Determination of Subsurface Velocity

Geology 351 -- Geophysical Methods for Geology,
Engineering and Environmental Sciences (ATH)
DETERMINATION OF SUBSURFACE SEISMIC VELOCITIES

Seismic sections after data processing are usually expressed in terms of distances versus
time. In other words, the vertical axis is a time axis. These seismic sections are often referred to
as the “time sections”. To carry out geological interpretations reliably, one must convert the
time sections to maps where the vertical axis represents depth. Seismic sections obtained after
such a conversion are known as “depth sections”. Only depth sections can provide accurate
geological information of the subsurface.
To convert arrival times of seismic signals to depths of reflectors, one needs information
about the seismic velocity structure of the subsurface. How do we describe seismic velocities of
the subsurface? It depends on how they are measured.
a) Average Velocity : Vavg= z / t

For a multi-layered structure, an average velocity is defined as the total thickness divided by
the total time required for the wave to travel through all the layers. A mathematical
expression is given by the following equation.
n
∑z
z1 + z 2 + z3 + " + z n k =1 k
Vavg = = n
t1 + t 2 + t3 + " + t n
∑ tk
k =1
An average velocity represents a numerical value for the subsurface from the surface to the
depth of interest. This is only an averaged value to that particular depth. It may or may not
carry any information to the real velocity structure of the subsurface. In other words, one
cannot use this information to determine composition, for example.
z − z1
b) Interval Velocity : Vint = 2 where z2 and z1 represent two different depths, and t2 and
t 2 − t1
t1 represent the travel times required for a wave to reach the two depths, respectively. It
represents the averaged velocity between the two depth points. Note that z1 and z2 do not
have to be in the same stratum. This is a more accurate representation of the subsurface
structure, especially if z1 and z2 coincide with layer boundaries. If it is properly measured,
one can derive compositional information on the basis of this velocity structure. Such a
velocity structure is most useful in acoustic logging of boreholes.
Given below is an example of average and interval velocities of a given structure to illustrate
their differences. Notice the similarity of the calculated interval velocity and the true velocity
structure.
time (msec) depth (m) V (true) V (avg) V (int)

0 0
40 50 1250 1250 1250
73.33 100 1500 1363.70 1500.15
103.64 150 1650 1447.32 1649.62
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Copyright © 2004 Hsui, all rights reserved
131.41 200 1800 1521.95 1800.50

154.14 250 2200 1621.90 2199.74
174.55 300 2450 1718.71 2449.78
192.54 350 2780 1817.80 2779.32
220.31 400 1800 1815.62 1800.50
237.55 450 2900 1894.34 2900.23
253.43 500 3150 1972.93 3148.62
dz
c) Instantaneous Velocity : Vinst = . Physically, an instantaneous velocity is equivalent to
dt
an interval velocity with extremely thin layer thickness.
d) Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Velocity : This is a velocity defined through statistical means. Its
mathematical form is given below.
n
2
∑ vk t k
v12 t1+ +"+
v22 t 2 vn2 t n
2
Vrms = = k =1n
t1 + t 2 + " + t n
∑ tk
k =1
e) Stacking Velocity : Such a velocity is mostly used for stacking operations associated with
common-depth-point data. It is defined below.
x2
t 2 = to2 +
Vst2
Here, t0 is the vertical time at the shot point and x is the spatial separation between the shot
point and the geophone of the seismic trace.
Traditionally, a reliable velocity structure was obtained using well-logging techniques. For
example, a line of geophones can be dropped into a borehole, and arrival times are measured for
a shot at the top of the hole. Knowing the depth of the geophones (because they are attached to a
line with previously specified separations) and the arrival times, average velocities can be
calculated. To convert average velocities to layer velocities, errors can accumulate, however. In
other words, accuracy of the velocity, determined for one layer, depends on the accuracy of
velocities previously calculated.
Another technique is to employ a special probe where a source is located at one end of the
probe and a detector at the other end. When such a probe is dropped into a borehole, interval
velocities are measured between the source and the detector. In this manner, accuracy of one
measurement will become independent from the accuracy of previous measurements. However,
these probes often use acoustic frequencies instead of seismic frequencies. In addition, to
determine velocity in this manner, one must first drill a hole and that can be an expansive
undertaking. Nowadays, because of the advent of computer technology, subsurface velocity

structures can be determined more accurately and inexpensively using trial and error computer
procedures.
a) Velocity Spectra : This technique is based on the principle that after applying a correct
moveout time to each seismic trace, reflected signals corresponding to a given reflection
event should line up at the arrival time t0 beneath the shot point. The operating principle is
illustrated in the following schematic diagram.
Here, an idealized seismic section is shown with a single reflected signal from a common
reflector. One can try a range of moveout times to stack the seismic traces. Moveout time is
given by the following equation as discussed earlier.
x2
∆t = t x − t o = t o2 + − to
V2
A range of velocities can be tried and the corresponding moveout times are calculated for
each trace. If the trial velocity is not correct, the reflection time of each trace will either be
over-corrected or under-corrected. Summation of these corrected traces will produce
amplitudes of smaller values. When the moveout time is applied correctly, however,
reflection signals of all traces will line up, and the summation of these seismic traces will
produce a peak for this trial velocity as illustrated by the upper right hand diagram. Thus, by
examining the power output of a velocity spectrum for a given arrival time, one can
determine velocity structures quite accurately. Applying the same working principle of
velocity spectra to different arrival times, velocity structure as a function of depth can be
determined as illustrated in the diagram below.

o
To save space, the above diagram is rotated 90 in a counter-clockwise direction. Time (or
depth) is increasing from left to right. Each vertical line represents a velocity spectrum.
Connecting the bases of each peak of the velocity spectra will provide a velocity structure as
a function of depth (which goes from left to right here).
b) Velocity Scan : Velocity scan is similar to velocity spectra in principle. However, moveouts
based on different trial velocities are applied uniformly to the complete seismic trace. When
the trial velocity is correct, the stacked seismic section will show horizontal fringes. Thus,
by searching for horizontal fringes of various trial velocity values, one can determine
velocity structure of an area as a function of depth. The technique is illustrated in the
following diagram on the next page.
The area between the two red vertical lines represents a seismic section of a specific trial
velocity. Thus, the above image is a collection of the same seismic section with different trial
velocities that increase from left to right. The thick black line connecting the regions of
horizontal fringes represents how velocity changes as a function of depth (i.e., downward).

Seismic Migration
In seismic reflection work, one always assumes that reflected signals are coming directly
from below each individual geophone. However, in many situations, this assumption proves to
be incorrect. Consider a point reflector as illustrated below.
Assuming that the medium is uniform, seismic velocity will be identical everywhere. As a
result, travel time between the surface geophones and the point reflector will be proportional to
their spatial distances. If all reflections are assumed to come from immediately underneath, a
curved reflecting surface will result. (Note that in this example, a simple one-shot-one-geophone
arrangement is assumed.) Consequently, such an interpretation is obviously erroneous. This
type of illusion is particularly severe when a reflecting surface is not smooth (or flat). Instead, it
has significant vertical relieves such as the basement boundary of a basin. In such cases, one
needs to migrate the reflecting point from a vertically downward position to its correct position.
This process is known as "seismic migration". It should be emphasized that seismic migrations
do not involve material movements.
To carry out seismic migrations, one can no longer follow the vertical seismic ray path alone.
Instead, one should follow the propagation of the complete wave front. To construct wave
fronts, one needs to identify first the reflected event on a seismogram, and record the arrival time
of this event. An arrival time represents the time it takes for the wave to travel from the source
at the surface to the reflector and then back to the surface. Therefore, it is a “2-way travel time”.
In order to determine the depth of the reflector, one should only use a “1-way travel time”. A 1-
way travel time is simply half of the 2-way travel time because the forward path and the return
path of the wave are identical in the case of a one-shot-one-geophone arrangement. Given the 1-
way travel time and knowing the seismic velocity of the layer, radius of the wave front can be
calculated. Using the geophone position at the surface as the center and the calculated radius, a
circular curve can be plotted. The reflected signal occurred at the specific 2-way travel time
must come from a point on this circular wave front. Similarly, corresponding to every shot point
at the surface, one can construct a circular wave front corresponding to a reflection event from
the same surface. The envelope of these circular wave fronts defines a curved subsurface that

produces the observed reflection signals on the surface seismograms. The concept is illustrated in
the following sketch.
If this technique is applied to the example at the top of page 5, one will find that all wave fronts
will intersect at a point (or very close to a point) because all reflected signals are presumably
produced by a point reflector.
This wave front migration technique works well for a single layer with a curved bottom
boundary. What can one do when there is a multi-layer structure that is more representative to
most of the actual geological settings? It turns out that one still can follow the same principle.
However, the wave fronts are no longer circular. Instead, a somewhat more complicated theory
must be developed. The result of such a theory is the development of wave front charts. To
construct a wave front chart, two geophones are needed at equal distance from each side of the
shot point to determine the angle of emergence of a reflected wave. This angle of emergence
defines the ray path followed by the reflected wave. Thus, by tracing the ray path, one will be
able to find the location of the reflector. A sample of a wave front chart is given in the following
diagram. Note that a wave front chart is unique to the locality of interest because it is
constructed based on local velocity structures of the subsurface.

How will a seismic section appear if migration is not performed? It will produce cross
patterns in areas of vertical faulting or immediately above the basement where basement
topography has a smaller curvature than the wave front curvature. An illustration to explain the
bow-tie shapes of reflections is provided below.
The top of the above diagram is a travel-time diagram where the arrival times of reflected signals
are registered. The bottom diagram illustrates a curved sub-surface. The straight lines are the ray
paths and the dotted curves are the corresponding wave fronts. Numerical values at the surface
represent source and geophone positions. Waves originate from positions 1, 2, 6, and 7 behave
normally, in that they hit the subsurface and return with a single reflected signal. However,
waves from positions 3 and 5 show a somewhat different behavior. They hit the near side surface
first (i.e., 3a and 5b), and a short time later, the same wave hit the far side surface (i.e., 3b and
5a) resulting in two close reflected arrivals in the travel time diagram. Position 4 represents a
point immediately above the symmetry line of the curved subsurface. As a result, the wave first
hits both sides of the curved subsurface simultaneously (i.e., 4a and 4b). Shortly after, it hits the
bottom of the curved surface and reflected as an arrival indicated by 4c in the travel time
diagram. This is how the bow-tie crossed pattern is produced in an x-t plot.

Following is an example of a seismic section before migration. Notice the crossed bow-tie
patterns near the bottom of the section.
Given below is a migrated section of the same area. Notice that the irregular basement structure
is now much better defined.

Following is another example to illustrate the difference of a seismic section before and after
migration has been applied. Again, notice the crossed bow-tie patterns in the unmigrated section.


Determination of Subsurface Velocity

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Droits d'auteur :

Determination of Subsurface Velocity

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Geology 351 -- Geophysical Methods for Geology,

Engineering and Environmental Sciences (ATH)

DETERMINATION OF SUBSURFACE SEISMIC VELOCITIES

a) Average Velocity : Vavg= z / t

time (msec) depth (m) V (true) V (avg) V (int)

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1

131.41 200 1800 1521.95 1800.50

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