Solutions Three

1. How does a multipoint circuit differ from a point-to-point circuit?

A point-to-point configuration is so named because it goes from one point to another (e.g., one
computer to another computer). These circuits sometimes are called dedicated circuits because
they are dedicated to the use of these two computers. In a multipoint configuration (also called a
shared circuit), many computers are connected on the same circuit. This means that each must
share the circuit with the others, much like a party line in telephone communications. The
disadvantage is that only one computer can use the circuit at a time. Multipoint configurations
are cheaper than point-to-point configurations.

2. Describe the three types of data flows.

The three types of data flows are simplex, half-duplex and full duplex. Simplex is one-way
transmission, such as that in radio or TV transmission. Half duplex is two-way transmission, but
you can transmit in only one direction at a time. A half duplex communication link is similar to a
walkie-talkie link; only one computer can transmit at a time. With full duplex transmission, you
can transmit in both directions simultaneously, with no turnaround time.

3. Describe three types of guided media.

Guided media are those in which the message flows through a physical media such as a twisted
pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber optic cable; the media “guides” the signal.

One of the most commonly used types of guided media is twisted pair wire, insulated or
unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) of wires that can be packed quite close together. Bundles of
several thousand wire pairs are placed under city streets and in large buildings. Twisted pair wire
is usually twisted to minimize the electromagnetic interference between one pair and any other
pair in the bundle.

Coaxial cable is another type of commonly used guided media. Coaxial cable has a copper core
(the inner conductor) with an outer cylindrical shell for insulation. The outer shield, just under
the shell, is the second conductor. Coaxial cables have very little distortion and are less prone to
interference, they tend to have low error rates.

Fiber optics, is becoming much more widely used for many applications, and its use is continuing
to expand. Instead of carrying telecommunication signals in the traditional electrical form, this
technology utilizes high-speed streams of light pulses from lasers or LEDs (light emitting diodes)
that carry information inside hair-thin strands of glass or plastic called optical fibers.

4. Describe four types of radiated media.

Radiated media are those in which the message is broadcast through the air, such as radio, infrared,
microwave, or satellite.

One of the most commonly used forms of radiated media is radio (usually just called wireless). Radio
data transmission uses the same basic principles as standard radio transmission. Each device or
computer on the network has a radio receiver/transmitter that uses a specific frequency range that
does not interfere with commercial radio stations. The transmitters are very low power, designed to
transmit a signal up to 500 feet and are often built into portable or handheld computers.

Infrared transmission uses low frequency light waves (below the visible spectrum) to carry the data
through the air on a direct line-of-sight path between two points. This technology is similar to the
technology used in infrared TV remote controls. It is prone to interference, particularly from heavy
rain, smoke, and fog that obscure the light transmission. Infrared is not very common, but it is
sometimes used to transmit data from building to building.
A microwave is an extremely high frequency radio communication beam that is transmitted over a
direct line-of-sight path between any two points. As its name implies, a microwave signal is an
extremely short wavelength. Microwave radio transmissions perform the same functions as
cables. Similar to visible light waves, microwave signals can be focused into narrow, powerful
beams that can be projected over long distances.

Transmission via satellite is similar to transmission via microwave except, instead of transmitting
to another nearby microwave dish antenna, it transmits to a satellite 22,300 miles in space.

5. How does analog data differ from digital data?

Computers produce digital data that are binary, either on or off. In contrast, telephones produce
analog data whose electrical signals are shaped like the sound waves they transfer. Analog data are
signals that vary continuously within a range of values (e.g., temperature is analog).

6. Clearly explain the differences among analog data, analog transmission, digital data, and
digital transmission.

Data can be transmitted through a circuit in the same form they are produced. Most computers, for
example, transmit their data through digital circuits to printers and other attached devices. Likewise,
analog voice data can be transmitted through telephone networks in analog form. In general,
networks designed primarily to transmit digital computer data tend to use digital transmission, and
networks designed primarily to transmit analog voice data tend to use analog transmission (at least
for some parts of the transmission).

7. Explain why most telephone company circuits are now digital.

Most telephone company circuits are now digital because digital transmission is “better” than analog
transmission. Specifically, digital transmission offers several key benefits over analog transmission:

 Digital transmission produces fewer errors than analog transmission. Because the transmitted
data is binary (only two distinct values), it is easier to detect and correct errors.
 Digital transmission is more efficient. Time division multiplexing (TDM) is more efficient than
frequency division multiplexing (FDM) because TDM requires no guardbands. TDM is commonly
used for digital transmission, while FDM is used for analog transmission.
 Digital transmission permits higher maximum transmission rates. Fiber optic cable, for example,
is designed for digital transmission.
 Digital transmission is more secure because it is easier to encrypt.
 Digital transmission is less expensive than analog in many instances.

Finally, and most importantly, integrating voice, video and data on the same circuit is far simpler with
digital transmission.

8. What is coding?

Coding is the representation of one set of symbols by another set of symbols. In data
communications, this coding is a specific arrangement of binary 0s and 1s used to represent letters,
numbers, and other symbols that have meaning.

9. Describe how data could be transmitted using amplitude modulation.

With amplitude modulation (AM) (also called amplitude shift keying (ASK)), the amplitude or height
of the wave is changed. One amplitude is defined to be zero, and another amplitude is defined to be
a one.

10. Describe how data could be transmitted using frequency modulation.

Frequency modulation (FM) (also called frequency shift keying (FSK)), is a modulation technique
whereby each 0 or 1 is represented by a number of waves per second (i.e., a different frequency). In
this case, the amplitude does not vary. One frequency (i.e., a certain number of waves per second)
is defined to be a one, and a different frequency (a different number of waves per second) is defined
to be a one.

11. Describe how data could be transmitted using phase modulation.

Phase modulation (PM) (also called phase shift keying (PSK)), is the most difficult to understand.
Phase refers to the direction in which the wave begins. Until now, the waves we have shown start by
moving up and to the right (this is called a 0º phase wave). Waves can also start down and to the
right. This is called a phase of 180º. With phase modulation, one phase is defined to be a zero and
the other phase is defined to be a one.

12. Describe how data could be transmitted using a combination of modulation techniques.

It is possible to use amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation techniques
on the same circuit. For example, we could combine amplitude modulation with four defined
amplitudes (capable of sending two bits) with frequency modulation with four defined frequencies
(capable of sending two bits) to enable us to send four bits on the same symbol.

13. What is a modem?

Modem is an acronym for MOdulator/DEModulator. A modem takes the digital electrical pulses
received from a computer, terminal, or microcomputer and converts them into a continuous analog
signal that is needed for transmission over an analog voice grade circuit. Modems are either internal
(i.e., inside the computer) or external (i.e., connected to the computer by a cable).

14. What factors affect transmission speed?

The factors that affect the transmission speed are the number of bits per signal sample and the
number of samples per second.

15. What is oversampling?

For voice digitization, one typically samples at twice the highest frequency transmitted, or a
minimum of 8,000 times a second. Sampling more frequently than this will improve signal quality.
For example, CDs sample at 44,100 times a second and use 16 bits per sample to produce almost
error-free music.

16. Why is data compression so useful?

Data compression can increase throughput of data over a communication link literally by
compressing the data. A 2:1 compression ratio means that for every two characters in the original
signal, only one is needed in the compressed signal (e.g., if the original signal contained 1000 bytes,
only 500 would needed in the compressed signal).

17. Explain how pulse code modulation (PCM) works.

Analog voice data must be translated into a series of binary digits before they can be transmitted.
With PAM-based methods, the amplitude of the sound wave is sampled at regular intervals, and
translated into a binary number. The most commonly used type of PAM is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM). With PCM, the input voice signal is sampled 8000 times per second. Each time the input voice
signal is sampled, eight bits are generated. Therefore, the transmission speed on the digital circuit
must be 64,000 bits per second (8 bits per sample x 8,000 samples per second) in order to transmit
a voice signal when it is in digital form.
 18. What is quantizing error?

Quantizing error is the difference between the replicated analog signal and its original form,
shown with jagged “steps” rather than the original, smooth flow. Voice transmissions using
digitized signals that have a great deal of quantizing error will sound metallic or machinelike to
the human ear.

19. What is the term used to describe the placing of two or more signals on a single circuit?

Multiplexing is the term used to describe the placing of two or more signals on a single circuit.

20. What is the purpose of multiplexing?

A multiplexer puts two or more simultaneous transmissions on a single communication circuit.

Multiplexing a voice telephone call means that two or more separate conversations are sent
simultaneously over one communication circuit between two different cities. Multiplexing a data
communication network means that two or more messages are sent simultaneously over one
communication circuit. In general, no person or device is aware of the multiplexer; it is “transparent.”

21. How does DSL (digital subscriber line) work?

DSL services are quite new, and not all common carriers offer them. In general, DSL services
have advanced more quickly in the Canada (and Europe, Australia and Asia) than in the United
States due to their newer telephone networks from the end offices to the customer.

Unlike other services that operate through the telephone network end-to-end from the
sender to the receiver, DSL only operates in the local loop from the carrier's end office to the
customer's telephone. DSL uses the existing local loop cable, but places one DSL network
interface device (called customer premises equipment (CPE)) in the home or business and
another one in the common carrier's end office. The end office DSL device is then connected to a
high speed digital line from the end office to elsewhere in the carrier's network (often an Internet
service provider) using some other service (e.g., T carrier, SMDS).

22. Of the different types of multiplexing, what distinguishes

a. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)?

Frequency division multiplexing can be described as dividing the circuit “horizontally” so that
many signals can travel a single communication circuit simultaneously. The circuit is divided into a
series of separate channels, each transmitting on a different frequency, much like series of different
radio or TV stations. All signals exist in the media at the same time, but because they are on
different frequencies, they do not interfere with each other.

b. Time division multiplexing (TDM)?

Time division multiplexing shares a communication circuit among two or more terminals by
having them take turns, dividing the circuit “vertically.” In TDM, one character is taken from each
terminal in turn, transmitted down the circuit, and delivered to the appropriate device at the far end.
Time on the circuit is allocated even when data are not be transmitted, so that some capacity is
wasted when terminals are idle.

c. Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM)?

Statistical time division multiplexing is the exception to the rule that the capacity of the
multiplexed circuit must equal the sum of the circuits it combines. STDM allows more terminals or
computers to be connected to a circuit than FDM or TDM. STDM is called statistical because selecting
the transmission speed for the multiplexed circuit is based on a statistical analysis of the usage
requirements of the circuits to be multiplexed. STDM is like TDM, except that each frame has a
terminal address and no blanks are sent.

d. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)?

Wavelength division multiplexing is a version of FDM used in fiber optic cables. WDM works by
using lasers to transmit different frequencies of light (i.e., colors) through the same fiber optic cable;
each channel is assigned a different frequency so that the light generated by one laser does not
interfere with the light produced by another. WDM permits up to 40 simultaneous circuits each
transmitting up to 10 Gbps, giving a total network capacity in one fiber optic cable of 400 Gbps (i.e.,
400 billion bits per second).

23. What is the function of inverse multiplexing (IMUX)?

Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) combines several low speed circuits to make them appear as one
high-speed circuit to the user.

24. If you were buying a multiplexer, why would you choose either TDM or FDM? Why?

If buying a multiplexer, you would choose TDM over FDM. In general, TDM is preferred to FDM,
because it provides higher data transmission speeds and because TDM multiplexers are cheaper.
Time division multiplexing generally is more efficient than frequency division multiplexing, because it
does not need guardbands. Guardbands use “space” on the circuit that otherwise could be used to
transmit data. It is not uncommon to have time division multiplexers that share a line among 32
different low speed terminals. It is easy to change the number of channels in a time division
multiplexer. Time division multiplexers generally are less costly to maintain.

25. Some experts argue that MODEMs may soon become obsolete. Do you agree? Why or why not?

The traditional context of MODEM no doubt has become obsolete. We no longer can consider a
MODEM a device that connects two computers by merely modulating and demodulating transmission
signals over the Public Switched Network at speeds ranging up to 56Kbps. This type of MODEM
now must be evaluated in light of newer technologies such as xDSL MODEMs and Cable MODEMs
each of which generates, propagates and transmits signals at far greater speeds. In addition we
must evaluate the traditional MODEMs as well in light of newer protocols and compression
techniques which have greatly improved overall bandwidth and throughput with the traditional types
of MODEMs. In short, though many new forms of MODEMs and MODEM supported technology have
come in to play, the traditional MODEM continues to be a cost-effective and flexible means of
networking if your bandwidth requirements remain under the 56Kbps threshold.