling stresses, the correspond-
component ing post-buckling behaviour (elastic or elastic–plastic), ultimate
CG:0 amplitude of the initial imperfection global component strength and failure mode are bound to be strongly affected by
E Young’s modulus the interaction between these two buckling modes.
fcr critical buckling stress
fy yield stress Thin-walled members are known to exhibit stable local and
L column’s length global post-buckling behaviours, respectively, with high and low
Pb:1 buckling load in a single half-wave mode post-critical strength reserve, while recent studies (Silvestre and
Pcr critical buckling load Camotim, 2006) showed that the distortional post-buckling be-
Pu ultimate/failure load haviour fits in between the previous two and exhibits a non-
t cross-sectional thickness negligible asymmetry with respect to the flange–lip motion
v mid-span flange–lip corner vertical displacement (outward as opposed to inward). As for the mode interaction
w mid-span mid-web flexural displacement phenomena affecting the column post-buckling behaviour, those
 mid-span web chord rigid-body rotation due to the nearly simultaneous occurrence of local and global
Ł angle defining the CG:0 /CD:0 ratio buckling are the better understood, as attested by their inclusion
 Poisson’s ratio in virtually all current hot-rolled and cold-formed steel design
codes, either through the plate effective width concept or by
1. Introduction means of the novel direct strength method (DSM). With regard
Most cold-formed steel members display slender thin-walled open to the interactive phenomena involving distortional buckling,
cross-sections, a feature making them highly susceptible to most available results deal with local–distortional interaction in
several instability phenomena, namely local, distortional and lipped channel columns and comprise numerical simulations,
global (flexural or flexural–torsional) buckling. Depending on the experimental investigations and design proposals (Silvestre et al.,
member length and cross-sectional shape/dimensions, any of 2012; Young et al., 2013). Concerning distortional–global inter-
these buckling modes can be critical. However, since commonly action, the available literature is very scarce – the authors are

381
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings
Volume 166 Issue SB8
only aware of some recent publications on lipped channel
columns having simply supported end sections with free (Dinis
and Camotim, 2011) or prevented (Dubina et al., 2013) warping
displacements.
This work presents and discusses numerical results concerning
(a) the post-buckling behaviour (elastic and elastic–plastic) and
(b) the ultimate strength of cold-formed steel (E ¼ 210 GPa,
 ¼ 0.3) lipped channel columns experiencing distortional/global
(flexural–torsional) interaction. The analyses cover columns (a)
with geometries (cross-sectional dimensions and lengths) selected
to ensure very close global (G) and distortional (D) buckling
loads, and (b) the support conditions usually adopted in experi-
mental investigations (fixed-ended and pin-ended columns). A
fairly large number of columns are analysed, which differ in the
initial geometrical imperfection shape and/or yield stress – the
various initial geometrical imperfection shapes consist of linear
combinations of the competing D and G buckling modes with
amplitudes (mid-span flange–lip corner vertical displacements)
equal to (a) 10% of the wall thickness, t (D) and (b) L/1000 (G)
– in order to clarify some behavioural aspects observed, the
column pure global elastic post-buckling behaviours, deemed not
affected by D–G interaction, are also addressed. These results
comprise
(a) elastic (mostly) and elastic–plastic non-linear equilibrium
paths
(b) figures and curves providing the evolution, along the elastic
paths, of column deformed configurations and, for the
elastic–plastic columns
(c) figures showing (i) the plastic strain location and growth and
(ii) natures of the failure mechanisms.
By analysing members with different yield stresses, it is also
possible to assess how the D–G interaction effects vary with the
yield-to-critical-stress ratio, for the two end support conditions
dealt with in this work.
All the numerical results presented are obtained through Abaqus
shell finite-element analyses (SFEA)
(a) discretising the columns using fine four-node isoparametric
element meshes (length-to-width ratio close to 1)
(b) describing the steel material behaviour by a linear-elastic–
perfectly-plastic stress–strain curve (both residual stresses
and corner effects are disregarded, because it has been shown
that they have little impact on the column failure load (e.g.
Ellobody and Young, 2005)
(c) modelling the column supports by (i) fully attaching their end
sections to rigid end-plates, ensuring full warping and local
displacement/rotation restraints, (ii) either preventing (fixed
ends – F condition) or releasing (pinned ends – P condition)
the flexural rotations – torsional rotations always prevented.
In order to assess the mechanical differences between the global
382
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Distortional–global interaction in lipped
channel columns
Camotim and Dinis
buckling behaviours of the F and P lipped channel columns,
results from generalised beam theory (GBT) analyses, performed
in GBTUL (Bebiano et al., 2008), are also presented – their modal
nature sheds new light on this matter.
2. Buckling behaviour – column length
The curves in Figure 1(a) provide the variation of Pcr (critical
load, obtained from Abaqus SFEA) with the length L (logarith-
mic scale), for F and P columns with the cross-sectional
dimensions given. This figure also depicts the GBT-based buck-
ling loads, Pb:1 , obtained with 11 deformation modes: four global
(1–4), two distortional (5, 6) and five local (7–11). Figure 1(b)
displays the respective GBT modal participation diagrams,
providing the contributions of each GBT deformation mode to
the column buckling modes (Dinis et al., 2006). Lastly, Figure
1(c) shows the in-plane shapes of the six most relevant deforma-
tion modes. The following conclusions can be drawn from these
buckling results.
(a) The buckling curves exhibit three zones, corresponding to
j 1–12 half-wave local buckling
j 2–3 half-wave distortional buckling
j single half-wave global buckling.
(b) The short-to-intermediate P and F columns only differ in the
length associated with the transition from distortional to
global buckling: LDG ¼ 130 cm (P columns) and 145 cm
(F columns). This means that P and F columns with lengths
below L ¼ 130 cm have identical critical buckling load values
and mode shapes. On the other hand, the LDG columns exhibit
practically identical distortional and global critical buckling
loads: Pcr:D ¼ 40.5 kN ( fcr ¼ 227.8 MPa) and
Pcr:G ¼ 40.8 kN, for the F column, and Pcr:G ¼ 40.9 kN
( fcr ¼ 229.9 MPa) and Pcr:D ¼ 41.1 kN, for the P column –
naturally, the post-buckling behaviours and ultimate strengths
of such columns are expected to be highly affected by
distortional–global mode interaction.
(c) For both F and P columns, the Pcr plotted against L curve
descending branch involves two distinct buckling behaviours:
distortional–flexural–torsional (2 + 4 + 6) and flexural–
torsional (2 + 4), respectively, for the shorter and longer
columns. Moreover, note that
j the combination of modes 2 and 4 in the column critical
buckling mode varies with the column end supports
(higher participation of mode 2 in the P columns)
j the contribution of the anti-symmetric distortional mode
6 gradually fades as L grows, vanishing (, 1.0%) for
L  500 cm (F columns) or 350 cm (P columns).
(d ) The two LDG columns analysed experience interaction
between (i) three half-wave symmetric distortional and (ii)
single half-wave anti-symmetric distortional–flexural–
torsional modes (participations from modes 2, 4, 6:
26% + 31% + 43%, for F columns, and 59% + 15% + 26%,
for P columns) – note that the latter buckling mode/
behaviour was termed ‘global’ earlier, a designation that will
be retained in this work for simplicity.
 Structures and Buildings Distortional–global interaction in lipped
Volume 166 Issue SB8 channel columns
Camotim and Dinis

GBT
F P deformation modes
80
Abaqus
P⬇F
GBTUL
P⬇F F 2 4
(11 modes)
Pcr: kN

40
1 P
50
5 6
9 F
55 (mm) P
0
10 100 1000 7 9
LDG
L: cm
(a) (c)

F columns 6 P columns 6 4
1·0
9  11 4 9  11
pi 0·5 2
7 5 2 7 5
0
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
(b)

Figure 1. (a) Pcr plotted against L curves; (b) GBT modal

participation diagrams (F + P columns); (c) six GBT deformations
mode in-plane shapes

3. Post-buckling behaviour under D–G Figure 2(b) shows the F column pure D and G initial imperfection
interaction shapes (Ł ¼ 08, 908, 1808 and 2708); note that
The elastic and elastic–plastic post-buckling behaviours of fixed-
ended (F) and pin-ended (P) lipped channel columns with the (a) Ł ¼ 08 and Ł ¼ 1808 correspond to inward and outward mid-
LDG lengths identified earlier, that is, affected by strong inter- span flange-lip motions
action between distortional and ‘global’ buckling modes, are (b) Ł ¼ 908 and Ł ¼ 2708 concern clockwise and counter-
investigated next. clockwise cross-section rotations.

3.1 Initial geometrical imperfections 3.2 Elastic mode interaction

The configuration of the initial geometrical imperfections invari-
ably plays a pivotal role in mode interaction investigations, since
its choice may alter considerably the post-buckling behaviour and
strength of the structural system under consideration. Thus, it is
necessary to obtain the post-buckling behaviour of columns
containing various critical-mode initial shapes, combining arbitra-
rily the two competing buckling modes (Dinis and Camotim,
2011). The column initial configurations consist of linear combi-
nations of a three half-wave distortional and a single half-wave
‘global’ buckling mode, both normalised to exhibit the following
amplitudes: vD:0 ¼ 0.1t and vG:0 ¼ L/1000 (in this particular
case, 0.1t ¼ 0.1 mm, L/1000 ¼ 1.45 or 1.3 mm). The linear
combination coefficients, CD:0 and CG:0 , satisfy the condition
(CD:0 )2 + (CG:0 )2 ¼ 1, and the initial imperfection is defined by
angle Ł, such that CD:0 ¼ cosŁ and CG:0 ¼ sinŁ (see Figure 2(a)).
Post-buckling results of F columns with 13 initial imperfection
shapes, corresponding to 08 < Ł < 1808 and separated by 158
intervals, are first presented. Note that, since the column post-
buckling behaviour is symmetric with respect to the deformed
configuration global component sign, there is no need to show
results concerning the 1808 , Ł , 3608 columns – they are
identical to those exhibited by their 08 , Ł , 1808 counterparts.
Figures 3(a)–3(b) show the upper parts (P/Pcr . 0.4) of the F
column equilibrium paths (a) P/Pcr plotted against w/t (w is the
mid-web flexural displacement, measured with respect to the web
chord) and (b) P/Pcr plotted against  ( is the mid-span web
chord rigid-body rotation). Figure 3(c) shows the limit deformed
shapes of Ł ¼ 08, 158 < Ł < 1658 and 1808 columns (advanced
post-buckling stages) – for clarity, corresponding deformed mid-

383
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings Distortional–global interaction in lipped
Volume 166 Issue SB8 channel columns
Camotim and Dinis

vG.0  L /1000 F columns

vD.0  0·1t
θ  0°
βG.0 0°
90° wD.0

CG.0
90°
θ  90°
1 r1

180° 0 θ 0°
1 1
CD.0

1 θ  180°
270°

vD.0  0·1t
vG.0  L /1000

wD.0 βG.0 270° θ  270°

180°

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a) Initial imperfection representation in the CD:0 –CG:0

plane and (b) initial imperfection shapes associated with Ł ¼ 08,
908, 1808, 2708

span cross sections are also included. The joint observation of all
these elastic post-buckling results leads to the following remarks.
(a) Almost all P/Pcr plotted against w/t and P/Pcr plotted against
 equilibrium paths merge into common curves, associated
with mid-span (i) clockwise web chord rotations and (ii)
outward flange–lip motions (inward mid-web transverse
flexure). The Ł ¼ 08, 1808 columns (pure distortional
imperfections) are the exceptions – they correspond to a
singular post-buckling behaviour, addressed later on.
(b) The limit deformed configuration of the merging
158 < Ł < 1658 column curves may be deemed associated
with a ‘coupled buckling mode’ shape, combining
participations from (i) a three half-wave distortional
component (outward mid-span flange–lip motions) and (ii) a
single half-wave global component – this coupled buckling
mode shape is shown in Figure 3(c).
(c) The Ł ¼ 08, 1808 equilibrium paths are characterised by the
fact that the cross-sections exhibit no rigid-body rotations
( ¼ 0). The Ł ¼ 08 and Ł ¼ 1808 P/Pcr plotted against w/t
equilibrium paths are slightly different – the former exhibits
lower post-critical strength, owing to the fact that it concerns
two half-waves with outward flange–lip motions, developing
higher compressive stresses than their inward counterparts
(Dinis et al., 2007).
(d ) (The most detrimental initial imperfections, in the sense that
they minimize the column strength (equilibrium path lying
below all the others), are the pure global ones, that is
Ł ¼ 908.
Next, the effect of releasing the end section major- and minor-
axis flexural rotations on the post-buckling behaviour and
strength of lipped channel columns under D–G interaction is
investigated – the column end sections are attached to rigid plates
(warping prevented) that are supported by concentrically located
‘spherical hinges’ (P columns). The results shown in Figures
4(a)–4(c) are the P column counterparts of those displayed in
Figures 3(a)–3(c) for the F columns. The joint and comparative
analysis of all the F and P column post-buckling results displayed
prompts the following comments.
(a) Once again, almost all P/Pcr plotted against w/t and P/Pcr
plotted against  equilibrium paths merge together at the
advanced post-buckling stage, in a common curve branch
associated with mid-span clockwise web chord rotations and
outward flange–lip motions (inward mid-web transverse
flexure). The Ł ¼ 08, 1808 columns, concerning pure
distortional imperfections and exhibiting no rigid-body
rotations, are again the exceptions. Lastly, the Ł ¼ 908 P

384
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings Distortional–global interaction in lipped
Volume 166 Issue SB8 channel columns
Camotim and Dinis

θ θ  0; 180
θ  180
15 θ  30; 150
θ0
30

θ  15; 165
θ  45; 135
θ  165; 45 θ
150; 60º 30
… …
90º 90

F columns F columns

1·2 1·2
θ0 θ  0;180
θ  180
1·0 1·0
θ
θ
15 15
P/Pcr

0·8 0·8
P/Pcr

… …

90 90
0·6 0·6

w0 w0 β0

0·4 0·4

0·5 0 0·5 0 0·1 0·2 0·3

w/t β: rad
(a) (b)

θ0 15  θ  165 θ  180

(c)

Figure 3. (a) P/Pcr plotted against w/t; (b) P/Pcr plotted against 
equilibrium paths; (c) limit deformed shapes of the Ł ¼ 08,
158 < Ł < 1658, 1808 F columns

column is also the one with higher strength erosion due to
D–G coupling.
(b) However, there is a major (and striking) difference between
the P and F column elastic post-buckling behaviours: all P
column equilibrium paths exhibit well-defined limit points,
occurring almost always for small w/t and  values (the
Ł ¼ 08, 1808 columns are still exceptions, as their limit points
occur for larger w/t values and  ¼ 0). Moreover, all P
column deformed mid-span cross-sections show evidence of
minor axis flexure (web in tension).
(c) The 158 < Ł < 1658 P and F column deformed shapes exhibit
web double-curvature transverse bending, which is originated
by the presence of anti-symmetric distortion (mode 6) in the
‘global’ buckling mode. Note that this web transverse
bending is harder to detect in the F columns (compare Figure
3(c) with Figure 4(c)).
(d ) The limit points exhibited by the P column equilibrium paths
stem from the interaction with minor-axis flexure, which is
caused by a combination of factors: (i) the participation of
mode 6 (anti-symmetric distortional) in the ‘global’ buckling

385
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings Distortional–global interaction in lipped
Volume 166 Issue SB8 channel columns
Camotim and Dinis

P columns P columns
1·2 1·2
θ  15 θ  0;180
θ  180
1·0 θ0 1·0 θ
15
…

P/Pcr
P/Pcr

θ  165 0·8 0·8

θ 90
150
0·6 0·6
…
w0 90 w0 β0
0·4 0·4

1·0 0·5 0 0·5 1·0 0 0·1 0·2 0·3

w/t β: rad
(a) (b)

θ0 15  θ  165 θ  180

(c)

Figure 4. (a) P/Pcr plotted against w/t; (b) P/Pcr plotted against 
equilibrium paths; (c) limit deformed shapes of the Ł ¼ 08,
158 < Ł < 1658, 1808 P columns

mode, (ii) the relative closeness of the minor-axis flexural
buckling load (Pb:F /Pcr:FT ¼ 2.24, against 7.23 in the F
columns – see Table 1) and (iii) the absence of end support
minor-axis rotation restraints (i.e. null moment reactions).
Indeed, the limit points are due to the interaction with minor-
axis flexural buckling – the corresponding deformation is
clearly visible in the column deformed configurations
depicted in Figure 4(c).
(e) The above interaction is brought into play by the cross-
section ‘effective centroid shifts’ (towards the web) due to the
stress redistribution caused by the growth of the (symmetric
and anti-symmetric) distortional deformations – the axial
compression becomes gradually more eccentric. Then, the
effects of this eccentric compression are not counteracted by
the minor-axis end reaction moments, as in the F columns.
This explains the marked differences between the P and F
column post-buckling behaviours. Note that Young and
Rasmussen (1999) unveiled a similar behavioural difference,
in the context of the local–global interaction of fixed-ended
and pin-ended channel columns.
( f ) It is worth noting that there is a close resemblance between
the P column post-buckling behaviour and that recently
unveiled by Dinis and Camotim (2011) for ‘fully simply
supported’ (also free warping at the end sections) lipped
channel columns under strong D–G interaction – in
particular, their equilibrium paths also have limit points.

Column F columns P columns

Pcr:FT : kN Pb:F : kN Pb:F /Pcr:FT : kN Pcr:FT : kN Pb:F : kN Pb:F /Pcr:FT : kN

LDG 40.8 295.0 7.2 40.9 91.7 2.2

LG:1 39.0 275.7 7.1 32.6 68.9 2.1
LG:2 11.8 68.9 5.8 9.1 17.2 1.9
LG:3 3.7 17.2 4.6 2.7 4.3 1.6

Table 1. F and P column FT (critical) and F buckling loads

386
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings
Volume 166 Issue SB8
Thus, it may be concluded that preventing the end section
warping does not alter the qualitative aspects of the D–G
interaction (unlike preventing the minor-axis rotations).
In order to clarify and provide mechanical insight on the marked
behavioural differences between the P and F columns experien-
cing a strong D–G interaction, the pure ‘global’ elastic post-
buckling behaviours of columns with the same cross-section and
longer lengths (i.e. deemed not affected by the above interaction
phenomenon) are addressed next. The results presented concern F
and P columns with lengths (a) LG:1 ¼ 150 cm, (b) LG:2 ¼ 300 cm
and (c) LG:3 ¼ 600 cm. Note that the columns with LG:1 to LG:3
lengths have critical loads below that associated with LDG (strong
D–G interaction – coincident distortional and ‘global’ critical
loads): the ratios vary between 96% (F column with length LG:1 )
and 7% (P column with length LG:3 ) – the major-axis (distor-
tional)–flexural–torsional (critical) and minor-axis flexural buck-
ling loads of the columns analysed are given in Table 1. All the
columns contain critical-mode initial geometrical imperfections:
‘global’ imperfections associated with mid-span clockwise web
chord rotations equal to 0.026 rad (F columns) or 0.024 rad (P
columns). These magnitudes correspond to mid-span flange–lip
corner vertical displacements equal to LDG /1000: 1.45 mm or
1.3 mm, respectively, for the F and P columns.
Figures 5(a)–5(b) show the upper portions (P/Pcr . 0.4) of the
six LG columns post-buckling equilibrium paths P/Pcr plotted
against  – also shown are a few column mid-span cross-section
deformed configurations at advanced post-buckling stages
(  0.2). The joint observation of these ‘global’ post-buckling
results prompts the following remarks.
(a) The LG:1 –LG:3 fixed and the LG:3 pin-ended columns exhibit
the ‘expected’ stable global post-buckling behaviours.
However, although the F columns, with virtually identical
equilibrium paths, exhibit a fair amount of post-critical
F columns β  0·026 rad
LG.1
LG.3
LG.2
LG.1
LG.3
β β
β  0·2 rad 0 0·15
β: rad
(a)
Figure 5. (a) F and (b) P column ‘global’ post-buckling behaviour:
P/Pcr plotted against  elastic equilibrium paths corresponding to
LG:1 , LG:2 , LG:3
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Distortional–global interaction in lipped
channel columns
Camotim and Dinis
strength reserve, the LG:3 P column is only marginally stable
(minute post-critical strength).
(b) On the other hand, the LG:1 and LG:2 P columns exhibit an
unstable post-buckling behaviour – the equilibrium path limit
points occur for Pu /Pcr and u ¼ 0.11 rad (LG:1 ) or
Pu /Pcr ¼ 0.94 and u ¼ 0.20 rad (LG:2 ) – both Pu /Pcr ¼ 0.87
and u increase with the column length (LG:1 ! LG:2 ).
(c) The occurrence of the limit points is attributable to the joint
influence of three factors, already mentioned earlier: (i) the
closeness of Pb:F and Pcr:FT , (ii) the absence of minor-axis end
reaction moments and (iii) the participation of mode 6 (anti-
symmetric distortional) in the column buckling mode. This
explains why such limit points do not occur in the three F
columns (always high Pb:F /Pcr:FT values and end reaction
moments) and LG:3 P column (no participation of mode 6 in
the buckling mode, even if Pb:F /Pcr:FT is quite low, and no end
reaction moments).
(d ) The presence of the anti-symmetric distortional deformations
(mode 6) act as a ‘triggering device’: owing to ‘effective
centroid shifts’ (towards the web) caused by them, minor-axis
flexural displacements appear in the column (eccentric
compression), thus providing the ‘sparkle’ that initiates the
distortional–global interaction, made possible by the relative
closeness of Pb:F and Pcr:FT – note that Pb:F /Pcr:FT ¼ 2.2 (LG:1 )
and 1.9 (LG:2 ) in the P columns. In the LG:3 P column,
although Pb:F /Pcr:FT ¼ 1.6 is even smaller than before, the
mode 6 ‘sparkle’ is not there.
3.3 Elastic-plastic mode interaction
In this section, the elastic–plastic post-buckling behaviour and
strength of F and P lipped channel columns affected by D–G
interaction are investigated. The numerical results presented and
discussed concern columns exhibiting four yield stresses
( fy ¼ 250, 350, 550 and 750 MPa), corresponding to yield-to-
critical stress ratios of fy /fcr  1.1, 1.5, 2.4, 3.3; recall that both
columns have practically identical critical stresses ( fcr ¼ 227.8
P columns β  0·024 rad
1·2
1·0 LG.3 LG.1
LG.2
0·8
P/Pcr
LG.1
0·6 LG.3
0·4
0·3 0 0·15 0·3 β  0·2 rad
β: rad
(b)
387
 Structures and Buildings Distortional–global interaction in lipped
Volume 166 Issue SB8 channel columns
Camotim and Dinis

and 229.9 MPa, respectively, for the F and P columns). For
comparative purposes, some elastic results obtained earlier are
presented again – they may be viewed as corresponding to an
infinite yield stress (i.e. fy ¼ fy /fcr ¼ 1).
Figure 6(a) shows the upper portions (P/Pcr . 0.4) of equilibrium
paths P/Pcr plotted against , describing the post-buckling behav-
iour of four F columns containing pure ‘global’ initial imperfec-
tions (Ł ¼ 908) and exhibiting different yield-to-critical-stress
ratios – the choice of this particular initial imperfection shape
stems from the fact that the elastic Ł ¼ 908 column was found to
have the lowest strength. As for Figure 6(b), it concerns the
fy /fcr  1.5 column and displays three plastic strain diagrams,
corresponding to the equilibrium states located along the post-
buckling path and indicated in Figure 6(a)), which include the
column collapse mechanism. In order to allow a better visualisa-
tion of the plastic strain distribution at collapse, a back view of
the web mid-span region is also provided. Finally, the table in

F column  θ  90
1·2
Elastic I
fy /fcr ⬇ 3·3

1·0
P/Pcr

0·8 II
I III fy /fcr ⬇ 2·4
II
0·6
fy /fcr ⬇ 1·5
III
fy /fcr ⬇ 1·1
0·4
0 0·1 0·2 0·3
β: rad (b)
(a)

1·2
fy /fcr  3·3
1·0 fy /fcr  2·4
Pu/Pcr

0·8 fy /fcr  1·5

0·6 fy /fcr  1·1

0·4
0 45 90 135 180
θ: deg

θ: deg fy /fcr θ: deg fy /fcr

1·1 1·5 2·4 3·3 1·1 1·5 2·4 3·3

0 0·878 1·023 1·128 1·190 90 0·667 0·768 0·931 1·019

15 0·865 0·935 0·944 1·027 105 0·667 0·768 0·931 1·019

30 0·808 0·869 0·940 1·023 120 0·685 0·777 0·935 1·019
45 0·751 0·825 0·935 1·023 135 0·707 0·790 0·940 1·023

60 0·716 0·799 0·935 1·019 150 0·742 0·821 0·940 1·027

75 0·698 0·782 0·931 1·019 165 0·773 0·865 0·944 1·032

90 0·667 0·768 0·931 1·019 180 0·869 0·953 1·120 1·190

(c)

Figure 6. Ł ¼ 908 F column: (a) P/Pcr plotted against  elastic-

plastic paths; (b) plastic strain and deformed configuration
evolution ( fy /fcr  1.5); (c) variation of Pu /Pcr with Ł and fy /fcr

388
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings
Volume 166 Issue SB8
Figure 6(c) gives the column ultimate load ratios (Pu /Pcr )
concerning all Ł and fy combinations considered in this work.
The observation of these post-buckling results leads to the
following comments.
(a) The nature and characteristics of the F column elastic–plastic
post-buckling behaviour and collapse mechanism are clearly
dependent on the fy /fcr value – for example, inside the yield
stress range considered, the onset of yielding varies from 0.67
to 0.88 P/Pcr :
(b) In the F columns with fy /fcr close to 1.0 (e.g. fy /fcr  1.1), first
yielding occurs for a ‘fairly uniform’ normal stress
distribution and, therefore, precipitates a rather ‘abrupt’
collapse – yielding occurs simultaneously in a large portion
of the ‘most deformed (critical) cross-section’, whose location
depends on the initial imperfection shape (this location is
mid-span for the Ł ¼ 908 columns considered in this work).
(c) In the columns with higher fy /fcr values (e.g. fy /fcr  2.4, 3.3),
first yielding occurs when the column normal stress
distribution is already ‘highly non-uniform’ and, therefore,
does not lead to an immediate collapse – instead, collapse
occurs after a mild snap-through phenomenon, followed by a
subsequent strength increase up to a limit point, as illustrated
in Figure 6(a).
(d ) For the Ł ¼ 908 column with fy /fcr  1.5, (i) yielding begins
at both lip free end zones, in the vicinity of the column mid-
span (diagram I in Figure 6(b)), and (ii) collapse occurs after
the full yielding of the web–flange corners at the column
central region – see the diagram III detail in Figure 6(b).
(e) The ultimate load ratios given in the table of Figure 6(c)
show that the variation of Pu /Pcr with Ł is qualitatively
similar for all yield stresses. It may first be observed that the
lower value is always obtained for the Ł ¼ 908 column, thus
confirming that the pure ‘global’ initial imperfections are the
most detrimental ones. Conversely, the Ł ¼ 08, 1808 columns
always exhibit the higher values. Finally, it is worth noting
that, for fy /fcr > 2.4, all the 158 < Ł < 1658 columns exhibit
practically the same ultimate load, which means that collapse
occurs after the various equilibrium paths have already
merged together and, therefore, the shape of the initial
imperfections has virtually no influence on the column load-
carrying capacity and failure mechanism.
( f ) It is clear that the strength erosion associated with the D–G
interaction effects is quite substantial. Indeed, the ultimate
loads, which are composed between 0.67 and 1.19 P/Pcr , only
marginally exceed Pcr (Pu /Pcr ¼ 1.019) for the larger fy /fcr
value ( fy ¼ 750 MPa) – with the most detrimental column
imperfection.
A similar investigation was also carried out for P columns.
Figures 7(a)–7(b) display (i) the upper parts of the P/Pcr plotted
against  paths concerning Ł ¼ 908 columns with fy /fcr  1.1, 1.5,
2.4, 3.3, 1 ( fcr ¼ 229.9 MPa), and (ii) the plastic strain evolution
and collapse mechanism of the column with fy /fcr  1.5 – the
back view of the web mid-span region is also shown. As before,
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Distortional–global interaction in lipped
channel columns
Camotim and Dinis
the table in Figure 7(c) provides the column ultimate load ratios
Pu /Pcr for all Ł–fy combinations considered. The observation of
these results, as well as their comparison with those displayed in
Figures 6(a)–6(c), prompts the following remarks.
(a) As expected after the elastic analyses, the F and P columns
exhibit quite different elastic–plastic post-buckling
behaviours.
(b) Indeed, none of the P columns exhibits a non-negligible
elastic–plastic strength reserve, that is they either (i) fail in
the elastic range or (ii) collapse almost immediately after the
onset of yielding. Moreover, the columns with the higher
yield stress ( fy /fcr  3.3) remain elastic until the ultimate load
is reached.
(c) As illustrated in Figure 7(b) (diagram I – Ł ¼ 908 column
with fy /fcr  1.5), yielding starts at the bottom lip mid-span
zone in all columns that reach the elastic–plastic range prior
to failure. Collapse occurs almost immediately after and is
caused by the full yielding of the mid-span bottom web-
flange corner, leading to the formation of a ‘distortional
plastic hinge’ that precipitates the collapse of the mid-span
bottom flange–lip assembly – see diagram II in Figure 7(b)
and note the asymmetric plastic strain diagram at mid-span,
owing to minor-axis flexure (the Ł ¼ 908 F column exhibits a
symmetric web plastic strain distribution).
(d ) The strength erosion due to the D–G modal interaction
effects is even more substantial in the P columns than in the
F ones.
(e) Indeed, (i) the ultimate loads are now composed between 0.72
and 0.95 P/Pcr and, for Ł ¼ 908, (ii) one has ultimate loads
corresponding to 28% ( fy ¼ 250 MPa), 20% ( fy ¼ 350 MPa)
and 15% ( fy > 550 MPa) drops with respect to Pcr : It is
worth noting that there is no benefit in having a yield stress
much larger than fy ¼ 550 MPa ( fy /fcr  2.4), since the
column collapse is totally governed by elastic distortional–
global interaction effects.
4. Conclusion
This paper has dealt with a numerical (shell finite-element)
investigation concerning the elastic and elastic–plastic post-
buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel lipped channel columns
affected by strong distortional–global mode interaction. The
columns analysed, using the code Abaqus, (a) exhibited geome-
tries selected to ensure very close (almost coincident) distortional
and global buckling loads; (b) displayed the end support condi-
tions commonly adopted in the experimental investigations,
namely fixed or pinned (spherical hinge and warping prevented)
end sections, and (c) contained several initial geometrical im-
perfections, with shapes that combine differently the two compet-
ing (normalised) buckling modes and sharing a common
amplitude – the normalising amplitudes were t/10 (distortional
mode) and L/1000 (global mode).
Among the various conclusions drawn from this investigation, the
following ones deserve to be specially mentioned.
389
 Structures and Buildings Distortional–global interaction in lipped
Volume 166 Issue SB8 channel columns
Camotim and Dinis

P column  θ 90
1·0
I
Elastic

0·8 I
P/Pcr

fy /fcr ⬇ 3·3
II II
0·6 fy /fcr ⬇ 2·4

fy /fcr ⬇ 1·5
fy /fcr ⬇ 1·1
0·4
(b)
0 0·1 0·2
β: rad
(a)

1·2
fy /fcr  ∞
1·0
fy /fcr  2·4
Pu/Pcr

0·8 fy /fcr  1·5

0·6 fy /fcr  1·1

0·4
0 45 90 135 180
θ: deg

θ: deg fy /fcr θ: deg fy /fcr

1·1 1·5 2·4 ∞ 1·1 1·5 2·4 ∞

0 0·866 0·940 0·948 0·948 90 0·718 0·800 0·848 0·848

15 0·844 0·927 0·935 0·935 105 0·709 0·800 0·853 0·853
30 0·809 0·887 0·909 0·909 120 0·722 0·809 0·857 0·857
45 0·770 0·857 0·883 0·883 135 0·740 0·822 0·874 0·874

60 0·748 0·827 0·866 0·866 150 0·757 0·883 0·892 0·892

75 0·726 0·809 0·853 0·853 165 0·800 0·914 0·922 0·922
90 0·718 0·800 0·848 0·848 180 0·861 0·935 0·944 0·944

(c)

Figure 7. Ł ¼ 908 P column: (a) P/Pcr plotted against  elastic-

plastic paths; (b) plastic strain and deformed configuration
evolution ( fy /fcr  1.5); (c) variation of Pu /Pcr with Ł and fy /fcr

(a) The so-called column ‘global’ buckling (descending branch
of the Pcr plotted against L signature curve) corresponds, in
fact, to two distinct buckling behaviours: (i) distortional–
flexural–torsional buckling (anti-symmetric distortion), for
the shorter columns, and (ii) flexural–torsional, for the longer
columns – the amount of anti-symmetric distortion gradually
decreases as the column length grows, until it finally
vanishes. The difference between the ‘non-critical’ minor-axis
flexural buckling load and its critical counterpart is
considerably smaller in the pin-ended columns than in the
fixed-ended ones.
(b) Unlike the fixed-ended columns, which always exhibit a fair
amount of post-critical strength, the pin-ended columns
exhibit elastic limit points (failure exclusively due to
geometrically non-linear effects). This behavioural feature
stems from the joint influence of three factors: (i)
participation of the anti-symmetric distortional mode in the
column ‘global’ buckling mode, (ii) the relatively low value

390
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 Structures and Buildings
Volume 166 Issue SB8
of the buckling load ratio Pb:F /Pcr:FT and (iii) the absence of
end support minor-axis rotation restraints.
(c) The pure ‘global’ imperfections are the most detrimental, in
the sense of leading to lower strengths, for both the fixed-
ended and pin-ended columns.
(d ) The ultimate strength erosion due to D–G interaction effects
is significant for both the fixed-ended and pin-ended columns.
Nevertheless, the amount of erosion is more substantial in the
pin-ended columns. Moreover, the elastic–plastic post-
buckling and failure load characteristics were found to be
markedly different for the two end support conditions.
Indeed, the pin-ended columns (i) have virtually no elastic–
plastic strength reserve and ductility (the onset of yielding
often triggers failure) and, for a high enough yield stress, (ii)
exhibit a collapse that is fully governed by the geometrically
non-linear effects due to the elastic distortional–global mode
interaction.
Some of the behavioural features unveiled in this work are bound
to have far-reaching implications in the interpretation of experi-
mental results, particularly in what concerns the comparison
between tests involving fixed-ended and pin-ended columns –
recall that both are commonly considered in experimental
investigations.
Moreover, the output of this research effort will also be important
to develop a rational and efficient design procedure for cold-
formed steel columns undergoing distortional–global interaction.
In particular, such procedure must adequately reflect the marked
behavioural differences between columns with prevented and free
end section flexural rotations (torsional rotations restrained in
either case).
Acknowledgements
The financial support of Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia
(FCT – Portugal), through project PTDC/ECM/108146/2008
(‘Generalised beam theory (GBT) – development, application
and dissemination’), is gratefully acknowledged.
Downloaded by [ University of Manchester Library] on [26/09/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Distortional–global interaction in lipped
channel columns
Camotim and Dinis
REFERENCES
Bebiano R, Silvestre N and Camotim D (2008) GBTUL 1.0 – Code
for Buckling and Vibration Analysis of Thin-Walled Members.
Institute Superior Téchnico, Lisbon, Portugal. See http://
www.civil.ist.utl.pt/gbt (accessed 13/03/2013).
Dinis PB and Camotim D (2011) Post-buckling behaviour and
strength of cold-formed steel lipped channel columns
experiencing distortional/global interaction. Computers and
Structures 89(3–4): 422–434.
Dinis PB, Camotim D and Silvestre N (2006) GBT formulation to
analyse the buckling behaviour of thin-walled members with
arbitrarily ‘branched’ open cross-sections. Thin-Walled
Structures 44(1): 20–38.
Dinis PB, Camotim D and Silvestre N (2007) FEM-based analysis
of the local-plate/distortional mode interaction in cold-formed
steel lipped channel columns. Computers and Structures
85(19–20): 1461–1474.
Dubina D, Ungureanu V and Crisan A (2013) Experimental
evidence of erosion on critical interactive distortional-overall
buckling load. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE
139(5): 705–716.
Ellobody E and Young B (2005) Behavior of cold-formed steel
plain angle columns. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE 131(3): 457–466.
Silvestre N and Camotim D (2006) Local-plate and distortional
post-buckling behavior of cold-formed steel lipped channel
columns with intermediate stiffeners. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE 132(4): 529–540.
Silvestre N, Camotim D and Dinis PB (2012) Post-buckling
behaviour and direct strength design of lipped channel
columns experiencing local/distortional interaction. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research 73(June): 12–30.
Young B and Rasmussen KJ (1999) Shift of effective centroid in
channel columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE
125(5): 524–531.
Young B, Silvestre N and Camotim D (2013) Cold-formed steel
lipped channel columns influenced by local-distortional
interaction: strength and DSM design. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, in press.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
To discuss this paper, please email up to 500 words to the
editor at journals@ice.org.uk. Your contribution will be
forwarded to the author(s) for a reply and, if considered
appropriate by the editorial panel, will be published as a
discussion in a future issue of the journal.
Proceedings journals rely entirely on contributions sent in
by civil engineering professionals, academics and students.
Papers should be 2000–5000 words long (briefing papers
should be 1000–2000 words long), with adequate illustra-
tions and references. You can submit your paper online via
www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals, where you
will also find detailed author guidelines.
391