CAESAR

DE BELLO GALLICO II

Edited with Introduction,

Notes and Vocabulary by

E.C. Kennedy

Bristol Classical Press

 This impression 2003
This edition published in 1983 by
Bristol Classical Press
an imprint of
Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.
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First published in 1967 by University Tutorial Press Ltd
© 1967 by E.C. Kennedy
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher.
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
ISBN 0 86292 101 5
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Antony Rowe Ltd, Eastboume
Cover illustration: Silver denarius of Caesar styled as
general (IMPerator) wearing a laurel wreath,
struck in 44 Be; British Museum, London.
[Drawing by Jean Bees]
PREFACE
Every twenty or thirty years a new set of school text-
books for" 0" and " A" Level Latin pupils seems required,
to suit the changing needs and abilities of succeeding
generations of boys and girls. This is more than ever
necessary to-day, when changes in the teaching of Latin
are in the air. Whatever happens to formal grammar and
composition, it seems certain that the classical authors will
continue to be read, though no doubt more rapidly and
with less attention to detail, and. of the prose writers the
most suitable for beginners is undoubtedly Caesar. Rice
Holmes, the great English authority on Caesar's Gallic War,
whose work, though now over fifty years old, has not yet
been superseded, said, "There is no more interesting book
for boys than Caesar's account of the Gallic War", adding,
"providing that they will give their minds to it and have the
help of a good teacher". Not all pupils perhaps would
agree with this statement, but they might do so if they
could read the books quickly enough and knew just what
was happening. To quote Rice Holmes again, "Even
Macaulay's Essays might be dull if they were read by
a foreigner with a dictionary at the rate of a single para-
graph a day". For Macaulay's Essays anyone who reads
these words should substirute his own favourite author.
So this edition is intended to help boys and girls to read
one of the most interesting of the books on the Gallic War
at a fair pace, with an analysis of each chapter at the
beginning of it so that readers should be able to realise
exactly what is going on. Pupils of to-day need more help
with syntax and transla.tion than was given even twenty
years ago, to say nothing of that in books written over sixty
years ago and still in use. I have given what I hope may
be considered a satisfactory amount of help by means of
iii
 Preface

explanations and translations; but something must be

left for the pupil to get his teeth into, for an entirely pre-
digested diet would be as bad as the raw meat of a "plain
text" with no assistance whatever. I have also provided
definitions, with some explanation when reqnired of the
various uses of cases, tenses, and moods. These may one
day be no longer considered necessary in onr classrooms,
but those who want to understand the Latin will find the
answers here, either for an examination or because they
are of an enquiring turn of mind.
The text is the Oxford Classical Text of R. L. du Pontet,
by kind permission of The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
This has been reproduced in its entirety except that I have
changed the -is ending of the accusative plural of third
declension nouns and adjectives into the more familiar
-es, and I have made the following changes where the
O.C.T. has "obelisked" words:
19, I, quod ad hostesfor tquod hostisf.
19, 5, porrecta loca aperta for fporrecta ac loca
apertaf.
30, 4, muro se posse for fmuro essef.
35,4, dierum for tdiest·
I have consulted the usual authorities and editions,
including the excellent translation of H. J. Edwards in the
Loeb Library, Olwen Brogan's Roman Gaul (Bell, out of
print), and in particular Caesar's Conquest of Gaul by
T. Rice Holmes (Oxford, 2nd edition, 19II), a book that is
absolutely indispensable to all students of Caesar's Gallic
campaigns. My former colleague, Mr John Hart, has very
kindly read and criticised the Introduction, and Dr Bertha
Tilly, the General Editor of the Palatine Classics, has made
some valuable suggestions.
Malvern. E. C. KENNEDY.
BOOK LIST
Besides the three books mentioned in the last paragraph
of the Preface, I recommend for general reading Caesar's
Invasions of Britain, by T. Rice Holmes (Oxford), which,
like its companion volume on Caesar's Conquest of Gaul,
contains a straightforward account of the events described
by Caesar, reinforced by copious explanations of doubtful
points in the second part of each book. These are perhaps
teachers' rather than pupils' books, but the narrative can
be appreciated by readers of all ages. Younger students
will particularly enjoy The Conquered, by Naomi Mitchison
(Cape, reprinted 1966), which describes the adventures
of a young prince of the Veneti who was enslaved after the
rising of his tribe in 56 B.C. and sent first to Rome and
then back to Gaul with his owner, where he took part in
many of the events described by Caesar in the war. A book
of short stories by the same author on similar subjects,
called When the Bough Breaks, is out of print but may be
found in libraries. Julius Caesar by John Buchan (Peter
Davies), a good and readable "biography, also out of print,
can be obtained from most libraries.

iv
 Contents

GALLIC WAR, BOOK II 45

Part 1: The Abortive Rising of the Belgae 45
Contents Part II: The Defeat of the Nervii 55
Part III: The Punishment of the Aduatuci 65
Chapter 1: The Gauls I
69
I:Origins and Migrations Notes
I
II:The Gauls south of the Alps 2 Vocabulary 114
Ill:"The Province" 3 The Plates are bound as a section between the iilll'oductory matter and
IV: Gallia Camata 4 the text.
V: Gallic Politics and Religion 7
VI: The Druids and Religion 8
VII: Characteristics of the Gauls 10 MAPS AND PLANS
VIII: The last years before Caesar's arrival in Gaul II PAGE
TRANSALPINE GAUL 6
Chapter 2: Julius Caesar I2 BELGIC GAUL ,8
I: Early life, 100·64 B.C. I2 CAESAR'S CAMP ON THE ArsNB 37
II: Rise to power, 63·61 B.C. 13 OPERATIONS ON THE AISNB 50
III: The Triumvirate, 60 B.C. 14 THE BATTLE OF THE SAMBRB 58
IV: Caelar's" Gallic War" 15
V: The Approach of Civil War, 54·50 B.C. 21
VI: The Ciflil War, 49·45 B.C. 22
VII: Caesar as sale ruler, 45·44 B.C. 23
VIII: The Murder of Caesar, 44 B.C. 23
IX: Caesar's character and appearance 25

Chapter 3: The Roman Army 27

I: The old Republican Army 27
II.' The Organisation 0/ Caesar's Legions 27
III: Order of Battle aud the march 31
IV: Equipment and arms 32
V: Other troops, and the baggage 34
VI: The Camp 35
VII: Sieges 38
V III: The Army IInder the Empire 40
Chapter 4: Pronunciation and Translation 42
I: Syllable Division 42
II: Stress Accent 42
Ill: HDOl; English" or "Gobbledegook" 43
vi vii
 Chapter 1: The Gauls
I. ORIGINS AND MIGRATIONS
The Celtic Gauls were a branch of the Indo-European
race which lived in pre-historic times in the basin of the
Upper Danube in central Europe. They began their
ntigrations westward across the Rhine in about 800 B.C.,
during the first Iron Age, called Iron Age "A" or the
"Hallstatt Culture" (from the. large setdement whose
remains were discovered at Hallstatt, near Salzburg in
Austria), which lasted in Europe from about 1000 to
500 B.C. But the second Iron Age, called Iron Age "B"
or.~' La Tene Culture" (from the village on Lake NeucMtel
in Switzerland where many specimens of Celtic art were
fuund), which lasted fur another 500 years, is specially
connected with the Celts of Gaul. These later immigra-
tions began in about 450 B.C., and the invaders found in
Gaul, besides their Hallstatt predecessors, Iberians and
an ancient race called Ligurians living in the south-east
(Liguria in north-west Italy still bears their name), and
also the Greeks who settled at Massilia (Marseilles) in
about 600 B.C. and brought Greek trade and culture to
their new country.
Both the Hallstatt and La Tene Celts crossed to Britain
a century or so after each entered Gaul, and the latter
built there the typical Iron Age hill-forts protected by earth
or stone ramparts, of which Maiden Castle in Dorset is the
best example; in the third century B.C. they brought with
them a highly developed form of Celtic art. Another
branch of the Celtic Gauls also began to move south-
eastwards from their original settlement, down the Danube
to Greece and Asia Minor. They attacked the famous
 Chapter 1 Chapter
Greek religious centre of Delphi in 280 B.C. and settled in
Asia Minor a generation or so later in the country called
Galatia after them; St Paul wrote his Epistle to the
Galatians to the descendants of these Gauls.
II. THE GAULS SOUTH OF THE ALPS
In the early sixth century a tribe of Gau1s called
Insubrians crossed the Alps, defeated the Etruscans on
the River PQ, and founded Mediolanum (Milan), to be
followed by other Gallic tribes which eventually possessed
the whole of the Po valley. The last comers, the Senones,
made an expedition much funher south, defeated the
Romans on the River Allia in 390 B.C. and actually captured
and burnt Rome itself, but their leader, Brennus, allowed
himself to be bought off, and the marauders withdrew,
never to come so far south again. Roman tradition
related that Titus Manlius was roused by the cackling of
geese which heard the footsteps of the enemy climbing up
the steep rock of the Capitol and saved the citadel from the
invaders. It was also said that when the ransom of gold
to buy off the Gauls was being weighed out a Roman com-
plained that the scales were unfairly weighted, whereupon
Brennus increased the amount by throwing his sword into
the balance, with the words, Vae victis, "Woe to the
conquered!" . Fighting went on at intervals for many
years between the Romans aJ;Id these "Cisalpine" Gauls
(the name means "on this side of the Alps", i.e. on the
Roman side) until eventually, after suffering several defeats
and after joining Hannibal in the Second Punic War
(218-202), they gave up the struggle in 191 B.C. The
Insubres and Cenomani were allowed to keep theh
territories on condition of helping to guard the northern
frontier of Italy, but the Boii lost half their country, in
which several Roman colonies were established. Cisalpine
2 3
1
Gaul was made into a regular province by Sulla in 91 B.C.,
but it was regarded as being almost pan of Italy and indeed
was often called [talia, even by its governor Caesar, though
like all provincial governors he was not permitted to leave
his province and enter Italy proper with an army during his
period of office. When he finally crossed the Rubicon, the
southern boundary of Cisalpine Gau1, in 49 B.C. with an
armed force he was committing an act of war against Rome.
During Caesar's lifetime Cisalpine Gaul, now completely
Romanised, produced two famous poets, Catullus of
Verona and Virgil of Mantua, who were both probably of
at least partly Gallic origin; Catullus had met Caesar and
addressed an unflattering two-line epigram to him, and
Virgil as a schoolboy of twelve, may have seen him raising
troops in Cremona for his first campaign in Gau1. Four
of Caesar's ten legions, the IIth, 12th, 13th, 14th, were
raised in Cisalpine Gaul from Roman settlers and native
Celts, and did excellent service for him in the Gallic and
Civil wars.
III. "THE PROVINCE"
Halfway through the second century B.C. the people of
Massilia appealed for help against the Ligurian invaders,
whom the Romans drove off, and a similar appeal twenty-
five years later brought the Romans across the Alps once
more, when after dealing with the Ligurians they were
opposed by the Gallic tribe of the Allobroges, who lived
between the Isere and the Rhone. The Aedui, a Gallic tribe
living in Burgundy, had recently become "Friends and
Allies" ofthe Romans, and the Arverni, a powerful people
from which Auvergne gets its name, noW came to help the
Allobroges. The Romans utterly defeated both tribes,
victories which led to their forming the new province of
Transalpine or Narbonese Gaul (121 B.C.), which extended
 Chapter 1
from the Alps to the Pyrenees and inland to Geneva and
Tolosa (Toulouse). It was known as Gallia Braccata,
because its inhabitants wore the native dress, trousers, but
the Romans called it simply PrO'Vincia Nostra or PrO'Vincia
alone, "the Province", a name which survives to-day in
Provence. The rest of Gaul north of the Province was
called Gallia Comata, "Long-haired Gaul". The new
province soon became civilised and prosperous, but it
suffered from the usual rapacity of governors and their
staff and publicani, tax collectors, which caused several
risings; but the process of Romanisation went steadily on,
and the Gauls provided large numbers of auxiliaries, mostly
cavalry, for the Roman army.
Within a few years the Province, and indeed Italy itself,
was threatened with invasions by the migrating German
tribes of Cimbri and Teutoni, who wandered for several
years through central Europe and Gallia Comata and
defeated Roman armies more than once, the last time being
at Arausio in the Province (105 B.C.). But they hesitated
to take the way to Italy that lay open to them until 102 B.C.,
when Marius defeated the Teutoni at Aquae Sextiae (Aix)
and the Cimbri near Vercellae in Cisalpine Gaul in 101 B.C.
This was the end of the German danger south of the Alps.
IV. GALLIA COMATA, NORTH OF THE
PROVINCE
We now return to Transalpine Gaul before the encroach-
ments of the Romans in the first century B.C. Geographi-
cally, as we are told by Caesar, it was divided into three
distinct parts, Celtic Gaul, Belgic Gaul, and Aquitania,
each of which differed from !he others in language, customs,
and laws, though it is likely that the language of the Celtic
and Belgic Gauls was basically the same. Aquitania,
whose people were probablY non-Celtic speaking Iberians,
4 5
Chapter 1
lay in the extreme south-west, between the Garonne
(Garumna) and the Pyrenees, and being nearest to the
Province it quickly submitted to Caesar in 56 B.C. In the
north-east was Belgic Gaul, from the Seine (Sequana) to
the Rhine, comprising all that part of modern France and
Belgium and much of Holland. The Belgic tribes were of
mixed Celtic and Germanic origin, and only the Remi
submitted to Caesar at once and remained loyal to the end.
The Nervii were the bravest of all the Gauls, and being the
farthest away from Roman influence were the most bitterly
opposed to Roman aggression and almost ended Caesar's
military career and his life too in.a desperate battle on the
Sambre. The rest of the country was called Celtic Gaul,
or simply Gaul, and consisted of the whole of modern
France except the south-west and north-east. There
were fifty or sixty different communities in the various parts
of the country north of the Alps.
Gaul was a country of dense forests and wide pasture-
lands, fortunate in having so many navigable rivers that
made intercourse and trade among the different tribes
easy at a time before the Romans introduced the science of
road-engineering, though the important towns were linked
by fairly good roads (at least in summer) carrying wheeled
traffic. The broad plains of the north and west were
suitable for tillage, and several improvements in agriculture
came to Italy from Gaul. The people had reached a
comparatively high degree of civilisation and were certainly
not "barbarians", a word which to Caesar meant simply
"non-Roman", just as the Romans themselves had been
barbarians to the Greeks because they did not speak Grepk
when Greece represented the high-water-mark of Mediter-
ranean civilisation. The Gauls lived in strong-walled
towns placed on hill-tops, sometimes in stone houses built
partly undergound, or in fortified towns on the plains, and
in the countryside there were villages built round large
Chapter 1 Chapter I

farmhouses made of timber and wattles, with good thatched

roofs. The Gauls of Brittany were skilful sailors and
traded with Britain in ships larger than those used in the
Mediterranean, and elsewhere trading barges moved up
and down the rivers, which were crossed by many bridges,
and paid toll to the chieftains through whose lands they
passed. There were skilled copper-miners in Aquitania
and elsewhere, and the metal-work of Gaul, both for
ornament and use, especially for swords, was famous, and
decorative art had flourished for several centuries, in
enamel as well as metal, and later in sculpture. From the
third century B.C. there had been a currency in gold and
silver, first in Greek coins from Massilia and Greece and
debased Gallic imitations, and then in Roman denarii from
the Province and Italy and local copies.

V. GALLIC POLITICS AND RELIGION

Each of the fifty or sixty tribes of Gallia Comata had its
own council of elders that Caesar calls a Senate. The
. kingship had recently been abolished in most communities
and the place of the king taken by an annually elected
magistrate called a vergobretus, but the Belgic and
...<II Aquitanian tribes were still ruled by kings. Each of the
~ til •~ •~ wealthy nobles had a more or less powerful following of
~
<II loyal clients and enslaved debtors, and there was constant
<ii: u • rivalry and jealousy among the aristocrats within the tribe,
~
-.....:l
.....:l<
"-'
0
~
::: '"'" as well as between tribe and tribe, which led to a fatal
'" '"~
.....:It/) e •• "'. disunity in war. The nobility was divided into Druids and

~Z ..c.-... • "· "'"'"

~
",.
~
Q
~
~
"knights", whose position was equivalent to that of the
~ feudal baronage of the Middle Ages, not of the rich middle-
<
~
~

... •
~

class equites of Rome. These two classes enjoyed all the

power and wealth in their states, and the knights provided
~ .-
t:: • the cavalry in war, which formed the flower of the Gallic
armies (except among the Nervii and the Helvetii), and
6 7
 Chapter 1 Chapter
the magistrates and council. The poorer classes had no
independence and were little better than serfs; they
provided the hordes of what was later called "cannon
fodder" in battle, dangerous from mere weight of numbers
in attack and while they were on the winning side, but too
often ready to lIee at a reverse, being untrained, inade-
quately armed and fed, and eager to return home after a
few days' campaigning. But when well led, these tribal
levies fought gallantly and inflicted several defeats on the
seasoned Roman legions.
VI. THE DRUIDS AND RELIGION
Nearly everything that we know about the Druids comes
in Book VI of Caesar's "Gallic War", from information no
doubt supplied by his friend the Aeduan Diviciacus, who
was himself a Druid and had visited Rome in 61 B.C.,
where he stayed at the house of Cicero and first made the
acquaintance of Caesar. The Druids were a national
priesthood concerned with divine worship, sacrifices, the
interpretation of ritual problems, and judicial cases,
especially murder. There was a Chief Druid, appointed
for life, generally by vote by the other Druids, who
assembled once a year in the very centre of Gaul to confer
and hear disputes from all communities. Caesar was told
that the Druidk discipline originated in Britain and spread
from there to Gaul, which may be true, in spite of the
known course of Gallic migrations; possibly a purer form
of the religion survived, if it did not actually originate, in
the western districts of Britain, which was therefore
regarded as the source of the cult; at any rate, students of
Druidism crossed over from Gaul to Britain to learn more
about it.
Druids enjoyed special privileges, including freedom
from taxes and military service, and many young men
8 9
1
aspired to learn the craft, no part of which was ever com-
mitted to writing, though the Druids could write in Greek
characters, apparently using the Celtic language, and some
of them could also read Latin. They learned by heart an
enormous number of verses concerning their religion, and
taught in particular the doctrine of the transmigration of
souls and the importance of astronomy. They had the
right to excommunicate wrong-doers, and presided, we are
told, over the human sacrifices of criminals and prisoners of
war which was such a sinister part of Druidism. The cult
was apparently soon stamped out by the Romans in Gaul
but existed in the west of Britain for at least another
century. It should be remembered that no written records
of Druidism were ever kept, so that attempts to trace its
later history, if it had one, must be imaginary.
Fundamentally, according to Caesar, the Gallic religion
was similar to the religions of Greece and Rome. Caesar
does not give the names of any Gallic deities, but says that
the god whom the Gauls worshipped above all others was the
equivalent of Mercury, followed in importance by Apollo,
. Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva, and that the people claimed
descent from a common father whom he called Dis Pater;
but this information does not help much, and we know
nothing more about these gods. The worship of animals
and trees also seems to have been at one time part of the Celtic
religion. Inscriptions on altars, statues, and temples all
belong to the Roman period in Gaul, and consist almost
entirely of names alone; hardly any other traces of the
Celtic language remain, for no written records have sur-
vived, if in fact there ever were any.
 Chapter 1
VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GAULS
In appearance the Gauls are said to have been tall, fair-
haired, and blue-eyed (unlike our modern idea of the small,
dark "Iberian" Celts), and they attained a fairly high level
of comfort or even luxury, at least in districts not too far
removed from Roman influences. They wore trousers, and
the leaders had brightly coloured shirts and cloaks, and
gold rings, bracelets, and necklaces. Their hair was long,
and in battle they presented a fearsome appearance with
helmets shaped like the heads of wild beasts topped with
horse-hair crests of various colours, and long swords and
shields. The use of war-chariots had gone out in Gaul
but still survived in Britain.
The main weaknesses in the Gallic character were a lack
of political foresight which prevented them from combining
their forces in war to oppose an invader, and their impulsive
and mercurial temperament that caused them to alternate
between great gallantry and deep despair. Always quarrel-
some and jealous of each other, the chieftains not only failed
to present a united front in their inter-tribal wars, but even
invited the help of foreigners such as the Germans and
Romans to overcome a neighbour, only to find that
their guests became their masters. Only Vercingetorix the
Arvernian, an inspired and inspiring leader, was able to
raise a really formidable national army in 52 B.C. byexercis-
ing the strictest dicipline, and very nearly defeated Caesar.
Many of the Gauls, both noblemen and commoners, often
showed the most fantastic bravery in battle, and if they had
combined their great talents from the beginning, instead of
waiting to be attacked piecemeal by Caesar, their
enormously superior numbers would surely have been more
than a match even for the trained and disciplined Romans.
But lack of self-control, both on and especially off the field
of battle, proved their ruin, and even if Vercingetorix had
10
Chapter 1
been successful, internal dissension would sooner or later
have nullified his victory.
VIII. THE LAST YEARS BEFORE CAESAR'S
ARRIVAL IN GAUL
The invading Cimbri and Teutoni from Germany had
been annihilated by Marius at Aquae Sextiae and Vercellae
in 102 and 101 B.C., but more Germans were pressing
across the Rhine to settle in the fertile fields of Gaul. In
71 B.C. the Arverni and Sequani foolishly invited the
Suebian leader Ariovistus to bring a German army to help
them against their fellow-Gauls the Aedui, who were
defeated; ten years later the Aedui sent Diviciacus the
Druid on an unsuccessful embassy to get help from Rome,
with whom they had been allied for sixty years. Then the
Sequani found the Germans exercising dominion over
them, and tried to expel them, but without success. At the
same time the Gallic tribe of the Helvetii, living between
the Alps and Jura, were preparing to migrate before the
pressure of the invading Suebi, hoping to pass through the
Province and find a new home in western Gaul; they began
to move in the spring of 58 B.C. Julius Caesar had just been
appointed proconsul, or governor, of Illyricum (on the
northern shores of the Adriatic), Cisalpine Gaul, and the
Province of Transalpine Gaul, and he determined to
prevent the Helvetii from travelling through one of his
provinces and then to drive Ariovistus back across the
Rhine. Such were the causes that led to Caesar's invasion
and eventual conquest of Gaul.

Chapter 2: Julius Caesar
1. EARLY LIFE, 100-64 B.C.
Gaius Julius Caesar was born on 12 July, 100 B.C., a
member of one of the most ancient Roman families which
traced its descent back to the legendary Trojan Aeneas
through his son Ascanius or Iulus, and hence to the
goddess Venus herself. The family was not famous in
history and had generally supported the Senatorial party in
the civil strife of the second century B.C., but Julius' aunt
had married Marius, the plebeian leader of the Democratic,
or popular, party, and Julius himself married Cornelia,
daughter of Cinna, the successor of Marius. When Sulla
led the Senatorial party back into power, Julius refused to
divorce his wife to please the Dictator, and was lucky not
II.
to lose his life for his boldness. To keep out of the way,
he went abroad and served as a soldier in 80 B.C. at the siege
of Mytilene in Lesbos, where he won a "civic crown" for
valour in saving a comrade's life in action. He then
returned to Rome and unsuccessfully prosecuted two
Senatorial ex-governors for maladministration of their
provinces.
Though he had won a high reputation for oratory
Caesar went to Rhodes to study rhetoric and on the way
was captured and held to ransom by some Cilician pirates
on an island off the coast of Asia Minor. Professing disgust
at being valued at only twenty talents (about £5,000 in gold
but worth far more in those days), he insisted on paying
fifty talents and lived for thirty-eight days on good terms
with the pirates until the money arrived-but he promised
to come back and crucify them all. On being released he
hired some ships and returned to the island, where he
12
Chapter 2
found his late captors still celebrating their good luck. He
captured them in turn, recovered his money, and kept his
word by crucifying all the pirates, though he was kind
enough to have them killed first. Mter more military
service in Asia Minor he became one of the younger leaders
of the Democratic party at Rome, showing himself an able
demagogue in opposition to the Senate. In 68 B.C. he
served as quaestor (financial secretary to the governor) in
Spain, a post that gave him a seat in the Senate, and in
65 B.C. by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial shows to win
the favour of the mob became aedile, an official in charge of
public buildings and entertainments; to pay for his
candidature he had to borrow huge sums of money from the
rich financier Crassus, for he was recklessly extravagant in
his personal expenditure and had already squandered his
private fortune.
RISE TO POWER, 63-61 B.C.
In 63 B.C., through bribery and the manoeuvres of a
tribune called Labienus who was later to be his most trusted
·iegatlls in Gaul and then one of his bitterest enemies in the
Civil War, Caesar was elected Ponti/ex Maximus, Chief
Priest and the official head of the state religion, an office
usually reserved for elder statesmen. Like most educated
Romans, he had no real belief in the official deities but he
was willing to preside over the formalities of religion and
performed his duties efficiently in return for the prestige
that the position gave him. In the same year Catiline's
conspiracy to overthrow the state was thwarted by the
consul and orator Cicero, and Caesar spoke against the
proposal that the conspirators should be executed. In
62 B.C. Caesar was one of the eight praetors, high officials
second only to the two consuls in rank, and divorced hi,
wife Pompeia (Cornelia had died in 69 B.C.) because she had
13
 Chapter 2 Chapter
been involved in a scandal and, as he said, "Caesar's wife
must be above suspicion", though his own morals were
notoriously lax. He became propraetor, i.e. governor, of
Further Spain in 61 B.C., when he discovered at the age of
thirty-nine that he had a genius for commanding troops in
the field. He defeated the Lusitani, governed his province
well, and made enough money, mainly by the sale of
prisoners of war as slaves, to payoff most of his enormous
debts.
III. THE TRIUMVIRATE, 60 B.C.
Caesar returned to Rome to stand for the consulship of
59 B.C. and the Senate deliberately offended him by with-
holding a triumph for his Spanish victories and assigning
to him a minor post to hold after the consulship which he
seemed certain to obtain. He now made an alliance with
Pompey and Crassus that is called the First Triumvirate.
Pompey (106-48 B.C.) had won great victories in the near
east and on returning to Rome in 62 B.C. had disbanded his
armies before obtaining grants of land for his veterans and
before getting the ratification of the Senate for his settle-
ment of Syria, but the Senate foolishly refused to allow him
these reasonable requests. The wealthy Crassus had been
an opponent of Pompey in the past, but now he also was
offended by the Senate, which refused his request for some
concessions in tax-contracts in which he was interested.
The combination of Pompey's great reputation, backed by
the potential aid of his 40,000 veterans, with Crassus' great
wealth and Caesar's ambition and brains, was irresistible;
at the same time Caesar's beloved daughter Julia married
Pompey, which made an additional bond of union between
her husband and father.
Pompey and Crassus obtained the concessions that they
demanded from the Senate, and Caesar was elected to the
14
2
consulship for 59 B.C., though with a stubborn member of
the Senatorial party, Bibulus, as his colleague; he persis-
tently ignored the protests of Bibulus and carried through
all the legislation agreed upon by the Triumvirate, so that
wits called that year "the consulship of Julius and
Caesar", not of Caesar and Bibulus. After his consulship
Caesar was to be proconsul (governor) of Illyricum (on the
northern shores of the Adriatic) and Cisalpine Gaul, to
which was added Transalpine or Narbonese Gaul (the
Province), which unexpectedly fell vacant, all three for the
unprecedented period of five years. The Triumvirate was
renewed in 56 B.C. at a conference held at Luca in Cisalpine
Gaul, where it was agreed that Caesar should hold his
governorship for another five years (probably with an
overlap which would make it end on 13 November, 50 B.C.),
that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls for 55 B.C.,
and that Pompey should then be governor of Spain for
five years, with permission to stay in Rome and rule his
province through legali, and Crassus governor of Syria for
five years.
IV. CAESAR'S" GALLIC WAR"
Caesar wrote an account of his Gallic wars in seven books,
which he called Commenlarii, "Note Books", though they
are far more than that. It is thought that he collected his
own notes made at the time, the despatches he sent to the
Senate, and the reports of his officers on each campaign, and
expanded them in the winter of 52 B.C. into their present
form. They are therefore a Conunander-in-Chief's own
account of his campaigns, written in clear, vigorous and
straightforward language, and one of the best models of
Latin prose that we have. "The Gallic War" was partly
no doubt intended to justify the campaigns that he under-
took without the specific sanction of the Senate, and also
15
 Chapter 2
to be an 1l11exaggerated record of exploits that were bound
to enhance his reputation in the eyes of his contemporaries
at a critical moment in his career. He makes the best of
his few failures, such as the short-lived result of his
invasions of Britain, but the work is on the whole historically
accurate, and it was a remarkable achievement for one of
the greatest military commanders of any age to have
written such a literary account of his own campaigns.
His "Civil War" in three books, as far as the beginning of
the Alexandrine War in 48 B.C., shows all the graphic
vigour of the "Gallic War" and almost all its historical
accuracy. Although no examples of his speeches survive,
Caesar was also regarded as one of the best orators of
his time.
In 61 B.C. the Senate had recommended that the governor
of the Province and his successors should protect the
interests of the Aedui and other friends of Rome as far as
was compatible with his duty to the province; this was
Caesar's formal justification for making war on the Helvetii
and on Ariovistus in 58 B.C., and in any case, it was his duty
to defend the Province and the neighbouring allies from
invasion. His army consisted at first of four legions,
which were eventually increased to ten by the end of the
campaigns. Most of the troops were north Italians living
in Cisalpine Gaul, not yet all Roman citizens, and there
were also native auxiliary soldiers serving in his anny. Here
is a summary of The Gallic War:
Book I (58 B.C.). Caesar refused to allow the migrating
Helvetii to pass through the Province on their way to settle
in western Gaul, whereupon they moved through the land
ofthe Sequani and reached the Aedui, who appealed to him
for help. He attacked the last quarter of the Helvetii
while it was crossing the Saone (Arar), and after defeating
the main body in a hard-fought battle near Bibracte com-
pelled the survivors to return home. Diviciacus the
16
Chapter 2
Aeduan on behalf of all Gaul begged Caesar for help against
Ariovistus the German, whom the Sequani had invited in
and now could not expel. Caesar tried to negotiate with
Ariovistus, but in vain, and after another desperate battle
near Ostheim in the Vosges he drove the Germans back
across the Rhine. The legions spent the winter at Vesontio
(Besan90n) in the land of the Sequani, an indication of
Caesar's intention to conquer eventually the whole of
Transalpine Gaul.
Book II (57 B.C.). The Belgae conspired against Caesar
and raised a huge army to oppose him on the Aisne (Axona)
near Berry-au-Bac. He relieved the siege of Bibrax, a
town of the Remi who alone of the Belgae submitted to him
at once and remained loyal to the end, and checked an
attempt by the Belgae to cross the Aisne, after which the
whole Belgic army ·melted away owing to lack of supplies.
The Bellovaci submitted, but the Nervii, the bravest of all
the Gauls, attacked the legions while they were entrenching
a camp in difficult country and fought a battle which was
won by the Romans only when Caesar himself went into
.the line to rally his men. The Aduatuci surrendered their
town but made a treacherous night-attack and after being
defeated were sold into slavery. All the maritime tribes of
north-west Gaul submitted to P. Crassus, son of the
Triumvir, and the Senate ordered a fifteen days' thanks-
giving at Rome for Caesar's achievements.
Book III (winter of 57 B.C.). Galba repulsed an attack
of the Seduni and Veragri on his winter camp at Octodurus
in the RhOne valley. (56 B.C.) (In April the Triumvirate
was renewed at Luca.) The Veneti in Brittany, who had
submitted in 57 B.C., now led a rising of all the local tribes,
which their coastal towns and specially built ships made it
hard for the Romans to suppress, until the galleys of
D. Brutus immobilised the Gallic fleet by cutting their
rigging and a sudden calm allowed him to defeat them in
17
 Chapter 2

Quiberon Bay. Sabinus overcame the Venelli and Crassus

Aquitauia, and Caesar drove the Morini and Menapii of
north-west Gaul into their woods and marshes.
Book IV (55 n.c.). Caesar describes some of the
German tribes, of whom the Usipetes and Tencteri crossed
the Rhine in order to settle in Gaul. During a truce the
German cavalry attacked the Gallic cavalry serving in the
Roman army, which Caesar made the pretext for arresting
the German leaders at a parley and massacring the whole
host, 430,000 men, women and children. He then built
a bridge over the Rhine, attacked the Sugambri and
spent eighteen days in Germany; In August he landed
at Deal and made a reconnaissance-invasion of south-east
Britain, defeated the Britons twice, and returned to Gau1
after staying less than a month in Britain. Labienus over-
came the Moriui, and the Menapii withdrew once more into
their forests. A thanksgiving of twenty days was voted by
the Senate for Caesar's invasion of Britain.
Book V (54 n.c.). Caesar settled a dispute between two
leaders of the Treveri, Indutiomarus and Cingetorix, and
Dumnorix the Aeduan stirred up trouble and was killed.
Caesar invaded Britain in July, advanced inland after his
ships were wrecked in a storm-here follows a description
of the island and its inhabitants-defeated Cassivellaunus,
and then crossed the Thames and drove him out of his
fortress near St Albans. Four Kentish kings were repu1sed
in an attack on the naval camp (near Sandwich) and
Cassivellaunus submitted. In September Caesar returned
to Gaul after accomplishing very little in Britain. Ambiorix
of the Eburones induced Sabinus and Cotta with fifteen
cohorts to leave their winter camp at Aduatuca (perhaps
Tongres) and killed them all in an ambush. The Nervii
attacked Q. Cicero's camp, but he resisted with great
gallantry until relieved by Caesar, who defeated the
IS 19
 Chapter 2
blockading army of the Nervii. Labienus drove off the
Treveri and killed Indutiomarus.
Book VI (53 B.C.). Caesar subdued another rising in
no~ern Ga';1l and at last crushed the Menapii, while
Lablenus agam defeated the Treveri. Caesar crossed the
Rhine once more and drove back the Suebi-here follows
a description of Gallic politics and religion, including the
Druids, and of the Germans and their country. Caesar
returned to Gaul, ravaged the country of the Eburones and
tried in vain to hunt down Ambiorix. The Sugambri
crossed the Rhine and made a dangerous attack on Cicero's
camp at Aduatuca.
Book VII (52 B.C.). Vercingetorix the Arvernian headed
a general rising of all Gaul. Returning from Cisalpine Gaul
Caesar attacked the Arverni and captured several towns,
including Avaricum (Bourges), but he was driven off from
Gergovia with serious losses. The news of this repulse
at last induced the Aedui to join the rest of the Gauls in
rebellion. Labienus defeated the Parisii and combined
forces with Caesar, who repelled an attack of Vercingetorix
on the march and blockaded him in Alesia, round which he
built a double line of elaborate fortifications, the outer one
to keep off a large relieving force of Gauls summoned by
Vercingetorix. Caesar won the last desperate battle and
received the surrender of Vercingetorix.
Caesar's own account ends here, but the events of 51 and
50 B.C. are recorded in Book VIII by his friend Aulus
Hirtius (consul in 43 B.C.). It describes the last year of
fighting, when all resistance came to an end after the siege
and capture of Uxellodunum, and the final year (50 B.C.)
of Caesar's proconsulship, spent in reconciling the Gauls to
being governed by Rome.
20
Chapter 2
V. THE APPROACH OF CIVIL WAR,
54-50 B.C.
The Triumvirate, which had been renewed in 56 B.C., was
weakened by the death of Julia (Caesar's daughter, married
to Pompey) in 54 B.C., and was destroyed by the death of
Crassus at the battle of Carrhae in Parthia in 53 B.C.
Rome was in disorder owing to the street-fighting between
Caesar's supporter Clodius and Pompey's supporter Milo,
who killed Clodius in 52 B.C. Pompey was appointed sole
consul in that year to restore order, and was now moving
nearer to the Senatorial party, whose military leader he
eventually became. The Senate· was determined to ruin
Caesar when his governorship came to an end in 50 B.C.
He had been excused by a special law from standing for
the consulship of 48 B.C. in person, but unless his pro-
consulship was again prolonged, the gap between the end
of the governorship and the beginning of his second consul-
ship would leave him a private citizen open to prosecution
by his enemies. The "Tribunes of the People" had the
right to veto any proceedings in the Senate, and two of
·them, Curio and Mark Antony, in tum prevented Caesar's
opponents from getting him recalled. His request for an
extension of his command until the end of 49 B.C. was
refused, and after making several proposals for a com-
promise Caesar saw that the Senate was determined to
make no concessions and to force him to go to war, so in
January of 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon, the boundary of
Cisalpine Gaul, and thus started the Civil War. It is said,
but not by Caesar himself, that he hesitated long before
taking this decisive step, and that he finally declared "The
die is cast" before crossing the river into Italy.
21
 Chapter 2
VI. THE CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C.
The Senate was unprepared for a campaign in Italy, and
Pompey left Rome for Greece, where he mobilised his
forces, both those that lie had brought with him and those
which he withdrew from the Near East or raised in Greece.
Caesar swept through Italy almost unopposed, then
defeated the Senatorial generals Afranius and Petreius in a
brief but brilliant campaign in Spain, and returned to
Rome as Dictator, to he elected consul for 48 B.C. Early
in 48 B.C. he came to Greece and tried to blockade Pompey
in Dyrrachium with a much smaller army, seven legions
against eleven. Pompey broke out, and Caesar had to
withdraw to Thessaly, where the two armies met in the
summer at Pharsalus. Caesar decisively defeated the
superior numbers of Pompey, who fled to Egypt, where he
was murdered as he stepped ashore by an Egyptian general
and one of his own veterans.
Caesar unwisely stayed in Alexandria with a small force
to settle a quarrel between the young King Ptolemy and his
sister and co-ruler Cleopatra (a family of pure Macedonian
descent, not Egyptian at all except by nearly three centuries'
residence); she was now about twenty-two, and both
clever and charming. He remained there for nine months,
at first blockaded in the palace and later reluctant to leave
Cleopatra, whose lover he had become, although more than
thirty years older. In the summer of 47 B.C. he marched
against Phamaces, King of Pontus in Asia Minor, and
defeated him in a stubborn battle at Zela, which he
celebrated, somewhat unjustly, in his triumphal procession
at Rome with the words veni, vidi, vici. (These words
are often wrongly thought to refer to Caesar's account of
his invasions of Britain, probably because the authors of
the brilliantly witty 1066 and All That tell us that
Caesar reported the Britons to be "weeny, weedy, and
22
Chapter 2
weaky".) After returning to Rome, where he was
appointed Dictator again, he crossed to north Africa and
defeated the Senatorial armies and King Juba at Thapsus
in April, 46 B.C. He finally put an end to all armed opposi-
tion by overcoming Pompey's sons and his own former
chief of staff, Labienus, at Munda in Spain (45 B.C.) in one
of the most hard-fought battles of his career.
VII. CAESAR AS SOLE RULER, 45-44 B.C.
Caesar was now undisputed ruler of the Roman world,
Dictator for ten years, an office which was made perpetual
shortly before his death, and appointer to all the magis-
tracies; in fact king in all but name, for he refused to take
that title which was always so hated in Rome. In his last
year of life he carried out many excellent reforms in Rome,
Italy, and the provinces, including the appointment of new
members to the Senate, the allotment of land to veteran
soldiers, the grant of the citizenship to troops raised in the
provinces (e.g. the "Larks", a legion of Transalpine Gauls)
and to the whole of Cisalpine Gaul, the foundation of
overseas colonies, reduction of the numbers of unemployed
who received free corn at Rome, and the start of many
public works in Italy. One important reform that has
lasted almost unchanged until to-day was his introduction
of the J u1ian Calendar, based on the calculations of an
Alexandrian mathematician called S osigenes; this was
correct to within eleven minutes a year, an error that
was put right in the Gregorian Calendar in 1582 by the
dropping of three Leap Year days in every four centuries.
VIII. THE MURDER OF CAESAR, 15 MARCH,
44 B.C.
Caesar's work was only just begun and his plans for the
future remain unknown. Although he was obviously an
23
 Chapter 2
enlightened and beneficent ruler and had shown remark-
able clemency to his former opponents, he allowed the
Senate hardly even the appearance of authority. There
was therefore much hidden opposition, consisting of over
sixty republicans led by the proud and disgruntled Cassius,
who had changed sides after Pharsalus and had joined
Caesar, and the idealistic Marcus Brutus, who owed much
to Caesar but had been persuaded to regard him as a
tyrant. Some of his most highly-trusted officers in the
wars were horrified by his neglect of constitutional govern-
ment, and many former followers of Pompey still hated and
feared the man who had spared their lives. A year earlier
Caesar had said, "I have lived long enough either for
nature or for glory", and he dismissed the bodyguard that
might have saved him from assassination. The conspira-
tors determined to strike before he set out for Parthia on
another campaign. On the evening before the Ides of
March talk after dinner turned on the best form of death,
and Caesar said that he would prefer a sudden one. Next
morning, refusing to credit the rumours and warnings that
had begun to spread and an ill-omened dream that his wife
Calpurnia had just had, he went to a meeting of the Senate
held in a building that was part of the Theatre of Pompey
in the Campus Martius. The conspirators crowded round
him, men who had been his friends and had been promoted
or spared by him, and "envious Casca" struck the first
blow. Caesar at first defended himself with his iron stilus
(pen for writing on wax tablets) but was stabbed by twenty-
three dagger-blows, of which only one would have been
immediately fatal. It is said that when he saw Brutus
among the assailants he exclaimed in Greek, "You, too,
my son?" and made no further resistance.
Chapter 2
IX. CAESAR'S CHARACTER AND
APPEARANCE
Historians have expressed many different views of
Caesar's character, but none has ever questioned his great
ability and achievements. In his younger years he was
wild and dissolute, and his own morals were never "above
suspicion", as he declared his wife Pompeia's must be
when he divorced her. He was unscrupulous in the methods •
which he used to attain power as a democrat, and as
a commander in Gaul he was often merciful but sometimes
utterly ruthless, e.g. in butchering 430,000 Germans during
a truce, in selling whole communities into slavery to
intimidate the other tribes and to increase his own wealth,
and in cutting off the hands of the survivors of the siege of
Uxellodunum. But he was always anxious to save
bloodshed among his own men and among Roman citizens
in the opposing army in the Civil War, when he set free as
many as possible or allowed them to join his army. As a
soldier his chief characteristics were great caution in
. preparing for battle, followed by lightning speed in striking
the decisive blow. As Commander-in-Chief he did not
himself often come to close quarters with the enemy, but
he records one instance, in the battle with the Nervii in this
book, when he saved the situation by his own arrival in the
front line, and later historians mention his courage in battle
and endurance on the march. He won the affection and
loyalty of his men by these qualities and by allowing them a
judicious freedom off duty combined with the strictest
discipline on the field.
Caesar used the great power that he finally obtained
almost entirely for the benefit of the state, though it was a
power that could never be reconciled with the republican
form of government, and he restored order and laid the
foundations for peace and prosperity that only his murder
25
 Chapter 2
prevented from being realised in his own lifetime. One
quality that he lacked was the genius for compromise and for
advancing slowly that his heir and great-nephew Octavian,
afterwards the Emperor Augustus, possessed in so marked a
degree. As a general Caesar was unrivalled, and as an
administrator and in his later years a constructive politician
he was equal to the best of the emperors. Such versatility
in so many fields, war, politics, administration, literature,
history, and oratory makes him unique in history; he did
indeed "bestride this narrow world like a Colossus".
Suetonius tells us that Julius Caesar was tall, with a fair
complexion, well proportioned limbs, a somewhat full
mouth, and keen black eyes. He was careful about his
personal appearance and dandified in dress. To hide his
premature baldness he used to comb his scanty hair
forwards and gladly accepted the privilege conferred on
him by the Senate of wearing a laurel wreath at all times.
There are many likenesses of Caesar on coins struck both
in his lifetime and afterwards, and there are several
busts; a photograph of one appears as plate I with repro-
ductions of coins; the well-known head in the British
Museum has now been declared an eighteenth century
forgery. The bust shown in this book was found at
Tusculum and is now in the Castello di Aglie at Turin;
it may have been made during his life, because the scanty
hair, the bump at the back of the head, the long, thin,
wrinkled neck, and the perhaps cynical half-smile, charac-
teristics all found on coins struck before his death, make it
likely to be a genuine portrait and a true likeness.
26
Chapter 3: The Roman Arn9'
I. THE OLD REPUBLICAN ARMY
Down to about 100 B.C. the Roman army consisted
. entirely of citizen soldiers who were enrolled for a par-
ticular campaigu without any formal training and who
returned to civilian life when no longer required. The legion
was drawn up for battle in three lines, each line being
divided into ten "maniples" of two centuries each. The
front line consisted of the younger men who were called
hastati, the second of men in the prime of life, called
principes, and the third of veterans, called triarii. The
maniples in the second and third lines covered the blank
spaces left by the maniples in front of them, in chequer
formation. Those of hastati and principes contained 120
men each (the centuries therefore 60), and those of triar;;
60 men each (the centuries only 30), making a total of
3,000 men in the legion; with the addition of a section
of 20 light-armed men called velites to each century, a total
of 1,200 velites, so that the full strength of the legion was
4,200 men. 300 cavalry in 10 troops (turmae) of 30 each
were attached to the legion, and the Italian allies had to
supply the same number of infantry and three times as
many cavalry. A centurion commanded each century and
the senior of the two centurions (centuria prior as opposed
to centuria posterior) commanded the maniple. There were
six military tribunes who commanded the legion in turn
under the direction of the consul, who as Commander-in-
Chief was in charge of two legions and the allies.
•
II. THE ORGANISATION OF CAESAR'S
LEGIONS
About 100 B.C. Marius introduced a professional army
which owed allegiance to its commander, not directly to
27
 Chapter 3
the state, and the end of the Social War, ten years later,
sawall Italians receive full Roman citizenship and able to
take an equal place in the legions with Romans. The
legion now consisted of ten cohorts, each divided into six
centuries or three maniples, but the maniple was now only
an administrative unit and the cohort took its place as the
tactical unit. The nominal strength of the legion was
6,000, of the cohort 600, and of the century 100, but the
legion in the field was often down to 3,500-4,000 men, and
the century down to 60-70. The old division into hastati,
principes, and triarii disappeared except in the names of
the centuries, the velites were abolished, and the cavalry,
now entirely foreigners, were separated from the legions.
The Commander-in-Chief, dux, was appointed by the
Senate and was technically not imperator until so addressed
by his troops after a major victory. He wore a cloak of
scarlet wool, embroidered with gold, called a paludametltum,
to which Shakespeare makes Antony refer in his funeral
speech in Julius Caesar III, ii, 175:
You all do know this mantle: I remember
The first time ever Caesar put it on;
'Twas on a summer's evening, in his tent,
That day he overcame the Nervii.
The battle with the Nervii is described in this book. But
in 44 B.C. the cloak was thirteen years old, and Caesar, was
unlikely to wear military uniform at a meeting of the Senate
when the toga was the official dress. The general's
deputies were legati (not to be confused with ambassadors,
another meaning of the same word), members of the
Senatorial Order appointed by the Senate on the recom-
mendation of the commander; Caesar had four at first and
eventually ten, the same number as his legions, which also
rose from four to ten. His Chief of Staff, Labienus, was
legatus pro praetore, legate with the rank of praetor, and
was a first class general, greatly trusted by Caesar, but he
28
Chapter 3
changed sides at the end of the Gallic wars, perhaps
through jealousy or some real or fancied slight, and was
killed in 45 B.C. at Munda fighting against his old com-
mander. The other legati became competent generals and
were put in command of legions when necessary and of
winter camps; the only real failure was Titurius Sabinus,
whose folly and lack of courage caused the loss of fifteen
cohorts and his own life in 54 B.C. Next in rank as
"commissioned officers" were the military tribunes, six to
a legion, members of the middle class Equestrian Order,
probably appointed by Caesar himself. They were often
young men at the start of a political career, not experienced
in war but sometimes put in command of a cohort or a
warship under the direction of a legatus. Volusenus is the
only, tribune who is several times mentioned with approval
by 'Caesar. These officers attended councils of war
together with the senior centurions.
The backbone of the Roman army was the centurions,
each in command of a century, six to a cohort and sixty to
a legion. They were professional soldiers, generally
, experienced in war, like our warrant and non-commissioned
officers, and they both led the troops courageously in
battle and administered stern discipline off the field with
the aid of a vine staff (vitis) which they carried as a sign of
rank and for use on an "idle" soldier; during the early
Empire we read in Tacitus of one whose nickname was
cedo alleram, "Give me another", because he used to break
so many sticks on the shoulders of his men. Centurions
wore a special badge on their helmets and swords on the
left side because they did not generally carry a shield.
There was regular system of promotion by seniority and
merit from the junior centurion of the tenth cohort to the
first cohort, but a man could jump several steps in the
ladder of promotion by exceptional services. The old
names hastati, principes, triarii were kept for this alone,
29
 Chapter 3
except that for trianus the new name of pi/ani was sub-
stituted.
In every cohort the centurions were rated for seniority
according to the position taken up by their centuries in the
battle-line, where they were drawn up in four ranks of up
to twenty men each; the cohort had three centuries posted
in front and three in rear, making a line eight deep with
up to sixty men in each rank.
hastati principes pHani
5 3 I priores
6 4 2 posteriores
The three centuries posted in front were called priores,
those in the rear posteriores, and the right-hand maniple
(two centuries) was called pilani, the centre maniple
principes, and the left-hand maniple hastali. Thus in
every cohort the order of seniority of centurions was:
I,pilus prior; 2,pilus posterior; 3,princeps prior; 4,princeps
posterior; 5, hastatus prior; 6, hastatus posterior. The
centurions took their titles from their centuries according
to this list, except that the centurion of the pilani was
called pilus. The second centurion in the first cohort was
called pilus posterior primus, and so on down to the most
junior centurion in the tenth cohort, number sixty in the
legion, who was called hastatus posterior decimus. We read
of a centurion in the Civil War (B.C. III, 53) who was
promoted for his bravety ab octavis ordinibus ad primipilum,
"from the centurions of the eighth cohort to Senior
Centurion". The Senior Centurion of the first cohort of the
legion was called primus pilus (without prior), or primi pili
centurio, or primipilus, and was a very important person,
like our Regimental Sergeant-Major. The senior centurion
30
Chapter 3
of each cohort probably commanded that cohort as well as
his own century, and the first cohort contained the six
senior centurions, who were called primi ordines; the word
ordo was often used instead of centuria. There was no
permanent commander of a legion at this time, but a
legatus was often put in command or the military tribunes
acted under the orders of a legatus or of the imperator.
Junior non-commissioned officers were aquiliferi and
signiferi, whose duty it was to carry and guard the standards
(aquilae and signa). The signa were of great importance to
the morale of a legion and were a rallying-point in a crisis;
hence signa inferre, "to advance", signa canferre, "to close
on the centre", and similar phrases. The legionary
standard was a silver eagle perched on a pole and was
attached to the first century of the first cohort, so that it
always led the way into battle or on the march; it was kept
in camp in a chapel near the general's headquarters.
The manipular standards, three to a cohort, were poles
adorned with various metal badges, such as the images of
birds or beasts, crescent moons, and decorated discs.
Standard-bearers wore the skin of a wolf over their helmets.
The highest award for bravery was the corona civica, a
wreath of oak leaves, and there were various badges
(phalerae) and necklets (torques) given for distinguished
service.
III. ORDER OF BATTLE AND THE MARCH
The normal fighting array was in three lines (t,.iplex
acies), in which the men were drawn up eight deep
in cohorts arranged as indicated on the following page.
The numbers refer to cohorts and the dashes are centuries.
The space between the lines was about a cohort's frontage,
but the cohorts in line were probably quite close to one
another. When the army attacked the front line advanced
31
 Chapter 3
4 3 2 I
7 6 5 had excellent chances of plunder during a successful
10 9 8
within javelin range (up to forty yards), threw their javelins,
and charged with the sword; the second and third lines
came into action or relieved the front line as required.
Other formations were a single, double, or quadruple line,
a wedge (cuneus), and, to repel an attack from several
directions, an orbis, which was a solid or hollow square
rounded at the angles, many ranks deep. On the march
the four cohorts of the front line fonned the first column,
the next three the second column, and the last three brought
up the rear (novissimum agmen). To go into action, the
cohorts extended to right and left of the road and were at
once in triple line of battle. The baggage (impedimenta)
of each legion usually followed the legion, with cavalry and
light troops on the flanks, but in hostile country the baggage
was all placed in the middle of the column or towards the
rear, carrying also the packs ofthe men, who now marched
in light order (expediti), ready for action; or an agmen
quadratum might be formed, a square with troops in front,
rear, and at the sides, and with the baggage in the middle.
IV. EQUIPMENT AND ARMS
Legionaries were usually (but not always) Roman citizens
who enlisted for twenty years' service and up to the end of
the Gallic wars were paid 120 denarii a year. A denarius
32
Chapter 3
was a silver coin a little smaller than a shilling but with a
very much higher purchasing power; a day labourer in
Italy received about twice the soldier's pay, but the troops
campaign and their pay was raised to 225 denarii in about
50 B.C. Their staple food was wheat, which they ground
to make bread or porridge in the portable hand mills that
each man carried in his pack. They also carried in their
packs the wheat ration for three or four days, or more,
as circumstances required, out of the monthly allow-
ance of a bushel each. They did not like meat, but
would eat it when wheat was not. available, and their drink
was a sour wine called posca.
The uniform of a legionary was a long belted tunic
reaching nearly to the knees like a kilt, a short cloak
(sagum), brown for soldiers, white for officers, and heavy
hob-nailed sandals (caligae). His defensive armour was a
leather jerkin strengthened with strips of metal (lorica); an
iron helmet (galea) with a detachable plume of feathers,
which was carried on the march slung over the right
. shoulder and put on just before battle; a shield (scutum),
about four feet high and two and a half feet broad and
curved cylindrically to protect the body, made of wood and
hide, rimmed and bossed with iron and protected from
warping and rusting by a detachable leather cover; and
sometimes greaves (ocreae) of leather or metal. His
weapons were a two-edged sword (gladius), used for
stabbing rather than slashing, about two feet long, worn on
the right side so that the shidd should not prevent it from
being drawn easily (officers and centurions who did not
normally carry a shield wore the sword on the left side); and
two pila, javelins more than six feet long with wooden shafts
and long heads of soft iron which bent when they struck an
enemy's shield SO that he could not pull them out and
throw them back and was hampered in his movements.
33
 Chapter 3
Soldiers on the march in full kit were called impediti and
carried a total weight of about sixty-five pounds, which
is much the same as was carried by an infantryman in
the First World War of 1914-18, and the same as the
weight of plate armour worn by a knight in the fourteenth
century (as is shown by weighing suits of armour in
museums). Besides his armour and weapons, a Roman
soldier carried a pack (sarcina) containing rations for
several days, a hand-mill to grind the wheat, cooking
utensils, a flask to hold wine or water, a blanket, and a
change of clothes, and an axe, saw, basket, mallet, spade
(all for the entrenchment and defences of the camp); the
pack was slung on a pole or over two stakes (valli) used
every day for the rampart of the camp and on the march
resting on the left shoulder, while he carried his two pila,
with his helmet slung over them, on his right shoulder.
The spade was used more than the sword, for the Roman
soldiers did an enormous amount of digging, not only
entrenching the camp every night when on the march but
also shovelling tons of earth in the course of sieges and
defensive operations. They marched the length and breadth
of Gaul several times during the eight Gallic campaigns,
covering fifteen to eighteen miles a day on an ordinary day's
march (iustum iter) and up to twenty-five or whatever was
required on a forced march (magnum iter). When about to
go into action they left their packs and stakes with the
impedimenta, put on their helmets, stripped off their shield
VI.
coverings, and were expediti, ready for action in light march-
ing order.
V. OTHER TROOPS, AND THE BAGGAGE
Discharged veterans, called evocati, could rejoin the army
at the invitation of the general, with higher pay and
exemption from certain fatigne-duties. Engineers (fabri)
34
Chapter 3
served with the legions and were summoned when required
for special tasks like building bridges or working the siege-
train, under the direction of an engineer officer called
praefectus fabrum. Scouts sent out singly were speculatores,
and when in reconnaissance parties exploratores. There
was now no Roman or Italian cavalry, but horsemen were
recruited from Spain and Transalpine Gaul and later in the
Gallic War from Germany. They were divided into
squadrons (alae) of 300-400 men, subdivided into ten
troops (turmae), and were commanded by Roman officers
of the Equestrian Order called praefeeti equitum or by their
own officers; they were used mainly to skirmish and scout
and to pursue a fleeing enemy, being hardly able to face
resolute infantry. Other auxiliary troops were slingers
(funditores) from the Balearic Islands and archers (sagil/arii)
from Crete and Numidia, and some light-armed infantry;
all auxiliary troops were foreigners enrolled in the Roman
army. The baggage of an army (impedimenta) consisted
of the siege-train, tents, spare equipment and weapons,
officers' kit, and the commissariat, and was carried by
,horses or mules driven by calones, a term that also included
officers' servants and other camp-followers. Slave dealers
(mangones) accompanied a campaign to buy the plunder and
slaves, under the direction of the quaestor, to be marched to
Italy and sold at a profit in the slave-markets there.
THE CAMP
On the march troops always encamped for the night in a
specially fortified camp (castra), which long practice
enabled them to prepare in a very short time. Officers
went ahead to choose a suitable site, and first marked out
the general's headquarters (praetorium) and the corners of
the camp with coloured flags. The shape was generally
square, with rounded corners and sides about 2,000-2,500
35
 Chapter 3 Chapter 3

feet long for Caesar's army of eight legions (in 57 B.C.), each night, that was passed round the guards and sentries.
about 30,000 men with auxiliaries, perhaps 40,000 in all. In winter the campaigning season carne to an end and the
The camp was surrounded by a ditch (fossa) twelve feet troops went into winter-quarters (hibema) until the spring.
broad and nine feet deep, from which the earth was These were more strongly fortified permanent camps
thrown up to make a rampart (agger) four feet high, (castra stativa), in which the men lived in wooden huts
crowned with a palisade (valium) made from the stakes thatched with straw.
(valli) carried by the men, interlaced with branches to
make an almost impenetrable barrier. The men's tents were
always placed in the same position and order, so that each CAESAR'S CAMP ON THE AISNE
man knew exactly where to go and what to do. The camp
was divided laterally into two unequal sections by a road a porta~rp~r~a~.~to~r~t~a____________~
hundred foot wide called via principalis; the front section r----------~/:-n-:t-e-r----- v.lIll m
of the camp (one-third of the whole) contained tents for r---~~I70""-, I
two legions and auxiliaries and officers' quarters, and the
rear section (two-thirds) contained the praetorium and
tents for six legions, special troops like the evocati (veterans
who rejoined for further service), and the rest of the
auxiliaries. The rear section was divided laterally by a
road fifty feet wide called via quintana, and from the
praetorium ran a broad road, via praetoria, to the front gate
(nearest the enemy), the porta praetoria. In the rear was
the porta decumana, and the via principalis ran to two side
gates called porta principalis dextra (on the right) and sinistra
(on the left). The soldiers' tents were made of hides and
held ten men each in a space ten feet square. A space
200 feet wide was left inside the rampart, and auxiliaries
were quartered nearer the rampart to bear the brunt of an
attack. Cavalry outposts (stationes) were on duty outside
the camp, with guards (custodes) at the gates and sentries
(excubitores by day, vigiles by night) on the ramparts and
at headquarters. When camp was to be moved, the first
of three trumpet calls was the signal to take down the
tents and pack the baggage, the second to load the baggage
~---------------P=-or-t~a~~d-e~cu~m~a~n~a~--------~'
on the pack-animals, and the third for the troops to march
off. There was a written watchword (tessera), different for
36 37
 Chapter 3
VII. SIEGES
The storming of a fortified town (oppugnatio) was an
assault on the walls either without previous investment
(ex itinere) or after a siege (obsidio). If a town was not
strongly defended the commander chose what seemed to be
a weak spot in the walls, cleared away defenders by means
of archers, slingers, and light artillery, and sent the troops
in to assault under cover of a testudo, a sloping roof of
shields locked tightly together over the heads of the
attackers, with more shields to protect the front and sides.
Under cover of this the men advanced to the walls, filled
in the ditch with loose earth (another meaning of agger),
and climbed the wall by scaling ladders (scalae) or burst
open the gate with a battering ram (aries).
A formal siege took much longer. It would begin with a
line of earthworks thrown up all round the town and
strengthened by towers or redoubts, to prevent the
defenders from making a sally or escaping. The garrison
was then either starved into surrender or the town was
taken by assault from a siege-mound (the third meaning of
agger) after preparatory work by the siege train. An agger
in this sense was an elaborately constructed siege-mound
made of logs set in layers, each at right angles to the stage
below and filled up with earth or rubble. It was begun
out of range of missiles from the wall and was gradually
built up on an inclined plane continually drawing nearer
to the top of the wall so that eventually the attackers could
throw bridges of hurdles or ladders across the intervening
space and so enter the town. Engineers working on the
agger were protected by various mobile defence works, such
as mantlets (vineae), which were light huts with timber tops
and wicker sides, each about sisteen feet long, eight feet
high, and seven feet wide; the front and back were open
so that several vineae could be placed in a line to make a
38
Chapter 3
continuous covered way up to the town. A longer but
narrower and lower form of mantlet was a musculus, and
there was also a tesiudo, quite different from the" tortoise"
of shields used to defend a party of soldiers. The second
type of testudo was a shed about twenty-five feet square,
mounted on wheels and having a sloping timber roof and
sides under cover of which the men could fill in the ditch
or undermine the wall. A pluteus was a convex wicker
shield on three wheels or rollers, behind which two or three
men could advance to work on the agger. All these siege-
engines were covered with hides soaked in water to make
them fire proof.
Light wooden towers (turres) of several stages, up to
fifty feet high, could be pushed forward on wheels or
rollers so that the men on the upper stages were level with
the top of the wall, or they might be pushed up the ramp of
the agger and hurl missiles from above. Hooks on long
poles were used to pull down the battlements, and mines
(cuniculi) were driven under the defences. Heavy batter-
ings rams, consisting of a large beam with a huge metal
head which was slung inside a framework of timber, were
rocked backwards and forwards against gate or wall.
The defenders would retaliate by digging counter-mines
under the agger and drawing away the earth or setting the
timbers on fire, or by catching and drawing up the heads
of the rams, or by dropping boiling pitch on the attackers.
Arti11ery (tarmenta) generally depended on the principle
of torsion, the force produced when tightly twisted ropes
of horse-hair, gut, or cord are allowed to unwind
suddenly. We do not know the difference between a
ballista and a catapulta, but both worked in much the same
way. Each was like a very big cross-bow mounted on a
tripod, with a groove running along the top of the wooden
stock. In front at right angles to the stock was a timber
framework at each end of which was a vertical skein of
39
 Chapter 3 Chapter 3

ropes of horse-hair, tightly twisted by a windlass before into six centuries. Regular cavalry was attached to each
the engine was fired. Two wooden arms passed through legion. The legions permanently quartered in Britain
these skeins and took the place of the arms of a cross-bow. after the conquest, which started in A.D. 43, were the
A rope was attached to the ends of the arms and served as Second" Augusta" at Caerleon, the Sixth "Victrix Pia
the bow-string, being fastened to a projector-block that Fidelis" at York (taking the place of the Ninth" Hispan. "),
ran freely in the stock. To load the catapult the projector- and the Twentieth "Valeria Victrix" at Chester.
block and attached rope were forced back by a windlass
against the pull of the twisted skeins of horse-hair and made
fast by a trigger catch. A long javelin was placed in the
groove in front of the projector-block, and when the trigger
was released the unwinding of the skeins caused the arms to
fiy forward, taking the block and rope with them and thus
discharging the javelin. The engine could be raised or
lowered or moved sideways to get the required range and
aim and could fire up to 500 yards with some accuracy.
Another but less accurate engine called an onager could
hurl large stones from a sling or spoon which was forced
backwards and downwards against the torsion of horse-
hair ropes and was discharged by the unwinding of the
ropes.

VIII. THE ARMY UNDER THE EMPIRE

Although this is outside the scope of this book, a few
words about the later Roman army may be of interest.
The army was now more of a career than ever before, and
a man would spend his twenty years in a legion and then
retire to live with his family near its barracks, for the
twenty-five to thirty legions were usually permanently
stationed on or near the frontiers of the Empire, never in
Italy or Rome. A legatus was the permanent commander
of a legion, which numbered about 5,600 men, still in
ten cohorts, but the first cohort now contained 1,000 men
in centuries varying from 500 in the first to 100 in the fifth,
while the other uine cohorts had about 500 men divided
40 41

Chapter 4: Pronunciation and Translation
I. SYLLABLE DIVISION
All Latin was intended to be read aloud. Yon have
already been taught how to pronounce the vowel sounds in
Latin, and the vocabulary of this book will tell you the
"quantity", i.e. the length, of all the vowels contained in
it. But it is also important to know how the Romans divided
the syllables in their words, for each one should be pro-
nounced clearly and distinctly, not slurred as some of our
English syllables are. Here are two simple rules. (i) When
a vowel or diphthong (a diphthong consists of two vowels
pronounced together, like the ae in mensae) is followed by
another vowel or diphthong or by a single consonant, the
syllable division comes after the first vowel or diphthong,
e.g. de-i, e-ram, prae-mi-a. (ii) When there are two or more
consonants between two vowels or diphthongs, the syllable
division usually comes after the first consonant, e.g. dig-nus,
bel-lum, con-sti-tu-it. An exception to this rule is that when
the two consonants can begin a Latin word the syllable
division comes before these consonants, e.g. pa-trem,
a-grum (though the poets sometimes divide such words
after the first consonant, to suit the metre, e.g. pat-rem,
ag-rum). A word with a preposition prefix is divided
after the prefix, e.g. ab-rum-po, except when there is only
one consonant, e.g. a-be-o.
II. STRESS ACCENT
In all languages, including of course English, one syllable
in every word is usually stressed or accented more than the
other syllables, and foreigners have difficulty in pro-
nouncing some words correctly. In Latin the rules for
42
Chapter 4
the stress accent are simple. (i) In words of two syllables
the accent always falls on the first syllable, e.g. virum,
6mnes, even though that syllable may be short. (ii) In
words of more than two syllables the accent falls on the
last syllable but one if that syllable is long, e.g. mon~re,
tremintem; and on the last syllable but two if the last but
one is short, e.g. capere, interea, ctirporum. Very long
words have a secondary accent, which is found by working
backwards from the main accent and applying the same
rule, e.g. c6nstituirunt. You must be careful not to accent
the words on the wrong syllable when reading aloud, as in
the old song "Am6, amas, I 16ve a lass", which gets the
stress of both words and the quantity of the second wrong;
they should be pronounced amo, amas.
III. "DOG ENGLISH" OR
"GOBBLEDEGOOK"
"Dog Latin" is the name given to the barbarous form
of Latin that was once used by semi-educated people in
Western Europe, like "pidgin English" in the east. I call
"dog English" the strange jargon that has bedevilled our
Latin classrooms and examinations for over a century,
where pupils translate Latin into a kind of English that is
now almost meaningless, using certain stock words and
phrases that are quite out of date. Americans call all
kinds of jargon by the expressive name of" gobbledegook",
and the Civil Service is addicted to a specially contorted
gobbledegook of its own; Sir Ernest Gowers, in his Plain
Words, cites some fine specimens. Here are some examples
of classroom "Dog English".
To us nowadays a dart is used in a game played in pubs
and clubs, or in an airgun, or in a South American blow-
pipe, or is a paper missile that floats about classrooms; it is
certainly not applicable to a six-foot long heavy Roman
43
 Chapter 4
pilum, which should be called a javelin. We seldom, if
ever use the words "seek" and "lest" in ordinary speech,
but unfortunately these are still stock translations of petere
and ne; petere is translated in e.g. silvas or hastes petierunt
to mean "they sought the woods" or "the enemy" instead
of "they made for" or "attacked"; and ne in an indirect
command becomes "he advised me lest I might do it".
Again we hard~y ever say" these things having been done",
or use a relattve pronoun to start a sentence, but in an
examination I have often seen quibus rebus gestis translated
into "which affairs having been carried on", or even
"waged ". Such words and phrases are the relics of
Victorian classrooms and ought to have been swept away
years ago with other Victorian rubbish. Latin would
become a language full of life again if you discarded these
deadening and nowadays almost nonsensical words and , I
tried to translate what Caesar wrote into living English.
" ~..i~ hie
44
C. IVLI CAESARIS
COMMENTARIORVM
DE BELLO GALLICO
LlBER SECVNDVS
Part I. The Abortive Risins l' the Belsae
I Winter, 58-57 B.C. News reaches Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul
(northern Italy) that the Belgae are conspiring together to
oppose the Romans. '" (
CUM esset Caesar in citeriore GaIlia, ita ~ti supra
demonstravinrus, crebri ad erim,~ adferebantur
litterisque item Lahleru certior'fi&;~T.nes Bclgas, quam
( tertiam ~ GaIliae partem dixeramuCf contra populum
"2 Romanum",coniurar7Iobsidesguynte~ se g~ret IConiurandi~
" has esse' causas: pnmum qUOd ~er~rentilr ne, ,::Frriru pacata
3 Galli~ ad eo~ exercitus noster adduceretur; ~ind~ qUQd I
ab\!lOn n~ Gallis soIlicitarentur, par1ft' qui,.Jit Gerlnanos
ii
diutius in Gallia f~rsa"'rrnoluerant, populi Romani elf~r-("
e a~,!uelnvet<;!:~sc~~ ~~a!m?les~~~ant,\\
t
" partlm q mob1litate~tlev1t~~~1",oV1S unperu§ stude.) .
ant; ",b n n nuIlis etiam ~\l:o(! in Gallia a potentioribus
atque\,s qui (ad conducendos homine~facultates habebant
vulgo regna occu).'abantur, qui minus facile eam rem inrperio
nostro con~qurpoterant.
\" '" 1[""
2 Early summer, 57 B.C. Caesar sends two newly-enrolled
legions into Transalpine Gaul (France). After hearing from
their Gallic neighbours about the activities of the Be/gae he
marches into their country.
45
 ,fe. IVLI CAE,SARIS
I lHis nuntiis litterisqu!;j commoms Caesar duas legiones
in citeriore Gallia l!QY.as conscripsit, et ~aestate in
in~e?orem Galliam ~ui deduceret 'Q. Pedium I!=~mm
2 mlslt. Ipse, cum §~llIl!U?a opla esse inciJjeret, a;{l,
3 exerc~rum ~e% 1 at nego,pum Senonibus reliquisq;re~
Galli~qui fiiii'timf Be g~s ~)uti(C*ua~ud ~~erantul:l
, 4 cognoscant s.:\!ue Ae }tlS rebus certiorem faciant.) Hi con-
, stanter omnes nunti£verunt manus cogi, exercirum in unum
locum conduci. Ttlin-v~ro dubitand~ nRn existim\lVit
,quin ad eos p~oficisceYe'~;:. ~e f~~e~tari~ compl;r~fu'
\castra movet> diebusque(ClrClter qumdecim)ad »nes Bel-
garum pervenit.
3 On Caesar's unexpected arrival the Belgic tribe of the Remi
send ambassadors to place themselves entirely in his power.
They say that the Germans in Gaul and even their own
kinsfolk, the Suessiones, are joining in the rising.
I Eo cum de improviso celeriusque omni opinione venisset,
Remi, qui proximi Galliae ex Belgis sunt, ad eum legatos
2 I~cium et Andecomborium, primos civitatis, miserunt; qru
dlcerent se suaque omnia in fidem atque in potestatem
populi Romani permittere, neque se cum Belgis reliquis
consensisse, neque contra populum Romanum coniurasse;
3 paratosque esse et obsides dare et imperata facere et
4 oppidis recipere et frumento ceterisque rebus iuvare; reli-
quos omnes Belgas in armis esse, Germanosque qui cis
5 Rhenum incolant sese cum his coniunxisse; tanrumque esse
eorum omnium furorem ut ne Suessiones quidem, fratres
consanguineosque suos, qui eodem iure et isdem legibus
utantur, unum imperium unumque magistrarum cum ipsis
habeant, deterrere pomerint quin cum his consentirent.
4 The Remi say that the Belgae entered Gaul from Germany
long ago and are a very warlike people. The Bellovaci are
46
DE BELLO GALLI CO II
the chief tribe, and the combined force sent by all tribes
amounts to 296,000 men.
I Cum ab his quaereret quae civitates quantaeque in armis
essent et quid in bello possent, sic reperiebat: plerosque
Belgas esse ortos ab Germanis Rhenumque antiquitus
2 traductos propter loci fertilitatem ibi consedisse; Gallosque
qui ea loca incolerent expulisse; solosque esse qui, patrum
nostrorum memoria omni Gallia vexata, Teutonos Cimbros-
3 que intra fines suos ingredi prohibuerint: qua ex re fieri
uti earum rerum memoria magnam sibi auctoritatem mag-
4 nosque spirims in re militari sumerent. De numero eorum
omnia se habere explorata Remidicebant, propterea quod,
propinquitatibus adfinitatibusque coniuncti, quantam quis-
que multimdinem in communi Belgarum concilio ad 'id
)"bellum pollicims sit cognoverint. Plurimum inter eos
Bellovacos et virtute et auctoritate et hominum numero
valere: hos posse conficere armata milia cenrum, pollicitos
ex eo numero electa sexaginta, totiusque belli imperium sibi
6 postulare. Suessiones suos esse finitimos; latissimos fera-
, 7 cissimosque agros possidere. Apud eos fuisse regem nostra
, etiam memoria Diviciacum, totius Galliae potentissimum,
qui cum magnae partis harum regionum tum etiam Britan-
niae imperium obtinuerit: nunc esse regem Galbam: ad
hunc, propter iustitiam prudentiamque suam, totius belli
8 summam omnium voluntate deferri; oppida habere numero
XII, polliceri milia armata quinquaginta. Totidem Nervios,
qui maxime feri inter ipsos habeanmr longissimeque absint;
9 quindecim milia Atrebates, Ambianos decem milia, Morinos
xxv milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses
et Viromanduos totidem, Aduamcos decem et novem milia;
10 Condrusos, Eburones, Caeroesos, Paemanos, qui uno nomine
Germani appellanmr, arbitrari ad XL milia.
5 Caesar re-assures the Remi and urges Diviciacus the Aeduan
to ravage the land of the Bellovaci. He encamps just north
47
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
of the River Axona (Aime) tofaee the full force of the Belgae,
leaves a garrison for the bridge (at Berry-au-Bae), and sends
Sabinus to make a fort south of (he river. ' ' 3 subruunt. Quod tum facile fiebat. Nam cum tanta
I Caesar Remos- c<llhortatus liberaliierque oratione prose-
cutus, omnem seii'lttum ad se convemre principumque
liberos"' obsides ad se addud iussit. Quae omnia ab his
2 diligenter ad diem facta sunt. Ipse Dividacum Aeduum
magnopere cohortatus doc~t quanta opere rei publicae
communisque saiutis"'inte;Sit manus hostium distineri, ne
3 cum tanta multitudine uno tempore\g)nfligendum si!J Id
fieri posse, si suas copias Aedui in fines Bellovacorum intro-
duxerint et eorum agros populari coeperint. His mandatis
4 eum ab se dimittit. Postquam omnes Belgarum copias in
unum locum coactas ad se venire vidit, neque iam longe
abesse ab eis quos miserat exploratoribus et ab Remis
cognovIt, flumen Axonam, quod est in extremis Remorum
finibus, exerdtum traducere maturavit atque ibi castra
5 posuit. Quae res et latus unum castrorum ripis fluminis
muniebat, et post eum quae essent tuta ab hostibus reddebat,
et commeatus ab Remis reliquisque civitatibus ut sine
6 periculo ad eum portari posset efficlebat. In eo flumine
pons erato Ibi praesidillm ponit et in a1tera parte fluminis
Q. Titurium Sabinum legatum cum sex cohortibus relinquit:
castra in altitudinem pedum XII vallo fossaque duodeviginti
pedum munire iubet.
6 The Belgae assault Bibrax (probably Vieux-Laon), a town of
the Remi eight miles away. Its commander sends word to
Caesar that he must surrender next day unless help arrives.
I Ab his castris oppidum Remorum, nomine Bibrax, aberat
milia passuum octo. Id ex itinere magno impetu Be1gae
2 oppugnare coeperunt. Aegre eo die sustentatum est. GaI-
lorum eadem atque Belgarum oppugnatio est haec. Ubi
circumiecta multitudine hominum totis moenibus undique
48
DE BELLO GALLICO II
in murum lapides iaci coepti sunt murusque defensoribus
nudatus est, testudine facta, portas succendunt murumque
multitudo lapides ac tela coicerent, in muro consistendi
4 potestas erat nulli. Cum finem oppugnandi nox fecisset,
Icclus R,emus, summa nobilitate et gratia inter suos, qui tum
oppido praefuerat, unus ex eis qui legati de pace ad Caesarem
venerant, nuntium ad eum mittit: nisi subsidium sibi
submittatur, sese diutius sustinere non posse.
7 The arrival of archers and slingers sent by Caesar relieves
the siege of Bibrax, and the Belgae approach the Romans and
encamp two miles away from them to the north-west.
I Eo de media nocte Caesar, isdem ducibus usus qui
nuntii ab Iccio venerant, N umidas et Cretas sagittarios et
2 funditores Baleares subsidio oppidanis mittit: quorum ad-
ventu et Remis cum spe defensionis studium propugnandi
accessit et hostibus eadem de causa spes potiendi oppidi
3 discessit. Itaque paulisper apud oppidum morati agrosque
Remorum depopulati, omnibus vids aedificiisque quos adire
potuerant incensis, ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis con-
tenderunt, et ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra
posuerunt; quae castra, ut fumo atque ignibus significabatur,
amplius milibus passuum octo in latitudinem patebant.
8 Caesar wishes to avoid a pitched battle with the superior
numbers of the Belgae, but learns from cavalry skirmishes that
his men are a match for them. He protects his flanks with
trenches on each side of the camp, one running forward, the
other to the rear, with a fort at the end of each, and draws up
a line of six legions in front of the camp. The Belgae also
draw up their line.
I Caesar primo et propter multitudinem hostium et propter
eximiam opinionem virtutis proelio supersedere statuit;
49
 DE BELLO GALLICO II
cotidie tamen equestribus proeliis quid hostis virtute posse!
2 et quid nostri auderent periclitabatur. Ubi nostros non
esse inferiores intellexit, loco pro castris ad aciem instruen-
dam natura opportuno atque idoneo, quod is collis ubi castra
posita erant paululum ex planitie editus tantum adversus
in latitudinem patebat quantum loci acies instructa occupare
poterat, atque ex utraque parte lateris deiectus habebat et in
3 frontem leuiter fastigatus paularim ad planitiem redibat, ab
utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter
4 passuum quadringentorum, et ad extremas fossas castella
constituit ibique tormenta collocavit ne, cum aciem instruxis-
set, hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, ab lateribus
5 pugnantes suos circumvenire possent. Hoc facto, duabus
legionibus quas proxime conscripserat in castris relictis ut,
si quo opus esset, subsidio duci possent, reliquas sex legiones
pro castris in acie constituit. Hostes item suas copias ex
castris eductas instruxerant.

9 Neither side is willing to cross the marsh that lies between the
two armies, and after being worsted in a cavalry engagement
the Belgae begin to ford the river on their right to storm the
fort at the bridge commanded by Sabinus or else to cut the
Roman supply line.
I Palus erat non magna inter nostrum atque hostium
exercitum. Hanc si nostri transirent hostes exspectabant;
nostri autem, si ab illis initium transeundi lieret, ut im-
2 peditos aggrederentur parati in armis erant. Interim
proelio equestri inter duas acies contendebatur. Ubi neutri
transeundi initium faciunt, secundiore equitum proelio nos-
3 tris, Caesar suos in castra reduxit. Hostes protinus ex eo
loco ad flumen Axonam contenderunt, quod esse post nostra
4 castra demonstratum est. Ibi vadis repertis, partem suarum
copiarum traducere conati sunt, eo consilio ut, si possent,
castellum, cui praeerat Q. Titurius legatus, expugnarent
51
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
5 pontemque interscinderent; si minus p~,:;ent, agros
Remorum popularentur, qui magno nobis~ad bellum
gerendum erant, commeatuque nostros probiberent.
10 Caesar sends his cavalry and auxiliaries back across the
bridge to attack the enemy while fording the river, and they
kill a large number of them. Despairing of success here and
because food is running short, the Belgae decide that the tribes
should return home and resist the Romans in their own country.
I Caesar certior factus ab Titurio omnem equitaturn et levis
armaturae Numidas, funditores sagittariosque pontem tra-
2 ducit atque ad eos contendit. Acriter in eo loco pugnaturn
est. Hostis impeditos nostri in flumine aggressi magnum
3 eorum numerum occiderunt; per eorum corpora reliquos
audacissime transire conantes multitudine telorum reppule-
runt; primos qui transierant equitatu circumventos inter-
4 fecerunt. Hostes, ubi et de expugnando oppido et de
flumine transeundo spem se fefellisse intellexerunt neque
nostros in locum iniquiorem progredi pugnand:i causa
viderunt atque ipsos res frumentaria deficere coepit, con-
cilio convocato, constituerunt optimum esse domum suam
quemque reverti et quorum in fines primum Romani
exerciturn introduxissent ad eos defendendos undique con-
venire; ut potius in suis quam in alienis finibus decertarent
5 et domesticis copiis rei frumentariae uterentur. Ad earn
sententiam cum reliquis causis haec quoque ratio eos
deduxit, quod Diviciacum atque Aeduos finibus Bellova-
corum appropinquare cognoverant. His persuaderi ut
diutius morarentur neque suis auxilium ferrent non poterat.
II The Belgae set out in the night with great uproar.. Caesar
first fears an ambush but at dawn sends the cavalry and three
legions to pursue the rear, which suffers heavy losses all day
while the rest of the memy make good their flight.
52
DE BELLO GALLICO II
I Ea re constituta, secunda vigilia magno cum strepitu ac
turnultu castris egressi, nullo certo ordine neque imperio,
cum sibi quisque primum itineris locum peteret et domum
pervenire properaret, fecerunt ut consimilis fugae profectio
2 videretur. Hac re statim Caesar per speculatores cognita
insidias veritus, quod qua de causa discederent nondum per-
3 spexerat, exercitum equitaturnque castris continuit. Prima
luce, confirmata re ab exploratoribus, omnem equitatum qui
novissimum agmen moraretur praemisit. His Q. Pedium
et L. Aurunculeium Cottam legatos praefecit; T. Labienum
4 legaturn cum legionibus tribus subsequi iussit. Hi novissi-
mos adorti et multa milia passuum prosecuti magnam multi-
tudinem eOrum fugientium conciderunt, cum ab extremo
agmine, ad quos ventum erat, consisterent, fortiterque im-
5 peturn nostrorum militum sustinerent, priores, quod abesse
a periculo viderentur neque ulla necessitate neque imperio
continerentur, exaudito clamore, perturbatis ordinibus,
6 omnes in fuga sibi praesidium ponerent. Ita sine ullo
periculo· tantam eorum multitudineI!!. nostri interfecerunt
quantum fl.lit diei spatium~b occasuOAque solis destiterunt
seque in castra, ut erat imperatum, receperunt.
12 Next day Caesar prepares to assault NO'lliodunum of the
Suessiones (Pommiers), but it is too well fortified to be taken
by a sudden attack. The Suessiones return home from their
flight and on seeing the Roman siege-works in action surrender
the town on the following day.
I Postridie eius diei Caesar, prius quam se hostes ex terrore
ac fuga reciperent, in fines Suessionum, qui proximi Remis
erant, exerciturn duxit et magno itinere confecto ad
2 oppidum Noviodunum contendit. Id ex itinere oppugnare
conatus, quod vacuum ab defensoribus esse audiebat, propter
latitudinem fossae murique altitudinem, paucis defendenti-
3 bus, expugnare non potuit. Castris munitis, vineas agere
53
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
quaeque ad oppugnandum usui erant comparare coepit.
4 Interim omnis ex-fuga Suessionum multitudo in oppidum
5 proxima nocte convenit. Celeriter vineis ad oppidum actis,
aggere iacto turribusque constitutis, magnitudine operum,
quae neque viderant ante Galli neque audierant, et celeritate
Romanorum permoti legatos ad Caesarem de deditione
mittunt et petentibus Remis ut conservarentur impetrant.
13 Caesar accepts the submission of the Suessiones and approaches
Brantuspantium of the Bel/ovaci ( ?Breteuil), from which the
old men, women, and childrell come out to ask for peace.
I Caesar, obsidibus acceptis primis civitatis atque ipsius
Galbae regis duobus filiis armisque omnibus ex oppido
traditis, in deditionem Suessiones accepit exercitumque in
2 Bellovacos ducit. Qui cum se suaque omnia in oppidum
Bratuspantium contulissent atque ab eo oppido Caesar
cum cxercitu circitcr milia passuum quinque abesset, omnes
maiores natu ex oppido egressi manus ad Caesarem tenderc
et voce significare coeperunt sese in eius fidem ac potestatem
venire neque contra populum Romanum armis contendere_
3 Item, cum ad oppidum accessisset castraque ibi poneret,
pueri mulieresque ex muro passis manibus suo more pacem
ab Romanis petierunt.
14 Diviciacus the Aeduan intercedes for the Bel/ovaci, who he
says have been incited by their leaders, now seeking refuge in
Britain, to revolt against the Aedui, although they have been
their constant protectors, and to make war on the Romans.
I Pro his Diviciacus (nam post discessum Belgarum, dimissis
2 Aeduorum copiis, ad eum reverterat) facit verba: Bellovacos
omni tempore in fide atque amicitia civitatis Aeduae ~e:
impulsos ab suis principibus, qui dicerent Aeduos a Caesare
in servitutem redactos omnes indignitates contumeliasque
perferre, et ab Aeduis defecisse et populo Romano bellum
54
DE BELLO GALLI CO II
3 intulisse. Qui eius consili principes fuissent, quod intclle-
gerent quantam calamitatem civitati intulissent, in Britan-
4 niam profugisse. Petere non solum Bellovacos sed etiam
pro his Aeduos ut sua clementia ac mansuetudine in eos
5 utatur. Quod si fecerit, Aeduorum auctoritatem apud
omnes Belgas amplificaturum, quorum auxiliis atque opibus
si qua bella inciderint sustentare consuerint.
IS Caesar takes six hundred Bel/ovacian hostages and spares their
state out of respect for Diviciacus. The Ambiani also submit
at once, but the warlike Nervii refuse to send legates or
accept terms from the Romans.
I Caesar, honoris Diviciaci atque Aeduorum causa sese eos
in fidem recepturum et conservaturum dixit: quod erat
civitas magna inter Belgas auctoritate atque hominum mul-
2 titudine praestabat, sescentos obsides poposcit. His traditis
omnibusque armis ex oppido collatis, ab eo loco in fines
Ambianorum pervenit, qui se suaque omnia sine mora dedi-
3 derunt. Eorum fines Nervii attingebant: quorum de natura
4 moribusque Caesar cum quaereret, sic reperiebat: nullum
aditum esse ad eos mercatoribus; nihil pati vini reliquarum-
que rerum ad luxuriam pertinentium inferri, quod eis rebus
relanguescere animos eorum et remitti virtutem existima-
5 rent: esse homines feros magnaeque virtutis; increpitare
atque incusare reliquos Belgas, qui se populo Romano de-
didissent patriamque virtutem proiecissent; confirmare sese
neque legatos missuros neque ullam condicionem pacis
accepturos.
Part ll. The Dtjeat if the Nervii
16 Summer, 57 B.C. Three days later Caesar learns that the
Nervii and their allies are waiting for him on the south side
55
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
of the river Sabis (Sambre), that the Aduatuci are expected
to join them, and that all non-combatants have been sent to
a place of safety in the marshes.
I Cum per eorum fines triduum iter fecisset, inveniebat ex
captivis Sabim flumen ab castris suis non amplius milia pas-
2 suum x abesse: trans id flumen omnes Nervios consedisse
adventumque ibi Romanorum exspectare una cum Atrebatis
et Viromanduis, finitimis suis (nam his utrisque persuaserant
3 uti eandem belli fortunam experirentur); exspectari etiam ab
4 his Aduatucorum copias atque esse in itioere: mulieres
quique per aetatem ad pugnam inutiles viderentur in eum
locum coiecisse quo propter paludes exercitui aditus non
esset.
[7 Some of the Belgae 7vho have surrendered leave Caesar on
the march and advise the Nervii' to attack the first legion to
mahe camp while it is still separated from the other legions
by its long baggage-train. The thick hedges that defend the
Nervian territory will hamper the Romans' march.
I His rebus cognitis, exploratores centurionesque praemittit
2 qui locum idoneum castris deligant. Cum ex dediticiis
Belgis reliquisque Gallis complures Caesarem secuti una
iter facerent, quidam ex his, ut postea ex captivis cognitum
est, eorum dierum consuetudine itineris nostri exercitus
perspecta, nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt atque eis demon-
strarunt inter singulas legiones impedimentorum magnum
numerum intercedere neque esse quicquam negoti, cum
prima legio in castra venisset reliquaeque legiones magnum
3 spatium abessent, hanc sub sarcinis adoriri: qua pulsa im-
pedimentisque direptis, futurum ut reliquae contra consistere
4 non auderent. Adiuvabat etiam eorum consilium qui rem
deferebant quod Nervii antiquitus, cum equitatu nihil pos-
sent (neque eDim ad hoc tempus ei rei student sed quicquid
possunt pedestribus valent copiis), quo facilius finitimorum
56
DE BELLO GALLlCO II
equitatum, si praedandi causa ad eos venissent, impedirent,
teneris arboribus incisis atque inflexis crebrisque in latitu-
dinem ramis enatis et rubis sentibusque interiectis, effecerant
ut instar muri hae saepes munimenta eis praeberent, quo non
5 modo non intrari sed ne perspici quidem posset. His rebus
cum iter agrninis nostri impediretur, non omitrendum con-
silium Nervii existimaverunt.
18 The site of the Roman camp is on a hill sloping down to the
Sabis, with a reverse slope on the other side of the river,
where the enemy are hiding in the woods that cover the upper
part of the hill.
I Loci natura erat haec, quem locum nostri castris dele-
gerant. Collis ab summo aequaliter declivis ad flumen
2 Sabim, quod supra nominavimus, vergebat. Ab eo flumine
pari acclivitate collis nascebatur, adversus huic et contrarius,
passus circiter ducentos infimus apertus, ab superiore parte
3 silvestris, ut non facile introrsus perspici posset. Intra eas
silvas hostes in occulto sese continebant; in aperto loco
secundum flumen paucae stationes equitum videbantul'.
Fluminis erat altitudo pedum circiter trium.
19 Caesar is now admncing in a different formation, with his six
veteran legions ready for battle, followed by the baggage
guarded by the two new legions. The Roman auxiliaries
engage the Nervian cavalry on the other side of the river, and
the six legions begin to fortify the camp. When the baggage-
train appears, the enemy dash out of the wood, rout the
Roman cavalry, cross the river, and attack the men who are
at work on the camp.
I Caesar,equitatu praemisso, subsequebaturomnibus copiis:
sed ratio ordoque agminis aliter se habebat ac Belgae ad
2 Nervios detulerant. Nam quod ad hostes appropinquabat,
consuetudine sua Caesar sex legiones expeditas ducebat;
57
C. IVLI CAESARIS DE BELLO GALLICO II

3 post eas totius exercitus impedimenta collocarat; inde duae

legiones quae proxime conscriptae erant totum agmen c1au-
4 debant praesidioque impedimentis erant. Equites nostri
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi cum hos-
5 tium equitatu proelium commiserunt. Cum se illi identidem
in silvas ad suos reciperent, ac rursus ex silva in nostros
impetum facerent, neque nostri longius quam quem ad
finem porrecta loca aperta pertinebant, cedentes insequi
auderent, interim legiones sex quae primae venerant, opere
6 dimenso, castra muuire coeperunt. Ubi prima impedi-
menta nostri exercitus ab eis qui in silvis abditi latebant
visa sunt, quod tempus inter eos committendi proeli
convenerat, ut intra silvas aciem ordinesque constituerant
atque ipsi sese confirmaverant, subito omnibus copus
provolaverunt impetumque in nostros equites fecerunt.
7 His facile pulsis ac proturbatis, incredibili celeritate ad
flumen decucurrerunt, ut paene uno tempore et ad silvas et
in flumine et iam in manibus nostris hostes viderentur.
8 Eadem autem celeritate adverso colle ad nostra castra atque
eos qui in opere occupati erant contenderunt.

20 Caesar has many things to do simultaneously in this crisis,

but the experience of the soldiers and the officers in command
of the legions saves the situation.
I Caesari omuia uno tempore erant agenda: vexillum pro-
ponendum, quod erat insigne cum ad arma concurri opor-
teret; signum tuba dandum; ab opere revocandi milites;
qui paulo longius aggeris petendi causa processerant
arcessendi; acies instruenda; milites cohortandi; signum
2 dandum. Quarum rerum magnam partem temporis brevitas
3 et successus hostium impediebat. His difficultatibus duae res
crant subsidio, scientia atque usus militum, quod superiori-
bus proellis exercitati quid fieri oporteret non minus com-
mode ipsi sibi praescribere quam ab allis doceri poterant, et
59
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
quod ab opere singulisque legionibus singulos legatos Caesar
4 discedere nisi munitis castris vetuerat. Hi propter propin-
quitatem et celeritatem hostium nihil iam Caesaris imperium
exspectabant, sed per se quae videbantur administrabant.
21 Caesar makes a bl'ief speech of encouragemenl 10 the Tenth
Legion (011 Ihe left) ami semis them against the enemy. On
the other flank the troops are already fighting, although not
quite ready for actioll, and the mm coming from working on the
camp rally round the first standards that they come upon.
I Caesar, necessariis rebus imperatis, ad cohortandos milites
quam in partem fors obtulit decucurrit et ad legionem deci-
2 mam devenit. Milites non longiore oratione cohortatus
quam uti suae pristinae virtutis memoriam retinerent neu
perturbarentur animo hostiumque impetum fortiter sustine-
3 rent, quod non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum
4 adigi posset, proeli committendi siguum dedit. Atque in
alteram partem item cohortandi causa profectus pugnantibus
5 occurrit. Temporis tanta fuit exiguitas hostiumque tam
paratus ad dimicandum animus ut non modo ad insignia
accommodanda sed etiam ad galeas induendas scutisque
6 tegimenta detrahenda tempus defuerit. Quam quisque ab
opere in partem casu devenit quaeque prima signa con-
spexit, ad haec constitit, ne in quaerendis suis pugnandi
tempus dimitteret.
22 The legions are drawn up as circumstances allow, separated,
ami fighting the enemy in different parts of the field, ami the
thick hedges in front make it difjicult to see what orders
should be given, so that the situation is greatly confused.
I Instructo exercitu magis ut loci natura deiectusque collis
et necessitas temporis quam ut rei militaris ratio atque ordo
postuiabat, cum diversis legionibus aliae alia in parte hostibus
resisterent saepibusque densissimis, ut ante demonstra-
vimus, interiectis prospectus impediretur, neque certa
60
DE BELLO GALLICO II
subsidia collocari neque quid in quaque parte opus esset
provideri neque ab uno omnia imperia administrari poterant,
2 Itaque in tanta rerum iniquitate fortunae quoque eventus
varii sequebantur.
23 The Ninth and Tenth Legions on the left drive the Atrebates
across the river and up the slope, while the Eleventh and
Eighth in the centre also advance to the river in pursuit of
the Virimandui, but the Twelflh ami Seventh on the right
al'e now isolated ami exposed to a heavy attack by the Nervii.
I Legionis nonae et decimae milites, ut in sinistra parte ade
constiterant, pilis emissis, cursu ac lassitudine exanimatos
vulneribusque confectos Atrebates (nam his ea pars ob-
venerat) celeriter ex loco superiore in fiumen compulerunt,
et transire conantes insecuti gladiis maguam partern eorum
2 impeditam interfecerunt, Ipsi transire fiumen non dubita-
verunt et in locum iniquum progressi rursus resistentes
3 hostes redintegrato proelio in fugam coiecerunt. Item
alia in parte diversae duae legiones, undecima et octava,
profligatis Viromanduis quibuscum erant congressi, ex loco
4 superiore in ipsis fiuminis ripis proeliabantur. At totis fere
a fronte et ab sinistra parte nudatis castris, cum in dextro
cornu legio duodecima et non magno ab ea intervallo sep-
tima constitisset, omnes Nervii confertissimo agrnine, duce
Boduognato, qui summam imperi tenebat, ad eum locum
5 contenderunt; quorum pars aperto latere legiones circum-
venire, pars summum castrorum locum petere coepit,
24 The au:xiliaries retreating to the camp meet the enemy again
ami flee, and the non-combatants who have gone out to get
plunder also take to flight. The drivers of the approaching
baggage-train are panic-stricken, ami the cavalry of the
Treveri in Caesar's army hasten home and report that the
Romans have been defeated,
61
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
I Eodem tempore equites nostri levisque armaturae pedites
qui cum eis una fuerant, quos primo hostium impetu pulsos
dixeram, cum se in castra reciperent, adversis hostibus oc-
2 currebant ac rursus aliam in partem fugam petebant; et
calones, qui ab decumana porta ac summo iugo collis
nostros victores flumen transisse conspexerant, praedandi
causa egressi, cum respexissent et hostes in nostris castris
3 versari vidissent, praecipites fugae sese mandabant. Simul
eorum qui cum impedimentis veniebant clamor fremitusque
oriebatur, aliique aliam in partem perterriti ferebantur.
4 Quibus omnibus rebus permoti equites Treveri, quorum
inter Gallos virtutis opinio est singularis, qui auxili causa
ab civitate ad Caesarem missi venerant, cum multitudine
hostium castra compleri nostra, legiones premi et paene
circumventas teneri, calones, equites, funditores, Numidas,
diversos dissipatosque in omnes partes fugere vidissent, de-
S speratis nostris rebus domum contenderunt; Romanos
pulsos superatosque, castris impedimentisque eorum hostes
potitos civitati renuntiaverunt.
zs On the right flank Caesar finds the Twelfth Legion in a
critical position, with many centurions killed or wounded.
He himself goes forward into the front /ine to encourage his
men, who extend their ranks with renewed spirit and check
the enemy attack.
I Caesar ab decimae legionis cohortatione ad dextrum
cornu profectus, ubi suos urgeri signisque in unum locum
collatis duodecimae legionis confertos milites sibi ipsos ad
pugnam esse impedimenta vidit, quartae cohortis omnibus
centurionibus occisis signiferoque interfecto, signo amisso,
reliquarum cohortium omnibus fere centurionibus aut vul-
neratis aut occisis, in his primipilo P. Sextio Baculo, fottis-
simo viro, multis gravibusque vulneribus confecto, ut iam se
sustinere non posset, reliquos esse tardiores, et non nullos
ab novissimis deserto proelio excedere ac tela vitare, hostes
62
DE BELLO GALLI CO II
neque a fronte ex inferiore loco subeuntes intermittere et ab
utroque latere ins tare, et rem esse in angusto vidit, neque
2 ullum esse subsidium quod summitti posset, scuto ab novis-
simis uni militi detracto, quod ipse eo sine scuto venerat, in
primam aciem processit centurionibusque nominatim appel-
latis, reliquos cohortatus milites, signa inferre et manipulos
3 laxare iussit, quo facilius gladiis uti possent. Cuius adventu
spe inlata militibus ac redintegrato animo, cum pro se quisque
in conspectu imperatoris etiam in extremis suis rebus operam
navare cuperet, paulum hostium impetus tardatus est.
z6 Caesar orders the Seventh Legion, which is also hard pressed,
to close up on the Twelfth and the rear lines of each to turn
and face the enemy in their rear. The baggage-guard now
arrives, and Labienus sends the Tenth Legion at full speed to
the rescue from the captured enemy camp.
I Caesar cum septimam legionem, quae iuxta constiterat,
item urgeri ab hoste vidisset, tribunos militum monuit ut
paulatim sese legiones coniungerent et conversa signa in
. 2 hostes inferrent. Quo facto cum alius alii subsidium ferret
neque timerent ne aversi ab hoste circumvenirentur, au-
3 dacius resistere ac fortius pugnare coeperunt. Interim
milites legionum duarum quae in novissimo agmine prae-
sidio impedimentis fuerant, proelio nuntiato, cursu incitato
4 in summo colle ab hostibus conspiciebantur; et T. Labienus,
castris hostium potitus et ex loco superiore quae res in
nostris castris gererentur conspicatus, decimam legionem
5 subsidio nostris misit. Qui cum ex equitum et calonum
fuga quo in loco res esset quantoque in periculo et castra
et legiones et imperator versaretur cognovissent, nihil ad
celeritatem sibi reliqui fecerunt.
27 The arrival of the Tenth Legion changes the whole course of
the battle. Even the wounded legionaries renew the struggle,
63
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
the non-combatants fight ulJarmed, and the cavalry atone for
their flight by showing great courage. The Nervii hold out
to the death with remarkable valour.
I Horum adventu tanta rerum commutatio est facta ut
nostri, etiam qui vulneribus confecti procubuissent, scutis
innixi proelium redintegrarent; tum calones, perterritos
hostes conspicati, etiam inermes armatis occurrerunt;
1 equites vero, ut turpitudinem fugae virtute delerent, omni-
bus in locis pugnant quo se legionariis militibus praeferrent.
3 At hostes, etiam in extrema spe salutis, tantam virtutem
praestiterunt ut, cum primi eorum cecidissent, proximi
iacentibus insisterent atque ex eorum corporibus pugnarent;
4 his deiectis et coacervatis cadaveribus, qui superessent, ut
ex tumulo, tela in nostros coicerent et pila intercepta
5 remitterent; ut non nequiquam tantae virtutis homines
iudicari deberet ansos esse transire latissimum flumen, ascen-
dere altissimas ripas, subire iniquissimum locum; quae
facilia ex diflicillimis animi magnitudo redegerat.
28 The old men of the Nervii surrender themselves and their
families to Caesar from their place of refuge and say that
only 500 fighting men remain out of 60,000. Caesar shows
mercy to the survivors.
I Hoc proelio facto et prope ad internecionem gente ac
nomine Nerviorum redacto, maiores natu, quos una cum
pueris mulieribusque in aestuaria ac paludes collectos dixe-
ramus, hac pugna nuntiata, cum victoribus nihil impeditum,
victis nihil tutum arbitrarentur, omnium qui supererant
2 consensu legatos ad Caesarem miserunt seque ei dediderunt,
et in commemoranda civitatis calamitate ex sescentis ad
tres senatores, ex hominum milibus LX vix ad quingentos,
3 qui arma ferre possent, sese redactos esse dixerunt. Quos
Caesar, ut in miseros ac supplices usus misericordia videre-
tur, diligentissime conservavit suisque finibus atque oppidis
64
DE BELLO GALLICO II
uti iussit et finitimis imperavit ut ab iniuria et maleficio se
suosque prohiberent.
Part Ill. The Punishment cif the Aduatuci
29 Summer, 57 B.C. On hearing of Ihe defeat of the Nervii, Ihe
Adualuci lake refuge in a slrongly fortified position (probably
Monl Falhize on the Meuse). They are descended from the
Cimbri and Teuloni who were lefl here to guard the property
which could not be taken with Ihem on Ihe invasion of Gaul
and Italy (fifty years before).
I Aduatuci, de quibus supra scripsimus, cum omnibus copiis
auxilio Nerviis venirent, hac pugna nuntiata ex itinere
2 domum reverterunt; cunctis oppidis castellisque desertis,
sua omnia in unum oppidum egregie natura munitum con-
3 tulerunt. Quod cum ex omnibus in circuitu partibus altis-
simas rupes despectusque haberet, una ex parte leniter
acclivis aditus in latitudinem non amplius ducentorum
pedum relinquebatur; quem locum duplici altissimo muro
munierant, tum magni ponderis saxa et praeacutas trabes in
4 muro colloFabant. Ipsi erant ex Cimbris Teutonisque pro-
gnati qui, cum iter in provinciam nostram atque Italiam
facerent, eis impedimentis quae 'ecum agere ac portare
non poterant citra flumen Rhenum depositi~custodiam ex
suis ac praesidium\ sex milia hominum una" reliquerunt.
5 Hi post eorum obitum multos annos a finitimis exagitati,
cum alias bellum inferrent alias inlatum defenderent, COn-
sensu eorum omnium pace facta, hunc sibi domicilio locum
delegerunt.
30 The Romans blockade the town with a rampart and forts and
begin 10 move forward siege-engines and build a lower. The
65
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
Aduatuci ridicule the smallness of the Romans compared with
the size of the tower.
I Ae primo adventu exerdtus nostri erebras ex oppido
excursiones fadebant, parvulisque proellis cum nostris
2 contendebant; postea vallo pedum in drcuitu quindecim
milium erebrisque eastellis drcummuniti oppido sese conti-
3 nebant. Ubi vincis actis, aggere exstructo, turrim procul con-
stitui viderunt, primum irridere ex muro atque increpitare
vodbus quod tanta machinatio ab tanto spatio instrueretur:
4 quibusnam manibus aut quibus viribus praesertim homines
tantulae staturae (nam pleriliiique hominibus Gallis prae
magnitudine corporum suorum brevitas nostra contemptui .
est) tanti oneris turrim in muro se posse collocare con-~
fiderent?
31 Seeing the tower moving forward the Aduatuci are terrified
and offer to submit to Caesar, but beg him to allow them to
33 Caesar withdraws his men, but during the night the Aduatuci
keep their weapons as a defence against their enemies.
I Ubi vero moveri et appropinquare moenibus viderunt,
nova atque inusitata spede commoti legatos ad Caesarem
2 de pace miserunt, qui ad hunc modum locuti: non existi-
mare Romanos sine ope divina bellum gerere, qui tantae
altitudinis machinationes tanta celeritate promovere possent:
3 se suaque omnia eorum potestati permittere c-n"
dixenJnt.
. (quod deditione facta nostros praesidia deducturos aut deni-
Unum petere ac depreeari: si forte pro sua c1emenua ac
mansuetudine, quam ipsi ab allis audirent, statuisse~dua-
4 tucos esse"conservandos, ne se armis despoliaret. Sibi
omnes fere finitimos esse inimicos ac suae virtuti invidere;
5 a quibus se defendere traditis armis non possent. Sibi
~ praestare, si in eum casum dcducerentur, quamvis fortunam
a populo Romano pati quam ab eis per crudarum interfid
inter quos dominari consuessent.
32 Caesar agrees to accept an immediate surrender, but the
townsfolk must hand over their arms and he will order their
66
DE BELLO GALLICO II
neighbours not to harm them. The Aduatuci throw a great
number of weapons down into the town ditch, but still keep
back a third of their arms. They then open the gates.
I Ad haec Caesar respondit: se magis consuetudine sua
quam merito eorum dvitatem conservaturum, si prius quam
murum aries attigisset se dedidissent; sed deditionis nuIlam
2 esse condidonem nisi armis traditis. Se id quod in Nerviis
fedsset facturum finitimisque imperaturum ne quam dedi-
3 ticiis populi Romani iniuriam inferrent. Re nuntiata ad
4 suos, quae imperarentur facere dixerunt. Armorum magna
multitudine de mu~ i~sam quae erat ante oppidum
iacta, sic ut prope umrn muti-,~ a~~m
acervi armorum adae&uarent, es. tamen clrclter parte tertIa, i
~t postea persp.!cmm est,)ce1anl atque in oppido retenta,
portis patefactis eo die pace sunt usi. .
collect arms and make a sally. The Romans kill 4,000 of
them, enter the town next day unopposed, and sell into
slavery all the inhabitants to the number of 53,000.
I Sub vesperum Caesar portas c1audi rnilitesque ex oppido
exire iussit, ne qUiiih noctu oppidani ab militibus iniuriam
2 acdperent. Illi ante inito, ut intellectum est, consilio,
que indiligentius servaturos crediderant) partirn cum eis
quae retinuerant et celaverant arrnis, partirn scutis ex cor-
tlce factis aut viminibus intextis, quae subito, ut temporis
exiguitas postulabat, pellibus induxerant, tertia vigilia, qua
minime arduus ad nostras munitiones ascensus videbatur,
omnibus copiis repentin~ ex oppido eruptionem fecerunt.
3 Celeriter, ut ante Caesar imperarat, ignibus significatione
4 facta, ex proxirnis castellis eo concursum est; pugnatumque
ab hostibus ita acriter est tit a viris fortibus in extrema spe
salutis iniquo loco contra eos qui ex vallo turribusque tela
67
 C. IVLI CAESARIS
iacerent pugnari d~it, cum in una virtute omnis spes
5 salutis consisteret. Occisis ad hominum milibus quattuor,
6 reliqui in oppidum reiecti sunt. Postridie eius diei refractis
portis, cum iam defenderet nemo, atque intromissis mi\itibus
nostris, sectionem eius oppidi universam Caesar vendidit.
7 Ab eis qui emerant capitum numerus ad eum relatus est
milium quinquaginta trium.
34 Crassus reports the submission of the maritime states of north-
west Gaul.
I Eodem tempore a P. Crasso, quem cum legione una miserat
ad Venetos, Venellos, Osismos, Curiosolitas, Esubios,
Aulercos, Redones, quae sunt maritimae civitates Oceanum-
que attingunt, certior factus est omnes eas civitates in
deditionem potestatemque populi Romani esse redactas.
35 Peace throughout Gaul follows these successes, and the h"ibes
across the Rhine offer to send hostages. Caesar sets out for
Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, leaving the legions in winter-
quarters, and is given a fifteen days' thanksgiving at Rome.
I His rebus gestis, omni Gallia pacata, tanta huius belli ad
barbaros opinio perlata est, uti ab eis nationibus quae trans
Rhenum incolerent mitterentur legati ad Caesarem, qui se
2 obsides daturas, imperata facturas pollicerentUI. Quas
legationes Caesar, quod in Italiam Illyricumque properabat,
3 inita proxima aestate ad se reverti iussit. Ipse in Carnutes,
Andes, Turones, quaeque civitates propinquae eis locis erant
ubi bellum gesserat legionibus in hibernacula deductis, in
4 Italiam profectus est. Ob easque res ex litteris Caesaris
dierum quindecim supplicatio decreta est, quod ante id
tempus accidit nulli.
68
NOTES
References to other books of the .. Gallic War" are in roman
numerals, to chapters and sections of this and other books in
arabic nwnerals, and to sections in the same chapter in arabic
numerals preceded by §.
I
I. citeriore Gallia: Cisalpine Gaul, or Nearer Gaul (i.e.
nearer to Rome), was northern Italy from the Alps 35 far south as
the River Rubicon (now Pisatello), just north of Ariminum
(Rimini). Caesar was governor of three provinces, Cisalpine
Gaul, Narhonese' (or Transalpine) Gaul (south-western France,
still called Provence), and Illyricum on the northern shores of the
Adriatic. He usually spent the summer campaigning in
Transalpine Gaul and the winter holding assizes and conducting
the affairs of his two peaceful provinces. ita uti (= ut): .. as",
lit. Hin such a way as". supra, "previously", i.e. in the last words
of the previous book (I, 54, 3). Caesar as author uses the editorial
n we" (sometimes the first person singular, as in 24, I), but as
general he always uses the third person singular when writing
about himself. ad/erebantur and fiebat imply repeated action,
"were being brought". Labienus was Caesar's most trusted
officer in the Gallic wars and had now been left in command of
the troops in winter-quarters in the land of the Sequani (west of
the Jura). After the Gallic wars he turned against his old com-
mander and was killed fighting against him at Munda in Spain
in 4S B.C. quam ••. dixeramus: "who we have (lit. 'had')
said form a third part ... ", the pluperfect also appears in 24, I.
quam refers to omnes Be/gas and should normally be quos, but it is
"attracted" into the number and gender of partem, the comple-
ment of esse. The reference is to I, I, 1-6, where Caesar tells us
that the Belgae lived in the area bounded by the Marne and the
Seine, the lower Rhine, and the north-east coast of Gaul. To say
that a free and indepertdent people like the Belgae "were con-
spiring against the Roman people" when they were merely
preparing to defend themselves against aggression is a strange use
of words. inter Se dare is "were exchanging".
2. coniurandi .•. causas: II these were the reasons for
their conspiring". This is indirect statement still depending on
69
 NOTES
tertior Jiebat in the previous sentence. The dependent verbs
vererentur and sollicitarentur are in the subjunctive in oratio
ob/iqua (reported speech) because they are part of what Labienus
told Caesar; but the verbs that follow are in the indicative because
Caesar is now giving his own account of the reasons for the restless-
ness of the Gauls-or perhaps he simply made a slip and the verbs
would nonnally all be in the subjunetive. omni pacata Gallia:
"when (or 'if') all Gaul was pacified", i.e. subdued; the ablative
absolute refers to the future because the conquest was not yet
completed. The historian Tacitus, referring to the Roman
conquest of Britain a century later, makes a bitter remark about
his own people, ubi solitudinem jaciunt, pacem appellant, U when
they have made a desert they call it peace", in a speech supposed
to have been made by the British leader (Agricola, 30). Ga/lia
here means U Celtic Gaul", the central portion of the country
excluding the Belgae and Aquitania in the south~east (I, I, I
and 7). We should expect to find ad se rather than ad eos
(" against them "), referring to the Belgae, who are the subject of
vererentur.
3. DOD nullis: often written as one word, nonnullis. This is
divided into tWo classes, partim (eis) qui •. OJ partim (eis) qui . .. J
lit. "by some Gauls, partly (those) who ... , partly (those) who ...",
i.e. U by certain Gauls, some of whom .. others ...n. ut •••
oj
ita: "just as they had not wanted the Germans .. 0' so were now
annoyed (lit. c were bearing it heavily') that the army . . . ".
The Germans had crossed the Rhine and sertled in eastern Gaul
about fourteen years before this time, until they were defeated by
Caesar Bnd driven back into their own country in 58 B.C. (I, 3 I-54).
mobilitate ••• animi: owing to the fickleness and unsteadiness
U in the army who often took command of a legion; Caesar had
of their character"; Caesar more than once refers to these
weaknesses in the Gallic nature. novis imperiis means II a change
of rule", which they wanted even if the change was for the worse.
The Aedui and the Sequani are the tribes referred to here.
4- ab non Dullis: the verb is sollicitabantur, understood from
sollicitaTentuT in § 3; "the Belgae were also being stirred up by
certain (other) people, because ... " a potentioribu5 Rtque eis
qui: "by the more powerful chieftains and by those who . , .";
the two classes mentioned here would often consist of the same
people. ad conducendos • _ • facultates: "means for hiring
men", i.e. to serve as mercenary soldiers. vulgo regna occupa-
bantur: "royal power was generally seized"; Tegna is plural
because this process occured in several states. eam rem: that U dar, which is frequently used by all Latin writers to make the
object", i.e. royal power. nostro imperio is "under our (i.e.
70
NOTES
Roman) rule", ablative of attendant circumstances, or ablative of
time when; "during our rule u.
2
I. Duntiis: Umessages", not messengers, which would require
a preposition. commotus is U influenced" or U prompted";
Caesar would not be "disturbed" at this news because he had
probably already decided on the conquest of the Belgae. The
"two new legions" raised from Italians living in Cisalpine Gaul
were the 13thand 14th. His troops in Transalpine Gaul consisted
offour veteran legions (the 7th, 8th, 9th, and loth), two new legions
(the 1 nh and 12th), which he raised in Cisalpine Gaul at the
beginning of his first campaign in 58 B.C. (I, 10, 3), and now these
two just mentioned, making a total of about 30,000 men, together
with Gallic auxiliaries, both infantry and cavalry, raised in the
Province, making up another 10,000 men. inita aestate: U at
the beginning of the summer", lit. "summer having been begun"
(from ineo). The campaigning season began in early summer
after the troops had spent the winter in permanent winter-quarters.
interiorem Galliam is here used for the more common ulteriorem
Galliam, "Further (i.e. Transalpine) Gaul", and must be taken
with the qui-clause, which is a relative clause of purpose, "to lead
them into . . ."; or it may mean U into the interior (part of)
Gaul", i.e. northern Gaul. Q. Pedium was the son of Caesar's
sister Julia; he was named as one of his heirs and was elected
consul for the second time in 43 B.C, with Octavian (Augustus),
but died in the same year. A legatus was an officer of high rank
eight legati at this time (the context will usually distinguish between
a general and an ambassador; the English "legate" can be used
for either).
2. cum • • • inciperet: "when first there began to be
plenty ... ". Caesar seldom gives an exact date or even a month.
The time must have been early June, and the fodder was needed
for the pack animals that carried the baggage of the army Bnd for
the cavalry horses. ad exercitum: in the land of the Sequani (see
the note on Labienus in I, I).
3. dat negotium ••. uti (= ut) ... cognoscant: "he assigned'
to the . . . the task of finding out . . .". dare negotium is almost
equivalent to imperare. Notice the "historic present" tense of
narrative more vivid; it should be translated by a past tense, and
71
 NOTES
can be followed either by primary or historic tenses of the sub-
junctive, or even by both in the same sentence. ea quae • • •
gerantur: "what was happening", lit. "those things which",
a relative clause (not an indirect question), whose verb is subjunc-
tive because it is a clause .depending on an indirect command
(oratio cbliqua). se refers to Caesar; "and to inform him .•. ".
4. manus cogi: "that bands of men were being collected".
conduci is "was being assembled".
s. dubitandum (esse) ..• profisceretur: "he thought that he
should not hesitate to set out against [hem",; non dubito quin
normally means" I do doubt that ... " and non dubito with the
infinitive is "I do not hesitate to ... ", hut here the first construc-
tion is used with the meaning of the second. U He did not think
that he should ... " is the same as "he thought that he should not".
diebus quindecim: a'Jlative of time within which.. Caesar
probably joined his army at Vesontio (Besam;on) and marched
by easy stages along the eastern bank of the Matrona (Marne) to
the land of the Remi (Reims), who we read in the next chapter
were U the people of Gaul nearest to the Belgae u.
3 qui-dauses. The imperfect SUbjunctive consentirent is strange
I. eo: anadverbj "there", lit. "thither", i.e. adfines Belgarum.
eeleriu! omni opinione is U earlier than anyone expected ", lit.
H than all expectation", ablative of comparison, used after a
comparative adverb only in such phrases as this. For this
restricted meaning of Gallia as Central Gaul, see the note on
Gallia in I, 2. legatos: "as envoys". primos means U leading
men".
2. qui dicerent: a purpose clause i "they were to say that ... IJ,
lit. U who should say". From here to the end of the chapter relates
what they said, so that the main verbs are in the infinitive and all
dependent verbs in the subjunctive, of which the last, consentirent,
is in historic sequence, like miserunt qui dicerent, but the others are
in primary sequence, present or pedect, for the sake of vividness.
se susque omnia: these words are the object of permittere,
with another se understood as the subject because se appearing
twice would be awkward (so also in 3 I, 2); U they entrusted
themselves . . . to the protection (lit. 'faith ') and . . .... The
Remi were the first Gallic people outside the Province, with the
exception of the Aedui (who became allies of Rome in about
121 B.C.) to join Caesar of their own free will and the only one to
serve him loyally all through the war. coniul'Qsse = coniuravisse.
72
NOTES
3. paratos esse: supply 5e again as the subject. The first et
that follows means U both", and the object of recipere and iuvare
is tum, i.e. Caesarem, understood. oppidis is local ablative, "in
their towns", .and jrwnento ceterisque rebus is ablative of means,
"with corn ... ".
4. cis Rhenum: i.e. on the Gallic side, which was nearer to
Rome. The mood and tense of qui incolant has been explained in
the note on § 2; tr." ~o lived". Caesar had defeated and driven
back across the ~..\ the Germans under Ariovistus in the
previous year (I, 31-54}, but some of the Germans who had
previously settled in Gaul continued to live there. sese cum his
coniumdsse: we say "had joined them", but coniungere is tran-
sitive and requires a reflexive object when used intransitively.
5. eorum omnium: "of them all", i.e. of the Belgae and the
Germans. Suessiones is the object of deterrere pocuerint, of which
U the Belgae" understood is the subject, and ne . . . quidem is
"not even"; "so great that they had not been able to prevent
even the Suessiones ... from combining with them (the Belgae
and Germans)". SUDS refers to the Remi, as also does ipsis,
though secum might have been used instead of cum his. et must
be supplied between utantur and unum, to connect the two
when the other verbs depending on qui dicerenl are all primary
(present or perfect) subjunctive. iure ••• legibus: ius was the
constitution, or principles of justice, and leges the actual laws.
imperium means "government" and magistratum "magistracy".
4
I. quid ••• pOlsent: U how powerful they were", lit. U to what
extent (adverbial accusative) they were able", indirect question,
like quae . .. essent. sic reperiebst: "he discovered the following
facts", lit. "thus". The imperfect suggests repeated enquiries.
We should probably insert "Caesar" as the subject, since Rem" is
the subject of the preceding verbs. From here to sumerent is what
he discovered and is all in indirect statement. plerosql.1c Belgas:
we say "most of the Belgae". esse ortos (from orior) ab GernJanis
means "were of German origin", lit. "had arisen from . . . ".
The Belgae were in fact probably of Celtic, not German, origin,
and had moved westwards from the upper valley of the Danube,
first into Germany and then across the Rhine into Gaul. RhenunJ
is governed by the tra- in the passive verb traductos; .. being taken
73
 NOTES
across (or C having· crossed') the Rhine". ibi, "there'" i.e. in their
present position in Gaul.
z. ezpulisse: the subject is eos, i.e. the Belgae, with Gallos as
the object. locus is neuter in the plural; ea loca means "those
districts" or U that region". solosque ••• prohibuerint: II and
they (eos understood) were the only people who, when the whole
of Gaul was attacked in the time (lit. •within the memory ') of
our fathers, prevented the . . . from entering . . .". Caesar
elsewhere uses noster in the sense of II Roman" even when report·
ing the words of a Gaul, but nostrorum here, and nostra in § 7,
refers to the Gauls as well as to the Romans. "The whole of
Gaul" refers especially to the two Roman provinces of Trans-
alpine (Narbonese) Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul, now north Italy,
which the German tribes of the Teuroni and Cimbri invaded
during the closing years of the second century B.C.; they were
defeated by Marius at Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in the Proviace in
102 B.C. and at Vercellae in Cisalpine Gaul in 101 B.C.; see
29, 4·5. jngr~dj is prolative infinite after prohibuerint.
3. qua ex re fieri uti ••• sumerent: "as a result of this (lit.
• from which fact') it came about that they (the Germans) assumed
(lit. (took for themselves '), because of their remembrance of those
events, .•. great arrogance in warfare".
4. omnia , •• ezplorata, "that they had all the facts . . .
fully discovered"; ~xplorata habere is a little stronger than
exploraviss~, IC had discovered". propinquitatibu8
conluncti: "being united (to them) by ties of blood and
marriage". quantam ••• cognoverint: "they had discovered
how large a body of men each (chieftain) had promised for that
war in ... ".
S. From here to the end of the chapter is all in oratio obliqua
depending on Remi dicebant, so that main verbs are in the infini-
tive and dependent verbs in the SUbjunctive, all in the vivid
primary sequence instead of the normal historic sequence after
dieebant in § 4. plurimum ••• vatere: "were the most powerful
amongst them tJ; plurimum is adverbial accusative, like quid in
quid possent (§ I). tn'rtute is ablative of cause; H both because of
their valour and .•. ". has ••• centum: "these could muster
(or "provide") a hundred thousand armed men"; armata milia
eentum = centum milia armatorum (virorum); so also eleeta
sexaginta = sexaginta (milia) electorum (virorum). For pollicitos
we should say co and had promised n. These numbers were
probably greatly exaggerated by the Remi.
6. suos: this refers to the Remi, the subject of dieebant in § 4;
74
NOTES
"the Remi said that the Suessiones were their neighbours".
The subject of possidere is eos understood, i.e. the Suessiones.
7. nostra edam memoria: we should say II even within living
memory"; for the phrase and for this use of nostra, see the note on
patrum nostrorum memon'a in § 2. This Diviciacus must not be
confused with the Aedu3ft'leader of the same name who appears
in the next chapter of/this book and was a loyal supporter of
Caesar; nothing more is known about the Diviciacus mentioned
here. totius Galliae potentissimum is "the most powerful (ruler)
in the whole of ... ". cum ••• tum: U not only ... but also".
imperium obtinuerit does not mean II had obtained" but I I had held
power over a large part of . . .". This is the first mention of
Britain by a Roman writer. Iron Age Celtic invaders came to
Britain from Gaul in about 700 B.C. and ag,ain in about 350 B.C.
and were followed in about 75 B.C. by the Germano-Celtic tribe
of the Belgae, who made a settlement in -Kent and .overran most
. of south-east Britain, as mentioned by Caesar in V,_ 12, 2. Nothing
is known about the rule of Diviciacus in Britain, but it is possible
that when he made himself master of much of Belgic Gaul (harum
regionum) some of the Belgic settlers in Britain, who were at war
with one another' (e.g. the Catuvellauni or the Trinobantes),
appealed to him for help against their enemies and acknowledged
his supremacy, though he may not have himself even visited this
island. Gatba: his two sons were taken as hostages by Caesar in
13, 10 A Roman of the same name was one of Caesar's generals
in III, 1·6, whose great·grandson, also Galba, was emperor for a
few months in A.D. 69. suam is here used where eius would
strictly be correct; suus generally refers to the property of the
subject of a sentence. summam ... de/em here means U the chief
command ... was being conferred on him", not on the Bellovaci.
8. The subject of habere and pollieeri is eos understood, i.e.,
the Suessiones. numero is ablative of respect, U twelve in number",
but we should say simply II be possessed twelve towns", and armsta
= armatorum tlirorum, as in § 5. Nervios: the subject of
polliceri, understood; "the Nervii were promising the same
number"; the same verb must be understood with all the names
in § 9. qui ••• habeantur: "who were considered the most
warlike among the Belgae themselves"; maxime Jeri is used as the
superlative. The Nervii "were the furthest away" from the
Remi because they were the most northerly of the Belgae, except
for the Morini and Menapii, and so had perhaps been the least
exposed to the relaxing influence of Roman civilisation.
75
 NOTES
,. decem et nevem: an unusual alternative to undeviginti or
novendecim.
10. Condrulos • • • milia: this sentence in full would be
Remi dicebant 5e arbitrari Condrusos • . . ad XL milia virorum
polliceri, "the Remi said that they thought that the Condrusi. . .
were promising up to (ad) fony thousand men n. qui .•. appellantur
is "who are called generally (lit. 'by one name') Germans n; the
truth perhaps is that these four Celtic tribes were the latest immi-
grants into Gaul from the German side of the Rhine; see the note
on plerosque Belgas in § I. The numbers given by the Remi
in this chapter amount to 296,000 men, which, like the
60,000 out of 100,000 of the Bellovaci in § 5, are surely greatly
exaggerated. Caesar's eight legions, with auxiliaries and cavalry,
would not amount to more than 40,000 men. Notice that
appellantur is indicative because it is a note made for the reader by
Caesar, not part of what the Remi said, which would be qui
appellarcl~tur, as being a relative clause in indirect statement.
5 distant part of the borders of the Remi ", i.e. in the north, which
I. IlberaUter oratione prolecutus: "having addressed them
courteously", lit. U having honoured them courteously in a speech".
The senatum was the U tribal assembly" of local chieftains, and
obsides means U as hostages", for the good behaviour of their
fathers. quae omnia: the very conunon "connecting relative",
in which qui at the beginning of a new sentence is translated by
the same case of hie, haec, hoe, or is, ea, id; "all these orders were
carried out punctually to the day", or .. by the appointed day".
2. Diviciacum Aeduum: the Aedui were a powerful tribe
living in central Gaul between the Arar and the Liger who had
made an alliance with Rome in 121 B.C. and remained 10¥fll to
Caesar until 52 B.C., when they joined the great rebellion of all
the Gauls under Vercingetorix. Diviciacus was a Druid and
one of the most influential leaders of the Aedui; he had visited
Rome on an embassy in 61 B.C. and had stayed at the house of the
orator Cicero, and did good service to Caesar in the Gallic
campaign of 58 B.C. (Book I). quanto opere: equivalent to
quantum, just as magno opere or magnopere is the adverb of magnus;
"he told him how important it was to the (Roman) state and the
common safety (of the Romans and the Aedui) that the forces
(manus) of the enemy should be kept apart". The impersonal
verb imerest is followed by the genitive (except with personal
pronouns, when the ablative of the possessive adjectives, mea, tua,
76
NOTES
nostra, fJestro, sua, is used). ne conftigendum sit: supply
sibij "that he should not have to fight a battle".
3. id fieri posse: this depends on docet in § 4; "that could be
done", i.e. the enemy forces could be kept apart. The perfect
subjunctives introduxerint and coe-perint represent in oratio
obliqua (in primary sequence after the historic present docet) the
future perfect indicatives of direct speech, when Caesar said
si introduxeritis, lit. "if you shall have led", i.e. "if you lead".
his mandatis: "after giving these orders", which the Aedui
carried out in 10, 5, when they advanced on the land of the
Bellovaci.
4- coactas ad se venire: U had Bssembled ... Bnd were coming
against him". 'Didit is n realised" rather than actually U saw".
neque ___ cognovit: here, as often, neque means et . .. non; uand
learnt from the scouts ... that they were not far away (from him)".
quos miserat must of course be taken after exploratoribus, and we
should perhaps say U the" instead of IC those" scouts. traducere:
this governs both flumen Axonam and exercitum; "to take his
army across the river ... ". in extremis finibus means IC in the most
was furthest away from the point where Caesar entered the
country. For the gender of quod, which could be qui, see the
note onflumen Sabim, quod . .. in 18, 1. ibi: Caesar almost certainly
crossed the Aisne at the modern Berry-au-Bac and pitched camp
near Mauchamp, about a mile and a half away, on the northern
(right) bank of the river; see the plan, and the note on 8, 2-3.
s- quae res: "this manoeuvre". et ... et is "both ... and".
The <lone side" that was protected by the banks of the river,
500 yards away, was the south side. reddebat: this often means
cc rendered" or H made" ; II made secure from the enemy (every-
thing) that was in his rear", lit. II such things as were behind
him"; the subjunctive is "generic" or consecutive. In the next
sentence ut must be taken before com meatus ; "made it possible
(lit. 'brought it about') that supplies could be brought". For
ad eum we might expect ad se, and in eo flumine is of course U over"
or "across that river".
6. ibi: on the nonhern side he placed a bridge-head, praesidium,
and on the other side (parte) of the river was Sabinus' fort, which
was intended to defend the road from Durocortorum (Reims).
In the following year (56 B.C.) this Titurius Sabinus defeated the
Venelli and their allies (llI, 17-19) by feigning cowardice and
then sallying out from his camp to take them unawares, but in
5S B.C. he was enticed out of his camp by the Eburones, against
77
 NOTES
the advice of his colleague Auruncu1eius Cotta (mentioned in
11,3), and was attacked while on the march; Sabinus lost his head
in the crisis, went to parley unarmed with the enemy, and was
killed with nearly all his force of fifteen cohorts, including Cotta,
who fought bravely (V, 26-37). The six cohorts that he had here
would amount to about 2,200 men. ~astra: this refers to Caesar's
main camp on the nonh side of the Aisne, not to Sabinus' fort,
which is caned a castel/um in 9, 4; .. he ordered (the soldiers) to
fortify the camp with a rampart twelve feet high (lit. • of twelve
feet into height', which included a palisade of stakes) and a ditch
eighteen feet wide"; in latitudinem must be understood with the
second pedum, both of which, with the numerals, Brc genitives of
description or quality; for the U chiasmus" in the order of words
see the note on 12, 2. This camp was made exceptionally strong
because of the large numbers of the enemy; the usual dimensions
of the ditch were twelve feet broad and nine feet deep, with sloping
sides, the earth of which was used to build up the rampart td'a
height of about four feet, which with the palisade made the
defences nine feet high.
6 quality or description, with which vir is generally used in a phrase
I. Bibru:: probably Vieux-Laon, about seven English miles
north~west of Berry-au-Bac. The Roman passus was a double
pace of nearly five feet, so that a Roman mile was about 140 yards
shorter than an English mile. milia passuum octo is accusative of
extent of space. ex itinere: "straight from the march",
without making the usual preparations for an assault, but merely
magno imperu, I t with great violence". The position of aegre is
emphatic and can be reproduced in English: U with difficulty was
the defence maintained n, impersonal passive, lit. n it was held
out". eum diem, the accusative of extent of time, could be used
instead of the ablative of point of time.
z. Gallorum ••• est haec: "the method of assault of the
Gauls (which is) the same as (that) .of the Beigae, is as follows".
arque -often follows idem to mean "the same as It; the relative
pronoun can also be used. Notice that the Belgae are here
distinguished from the other in\tabitants of Gaul, though they
are often included in the general name of Gauls. tods
moenibus: dative, indirect object of circumiecta, though the verb
is here passive; "after a large number ... has been placed round
the whole of the fortifications". moenia are the defences generally,
mUTUS the wall that crowned them. This sentence contains two
78
NOTES
ubi-clauses, two ablatives absolute, and two main verbs; it may
be necessary to break it up into two short sentences in English.
iact coepd sunt: when the following infinitive is passive, coepi
is also made passive. defensoribus is ablative of separation; "was
stripped of defenders". testudine facta: U having formed a
'tortoise' ", which was a roof of overlapping shields locked
together over the heads of a party of advancing soldiers, like the
shell of a tortoise, with more shields protecting them in front and
at the sides. The Roman method of assaulting a fortified town,
with an agger (siege-mound), mantlets, bauering~rams, and
catapult, took a longer time but was much more scientific and
efficacious; see 12, S.
3. quod ••• fiebat: "this was easily being done on the present
occasion", though in fact the Belgae did not succeed in burning
down the gates or breaching the wall before nightfall. coicerent
is plural because multitudo is a collective noun; the singular is
generally used. consistendi... Dulli: U no one was able to
stand fast . . .", lit. "the possibility of standing fast was to no
one"; nemini, the dative of nemo, could he used instead of the
adjective nulli, which is placed last in the sentence for emphasis.
4. Remus: "one of the Remi u. summa •.• gratia, ablative of
of this kind; "(a man) of the highest rank and influence". For
the pluperfect praefuerat we should say" who was at that time in
command of . . . ". Jegati de pace: "as envoys to discuss
peace", in 3, I. nisi ••• non posse: this is in oratio obliqua,
giving the message of Iccius taken by the nuntius; "unless help
was sent to him, he could not hold out ... ". submlttatur
represents the future simple of Iecius' own words (the future perfect
would be more common in a future conditional).
7
I. eo: an adverb, "to that. place", i.e. to Bihrax:. de media
nocte means "at about midnight", and isdem •.. venerant is
"using the same men as guides who had come as messengers ...H.
Cretas: Greek accusative plural. Cretan archers and Balearic
slingers were famous. subsidio is dative of purpose; "to help
(lit. 'as a help to ') the townsfolk u. Bihrax was impregnable on the
south and may not have been invested by the Belgae on that side,
so that the light-armed relieving troops might have entered the
town there to drive off the assault on the other side; or if they
did not actually enter the town, their presence on the outside,
79
 NOTES
small though their numbers were compared with the Belgic
hordes, may have been enough to dishearten the attackers with
the threat of Caesar's approach. Auxiliary troops in the Roman
army wefe always native levies, Spanish, Gallic, or German
cavalry, Balearic or Numidian stingers, and Cretan archers; there
was no Roman cavalry.
2. quorum adventu: ablative of time or cause; II on their
arrival". et Remis ••• accessit: "both a desire to make a
sally was inspired in (lit. 'was added to') the Remi, together with
the hope of (continuing the) defence", hostlbus ••• discesslt:
"for the same reason the hope of capturing the town departed
from the enemy". hostibus is dative of disadvantage, often used
with a verb of departing or taking away, like militi in 25, 2. For
the ablative of separation, used with a thing, not a person, see
21, 5, scut;s tegimenta detrudenda. The deponent verb potior
governs an ablative and is therefore really an intransitive verb
which has no gerundive, but this and similar deponent verbs
governed an accusative in old Latin and retain the gerundive in
the U gerundive attraction n construction, as though they were
still transitive verbs, instead of being used as a gerund with the
ablative, spes potiendi oppido.
3. spud oppidum: "near the town". The subject of the
verbs in this sentence is Belgae understood. The relative pronoun
quos agrees in gender with its first antecedent, "icis, not with its
nearer noun, aedi./iciis. omnibus copiis is ablative of accompani-
ment without cum, often used with naval and military forces.
ab milibus ••• minus duobus: "at a distance of less than ... ",
like ab tanto spatio in 30, 3 ("at so great a distance"), and
minus is used as an adverb without quam and does not affect the
case of the following numeral and noun; but in the next sentence
amplius governs the ablative of comparison, milibus passuum octo,
and is itself accusative of extent of space; amplius (with or without
quam) milia passuum octo would mean just the same, "extended for
more than eight miles in breadth", like in alt;tudinem in 5, 6;
amplius, plus and· minus can be used in any of these three ways;
see 16, I. quae castra: "this camp". ut is u as ". Pre-
sumably the Belgae bivouacked instead of using tents, and
although seven English miles seems an enormous distance (we are
not told how far it extended in depth), even for a force of nearly
300,000 men, their army was made up of contingents from many
different tribes which would bivouac separately and without much
discipline. Caesar's camp, with its 40,000 men, had sides each
about 650 yards long.
80
NOTES
8
I. opinionem virtutis: "reputation for valour"; the Belgae
were regarded as the bravest of the Gauls. proelio is ablative
of separation; "to refrain from a pitChed battle", but not from
cavalry skirmishes. quid ••• posset: quid is either another
adverbial accusative, as in 4, I, "how powerful they were, because
of their valour", or facere must be understood, "what they could
achieve by valour"; so also qu£d auderenr, "how bold our men
were"; both are indirect questions depending on periclitabatur,
"he kept trying to find out".
2. non inferiores: in valour, though greatly inferior in
numbers; it was the foreign auxiliary cavalry whose valour he
was testing, not the legionary soldiers, who remained in their
camp. This long sentence requires to be split up into shorter
sentences, e.g. "Caesar realised that our men were not inferior
(to the enemy in valour). (There was) a place (lit. C there being
a place', causal ablative absolute) in front of the camp (that was)
naturally suitable and indeed favourable for drawing up a line
of battle; for the hill where the camp had been placed rose
(editus is from edo) only a little from the level plain and extended
in breadth facing (the enemy, lit. 'opposite ') over as much
ground (lit. 'as much of ground', partitive genitive, with loci
transferred to depend on ta1'ltum) as a battle line when deployed
could cover; it had at each end (lit. I from each part') a steep lateral
descent (lit. 'steep slopes of the side '), and sloping gently in
front it gradually returned to the level of the plain. He therefore
dug a trench 400 paces long (650 yards, genitive of quality or
description) at each side (i.e. the north and south sides) of the hill
at right angles (to it and to his battle line), and at the end of the
two trenches he built redoubts and placed artillery in them;
(he did this) so that when he had drawn up his battle line the enemy
should not be able, because they were so strong in numbers
(adverbial accusative and ablative of respect), to surround his mcn
who were fighting on the flank (lit. 'from the flanks')". The
plan of the battle-field will make this description clear. quod ...
pourat could be subjunctive in C virtual oratio obliqua' inside the
purpose clause, like si ... esset in § 5.
Colonel Stoffel, excavating for the Emperor Napoleon III (who
was keenly interested in the topography of Caesar's campaigns in
France), discovered in I862 remains of a Roman camp near the
village of Mauchamp, a mile and a half north-east of Berry-au-
Bac on the Aisne, at the eastern extremity of a hill about two
81
 NOTES
and a half miles long. He found five gates instead of the us~al
four, two being on the west side, all with claviculae., which
were incwving extensions of the ramparts that compelled a~yone
entering the camp to turn to the left and thus e~p?se hi~ u~­
shielded (right) side to the defenders. The camp IS In a dIStrict
now highly cultivated and was much cut up by tre~ches dug
through it in the First World War and by bombs auned at a
German aerodrome nearby in 1944, so that there is little to see of
it now. No other camp has been found in a position that agrees
with Caesar's description, so it seems almost certain that this is it,
though its size, ahout 2,000 feet square, is small for an army of
40,000 men, which would usually take up a spac~ about half ~
mile each way. This identification involves taking pro castrls
in § 3 to mean not directly in front of the camp (where no~e of the
enemy wefe posted) but in front and well to the left of It, as the
plan shows. The redoubt at the end of the trench dug southwards
from the camp is no longer in existence, and Napoleon assumed
that the river has changed its course in 2,000 years and washed
away the end of the trench and the redoubt. The only other
difficulty is the plural a lateribus in § 4, for the two trenches
defended only the right flank of the Roman position; I?erhaps
Caesar used the plural instead of the singular by an overSIght, or
he may have meant that both flanks were now secure, the left
being defended by the marsh where the Miette runs into the
Aisne, the right by the two trenches.
5. quas proxime conscripserat: "which he had m?st
recently enrolled", in 2, 1. He raised these legions in the sprmg
of 57. B.C. from Roman citizens and provincials living in Cisalpine
Gaul noW northern Italy; they would be volunteers probably
attra~ted by the hope of plunder after hearing of Caesar's successes
in Gaul in the previous year (58 B.C.) and would of course have a
stiffening of veterans and be commanded and trained by
experienced centurions; they were numbered the 13th and I4th
in Caesar's army, which previously contained the 7th to the 12th
Legions' see the note on 2, I. si quo opus esset: "if it should
be nece~sary (for them to be taken) anywhere u; this use of
opus est, "there is need (of)", with the infi~itive (here under-
stood), or a nominative as the predicate, as 10 22, I, ~r (more
commonly) with an ablative, must not be confus~d WIth ?P~s,
"work", The subjunctive is used because the 51-clause !S •In
"virtual oratio obliqua" inside the purpose clause. subsldlo:
"to bring help", dative of purpose, lit. "as a help". Caesar
naturally kept the new legions in reserve until they were needed.
82
NOTES
We have already explained that pro castris means that the battle
line was placed to the left front, not directly in front, of the camp;
the enemy were drawn up to the north-west of it. eductas instrux-
erunt = eduxerunt et instruxerunt.
!I
I. palus: the marsh formed by the River Miette just before
it flowed into· the Aisne. For 1lOn magna we might say "of nO
great size". si ••• exspectabant: "the enemy were waiting
(to see) if our men would cross this"; verbs of expectation and
endeavour are often followed by a si-clause with the subjunctive
which seems to have the sense of an indirect question, though
normally an indirect question is never used with -5i. The next
si-clause is in .. virtual U oralio obliqua (like sr" quo opus esset in 8, 5)
depending on the purpose clause; U our men were ready . . . to
attack them when in difficulties (lit .• hindered', i.e. by the marsh),
if they began to cross it (lit" C if a beginning of crossing was made
by them ') ". So also in § 2 neutri . . . faciunt means II neither
side began to cross".
2. contendebatur: impersonal, lit. "it was being fought in a
cavalry battle", i.e. u a cavalry battle was being fought".
secuntiiore " . . proelio, ablative absolute, H when _the cavalry
engagement was more favourable to our men".
3. quod: neuter, to agree with flumen as its antecedent.
demonstratum est, in 5, 5. Caesar has twice used pro casrris (8,
2 and 5) to mean not directly in front of the camp but to the left
front of it; the plan on page 50 shows that the river was" behind",
i.e. south of the camp and of the battle line. The fords mentioned
here were in fact about three miles south-west of the camp and one
mile south-west of the left wing of the Roman line; by crossing there
the Belgae would avoid the marshes in front of their own right
flank.
4. eo consilio ut: "with the intention of storming"J lit.
"with that plan that they should ... si pOJsent represents the
J)
future simple, and si potuissent in § 5 the future perfect, of direct
speech; both arc again in «virtual" oratr"o obliqua. The Belgae's
own words or thoughts were "we shall try . . . so that we may
storm ... , if we can (si poterimus); but if we cannot (si minus
potuerimus, lit. 'if we shall have been less able '), that we may
ravage ... ", but English is much less precise in some moods and
tenses. cui praeerat is indicative because it is a note by Caesar,
not part of what [he Belgae said or thought. c8stellum:
83
 NOTES
this is implied in S, 6, hut not actually mentioned; the castra
described there is Caesar's main camp, but Titurius Sabinus had
built the small fort mentioned here with which his six cohorts
could defend the south side of the bridge.
5. si minus: often used for si non, either with or without a
verb. ut, from eo consilio tit, must be supplied with popuiarentuT.
qui ••• erant: "who were of great service (predicative dative,
akin to a dative of purpose) to us in fighting the war". The
Remi alone of the tribes of northern and central Gaul remained
loyal to the Romans all tm:ough the Gallic wars. commeatu is
"from getting supplies", ablative of separation.
10
I. certior factus: supply de his rebus, i.e. about the attempt
of the Belgae to cross the river. levis armaturae Numidas:
"light-armed Numidians", lit. "of light armour", genitive of
description or quality; see the note on 7, I, where these auxiliary
troops are also mentioned. traducit governs two accusatives, as
in 5, 4. Caesar sent these men from the main camp across the
bridge guarded by Titurius to oppose from the southern bank
the crossing made by the enemy two miles down stream.
2. acriter pugnatum est: impersonal passive; I f the fighting
was fierce". In the next three sentences the objects, hostes,
reliquos, primos, come at or near the beginning. impeditos is U in
difficulties" or II at a disadvantage", as in 9, I. conantes:
agreeing with reliquos; Ie the remainder, as they tried to cross
over their dead bodies". multitudine telorum is .. with a shower of
missiles", and equitatu is ablative of the instrument, as though
the cavalry were the means, not the agent. qui transierant:
"who had already crossed", before the Roman auxiliaries arrived
to oppose them. circumventos interfecerunt = circumvenerunt et
interfecerunt.
4. This long sentence should be split into two parts by omitting
ubi and putting a full stop at coepit. hostes: the main body of
the Belgae, who were still north of the river; only a part of their
forces had been sent to try to cross at the fords (9, 4). et de
expugnando ••• spem se fefellisse: H that their hope both of
(lit. 'concerning ') storming the town (Bibrax) and ... had deceived
them". neque = et ... non, of which the et goes with viderunt
and the "on with progredi j "that our men were not advancing to
more unfavourable ground to fight a battle" J lit. H for the sake of
fighting"; Caesar's refusal to cross the marshes of the Miette
84
NOTES
is mentioned in 9, I. res frumentaria: Galba's makeshift
organisation could not possibly provide food for his enormous
army, consisting of contingents drawn from so many states which
lost all discipline, as we shall see in the next chapter, when the
order to withdraw was given. For ipsos ... coepit we might say
"they themselves began to run short of corn". constitue runt •••
reverti: "decided that it was best that each man should return
to his own home". The antecedent of quorum is eos in ad eos
defendendos, "and that they (understood from quemque) should
assemble ... to defend the people (eos) into whose land the Romans
should first bring their army". introduxissem represents in oratio
obliqua the future perfect of what they actually said. Presumably
Caesar learne-d afterwards from prisoners what had been decided
at the council of war. ut ••• uterentur: these are purpose
clauses, and copiis here of course means II supplies".
s. haec ratio: this is explained by the quod-clause; .. the
following consideration also, that they had learned that Diviciacus
... , together with the other reasons, induced them to adopt that
plan". For Diviciacus the Aeduan see 5, 2-3. his ••• non
poterat: "these people (i.e. the Bellovaci) could not be persuaded
(impersonal passive of an intransitive verb, lit .• it could not be
persuaded to these men ') to delay ... and to refrain from helping
their own folk". neve instead of neque is generally used in indirect
command or a purpose clause.
II
I. ea re: i.e. the decision to return home. The night was
divided into four "watches" of equal length; in the summer each
watch would be less than two hours long. nullo ••• imperio:
"without any definite arrangement or orders It, ablative of
attendant circumstances. For castris egressi we could say either
II leaving the camp " or "having left". cum.. • peteret:
"since each man desired (to obtain) the first place on the road for
himself". fecerunt ut • • • videretur: II they made the
depanure seem like ... ", lit. II they made that the departure
seemed . . .... fugae is either genitive or dative after consimiUs.
2. The position of Caesar in the middle of the ablative absolute
is unusual and perhaps emphatic. Some deponent verbs,
especially vereor, reor, arbitror (and even egredior in a sentence
like § r), often have a present meaning for their perfect participles,
so that here veriws means" fearing" rather than" having feared".
qua de causa: "for what reason", followed by a subjunctive in
85
 NOTES
an indirect question; quod is "because", exercitum means
the legions, as the following equitatum shows, and casrris is local
ablative without in.
3. ab exploratoribus: these were organised bodies of scouts
"reconnaissance parties", while speculatores (§ 2) were men sent
out singly to scout. qui... moraretur: a relative clause
expressing purpose; "to delay the rearguard", or perhaps here
simply "the rearmost" (novissimos in § 4), because the Belgic host
was in such disorderly confusion. Pedius is mentioned in 2, I,
Cotta in the note on S, 6; and Labienus in I, I, and the note
on it.
40 multa milia passuum: accusative of extent of space; "for
many miles", eorum fugientium is "of them as they fled";
/ugientium alone would mean "of those who were fleeing".
cum: II since IJ; it has three verbs, COllst"sterent and sustinere1Jt,
which are connected by -que, and poneretlt in the clause beginning
with prz'ores, which requires a conjunction like" but". cum •••
cODsisterent: "since the men at the very rear of the army,
whom the Romans had now reached, stood their ground"; this
meaning of ab for II in" or U at" instead of in is common and
occurs twice in 8, 2, ab utroque latere and a lateribus; eX often has
the same meaning, e.g. ex utl"aque parte, also in 8, 2. The ante-
cedent of quos is ei or hostes understood, which is the subject of
consisterent, and venwm erat is another impersonal passive, lit.
u to whom it had been come" i "who had been reached" keeps
the passive form in English.
s. priores ••• viderentur: "(but) those in front, because they
thought that they were ... ", lit. "seemed to be ...". necessitate
. . . imperio is "compulsion . . . authority"; such conduct is
typical of half-trained irregular troops, who often fight with the
greatest courage in the face of the enemy but lose all discipline in a
retreat. The two quod-clauses would normally be in the indica-
tive but are II attracted IJ into the subjunctive by the cum • . .
ponerent clause, as in -35, I. exaudito elamore, perturbatis
ordinibus: the first ablative absolute was the cause of the
second; "having broken their ranks on hearing the shouting",
which came from the men who were fighting in the rear.' omnes
••• ponerent: -'all put their hope of safety in flight", lit. "put
protection for themselves . . . "; the usual phrase is salutem in
fuga ponere.
6. tantsm ••• spatium: U as large a number of them as the
length of daylight allowed", lit. Ie as the space of day was" J an
inexact comparison that a final revision of the book would probably
86
NOTES
have corrected. sub is "towards" or "at", and -que is attached to
OCCa5um as though sub occasum were one word; it could be attached
to sub (see 35, 4, note). destiterunt is from desisto, and ut erat
imperatwn, with ds understood, is impersonal passive, "as they
had been ordered", or we could say "according to orders u.
The troops sent on this mission had a long day's march (many
miles in pursuit and the same distance back to camp) and some
fighting, which was followed on the next day by a forced march
and the preparations for an assault on N oviodunum.
12
I. postridie eius diei: ,ron the (next) day after that (day)";
the genitive, which is "redundant", i.e. unnecessary, depends on
the adverb postridic; we should omit the two words in brackets.
prius quam, often written as one word, priusquam, here has the
subjunctive because the clause means "before they could recover
from ... ", implying that Caesar acted quickly to prevent them
from recovering j the perfect indicative would mean "before they
recovered". magno itinere eonfecto: "by making a forced
march u, rather than "having completed ... ", because he hastened
(contendit) all through the day's march, not after completing it.
A normal day's march for the Roman soldiers, who carried
sixty-five pounds weight of arms and equipment, was about
fifteen miles, and a magnum iter up to twenty-five miles or more,
as circumstances demanded. The distance from Berry-au-Bac
to Noviodunum of the Suessiones, which was probably the
modern Pommiers, two and a half miles north-west of Soissons,
is twenty-eight miles. There were other towns called Novio-
dunum, one in the land of the Aedui (Nevers) and one in the land
of the Bituriges (perhaps Villate).
2. ex: itinere:. "straight from the march", as in 6, I, i.e.
without making the scientific preparations described in § 5 of
this chapter. vacuum ab defensoribus (" undefended") is the same
as vacuum defensoribus, ablative of separation. Caesar presumably
'heard about this from deserters. Notice the criss-cross order of
words in latiwdinem fossae murique altitudinem (instead of alticudi-
nemque mun'); this figure of speech is called U chiasmus" from a
supposed resemblance to the shape of the Greek letter X, chi;
an English example is <C he saved others, himself he cannot save";
see also 5, 6. pauels defendentibus: this ablative absolute is
equivalent to a concessive clause; II although there were few
defending it".
 NOTES
3. c8stris munitis: the elaborate defences of a camp had to be
constructed at the end of every day's march; the Romans could
then begin preparations for the assault to be made on the next day.
vimas agere is "to move forward mandets", i.e. sappers' huts
(described on page 38), the parts of which were carried by mules
or horses among the impedimenta of the army. quaeque...
comparare: U and to make ready the things which (quaeque
= et ea quae) were useful for making an assault"; usui is predica-
tive dative, as in 9, 5.
4. omnis ..• multitudo: "all the host ... (who had escaped)
from the rout ", i.e. when they fled from their camp at Berry-au-Bac
on the previous day.
S. aggere iacto: this means "when earth had been flung into
the ditch", to fill it up so that the Romans could rush across it in
the assault, rather than "when a siege-mound had been con-
structed", as in 30, 3, for which see page 38, because a siege-
mound would take several days to build up whereas the prepara-
tions described here were evidently quite quickly completed.
The wooden towers, mounted on wheels or rollers, were to enable
missiles to be hurIed at the defenders on the wall. ante is an
adverb, and it is possible that Galli is in apposition to the subject;
"being disturbed by the vastness of the siege~works, which they,
being Gauls, had never seen or heard of before"; or it may
simply be the subject of mitwnt placed inside the relative clause.
de deditione: "to propose that they should be allowed to
surrender", lit. "about a surrender". perentibus Remis is
ablative absolute, "at the request of the Remi", lit. "the Remi
asking", followed by the indirect petition ut conservarentur, and
the subject of impetrant is the Suessiones. Notice that this
sentence contains two pluperfect indicatives, two historic present
indicatives, and an imperfect subjunctive; a historic present tense
is regarded as being either primary or historic.
13
I. obsidibus: in appOSItIOn to prlmrs j U having received the
leading men of the state as hostages". armis ... traditis must be
taken as passive (" when all the weapons had been handed over "),
because it refers to the action of the Gauls, not of Caesar. For in
dedt'tionem accepit we say" he received the surrender of ... ", and
for in Bellovacos .. into the land of the Bellovaci".
21. milia passuum quinque: accusative of extent of space,
showing how far Caesar was away from the town of Bratuspantium
88
NOTES
(Breteuil). maiores natu arc "the older men", lit. "greater in
birth", ablative of respect. tendere manus: Ie to stretch out
their hands", to show that they were surrendering. 'Voce
significare, "to declare in a loud voice". sese ••• contendere:
"that they were submitting to (lit. 'were coming into') his
protection . . . and were not taking up arms (lit. 'fighting with
arms ') against ... ".
3. pueri: "children n. passis is from pando; U stretching out
their hands in their (usual) fashion", i.e. as they usually did when
asking for mercy.
14
I. pro his: "on their behalf". In 10, 5 Diviciacus was
coming to attack the territory of the Bellovaci with an Aeduan
army, as requested by Caesar in 5", 2-3, but he was now asking
Caesar to spare them, just as the Remi interceded for the Suessiones
in 12, 5. ad ellm refers to Caesar, and notice that revertor is
intransitive deponent in the present, future, and imperfect tenses
(e.g. reverti in 10,4 is present infinitive), but intransitive active in
the perfect tenses, as here. facit verba: "spoke (as follows)";
the rest of the chapter gives his words in oratio obliqlla, in which
all main verbs are infinitive and all dependent verbs subjunctive j
the first two sentences are in historic sequence, the last two in
primary.
2. omni tempore: U always"; the ablative is here used
instead of the accusative to express duration of time, unless
perhaps it means "at all times". in fide .. , jut'sse means" had
enjoyed the protection ... of the Aeduan state", or possibly" had
been loyal and friendly to . . ."; fides has either meaning.
impulsos: a participle, agreeing with eos (i.e. Bellovacos) under-
stood, which is the subject of defecisse and inrulisse, whereas the
clause Aedllos . . . perjerre depends on qui dicerenr, "who kept
saying that . . .". omnes is U all kinds of . . .", and et . . . et is
"both ... and u ,
3. qui ••• fuissent: the antecedent of qui is eos understood,
which is the subject of projugisse; "those who had been the ring-
leaders in that plot, because they realised how much ... , had fled
to Britain". intulissent is indirect question, which would be
subjunctive in oratio recta also. In 4, 7 we read that Galba's
predecessor (another Diviciacus) had held authority over part of
Britain.
4. The subject of petcre is Bellovacos and Aeduos; it is followed
by the indirect petition ut . . . utatur, "requested that he should
89
 NOTES
show (lit. 'use ') his usual (sua) mercy . . . towards them".
Caesar was merciful towards those who submitted without
resistance but sometimes showed the most inhuman brutality
towards those who rebelled after submitting; see page 25.
s. quod 51 fecerit: n if he did so"; Jecer;t is perfect sub-
junctive, representing the future perfect of direct speech (lit.
U if he shall have done this "), The subject of amplificaturum
(esse) is eum, Le. Caesarem, understood, and the antecedent of
quorum is Aeduorum; to bring out the correct meaning we must
say U for it was by the help and resources of the Aedui that the
Belgae had been accustomed (consuerint = sonsueverint, from
consuesco) to sustain the burden of any wars that broke out",
lit. U to sustain (them) if any wars occurred" •
15
I. honoris ••• causa: "out of respect for ... ", lit. "for the
sake of the honour of ... JJ. Caesar wanted to increase the prestige
of Diviciacus and the Aedui by apparently acceding to their
request to spare the Bellovaci, but he demanded a larger nwnber of
hostages than usual to make sure that they would not give any
further trouble; they remained quiet for five years and were
finally crushed in 51 B.C., in Caesar's last Gallic campaign. For
in fidem we should say II under his protection". magna
auctoritate: ablative of quality or description; U was of great
influence among· . . . ", i.e. "had great influence over . . . ".
multitud,'ne is ablative of respect; "was outstanding in the number
of its people".
3. quorum: this refers to the Nervii; "when Caesar made
enquiries about their character . . ., he discovered the following
facts (sic)", which are expressed in orat!'o obliqua in the next two
sections.
4. Dnllum ••• mercatoribus: II merchants had no means of
access to them", lit. "there was to merchants no . . . ". The
subject of pati is eos (i.e. Nervios) understood; "they did not
allow any wine or the other things that tend to self-indulgence to
be imported", lit. "they allowed nothing of wine and of the other
things ... ", partitive genitive. relanguescere ••. virtutem:
"that their spirit became enervated and their courage diminished".
Caesar tells us the same thing about the Belgae generally in I, I, 3,
and about the Germans in IV, z, 6. eorum could be SliOS.
S. Supply eos or Nervios as the subject of esse and of increpitare,
incusare, confirmare. magnae virtutis is genitive of quality or
90
NOTES
description, <I of great valour"; the ablative could be used with
the same meaning. qui ..• prolecissent: a causal relative
clause, which would be subjunctive in oratio recta also; "they
accused . . . because they had surrendered . . . and had cast
aside their ancestral courage". (eos) confirmare sese: "they
declared that they ...". Supply esse with the two future par-
ticiples to make them future infinitives.
16
I. triduum: accusative of duration of time. We should
insert Caesar as the subject of fecisset or inveniebat, because
Nervi; was the subject of the preceding verbs. The imperfect
inveniebat suggests that he made repeated enquiries, as in 4, I.
amplius is here used as an adverb without quam or an ablative of
comparison" like minus in 7, 4, and milia passuum is accusative
of extent of space; U not more than ten miles away".
2. From here to the end of the chapter is in oralio obliqua,
continuing to describe what Caesar found out from prisoners,
except the sentence in brackets, which is a note added by Caesar.
trans means U on the other side of", and una is an adverb used
with cum and means "together with". his utrisque: "both
these peoples". uti = ut, in a clause of indirect command.
3. atque: a stronger conjunction than et; "were expected
and in fact were on the march".
4. The subject of coiecisse (" had sent "), is Nervios understood,
and the object mulieres quique (= et eos qui) . . • viderentur, "the
women and those who seemed useless for battle on account
of ... "; aetatem means either old age or youth. quo is an adverb,
"whither", but we should say U to a place which an army could
not approach". esset is subjunctive in oratio obliqua, but it may
also be a consecutive or generic subjunctive, which is explained
in the last note on 17, 4. The word aestuaria, "creeks of the
sea ", in z8, I, suggests that the Nervii sent their non-combatants
to the marshes in the estuary of the ScheIdt (Scaldis).
17
I. qui ..• deligant: a purpose clause; Uta choose". The
centuriones were better able to find a suitable place for a camp
than the scouts were.
z. cum •.. facerent: "since a considerable number of (ex)
the Belgae who had surrendered ... had followed Caesar and were
91
 NOTES
marching with him" (una, an adverb again); the tribes concerned
were the Suessiones, the Bellovaci, and the Ambiani; some of
them had perhaps volunteered to serve as auxiliaries in the
Roman army. ut is "as". eorum ••. perspecta: "having
noted the usual order (lit. • custom') of march employed by our
army during those days"; five out of the seven words in this
phrase are in. the genitive case. demoDstrarunt: contracted
form of demonstraverunt. inter singulas legiones: U between
each pair of legions". impedimemorum magnum numerum is
either Ie a great amount of baggage" or H a large number of
baggage animals", which comes to the same thing because the
mules carried the baggage; for the impedimenta of an army,
see page 35. In open or friendly country each legion's baggage
followed it, as the Gauls had noticed, and the men carried their
own packs, but in enemy territory such a long line would be a
dangerous formation, so it was Caesar's custom to mass all the
baggage together in about the centre of the column, including the
men's packs, with the result that the army was now U in light
marching order", expediti, ready for action; we read in 19, 1-3,
that Caesar had adopted such a formation on this occasion, but
the Gallic deserters had not been able to warn the Nervii of the
change in the order of march. neque esse quicquam negoti:
"and that it was quite easy", lit. "nor was it anything of trouble",
partitive genitive, followed by the infinitive 6ldoriri. 'Vem'ssent
represents the future perfect of direct speech and abessent the
future simple; we say "when it had come (or perhaps 'should
have come ') . . . and the rest . . . were a long distance away",
another accusative of extent of space. sub sarcinis: "in heavy
marching order", or "still wearing their packs", i.e. impediti
instead of expediti. The contents and weight of the men's packs
is described on page 34. hanc is the object of adoriri and refers
to the prima iegio just mentioned.
3- qua pulsa: H and if this legion was driven off"; the two
ablatives absolute are equivalent to conditional clauses. Supply
esse with futurum; "it would turn out (lit. 'would be') that the
rest (of the legions) would not dare to stand against (them)";
this is another way of saying reliquas non ausuras esse, and must be
used when the future infinitive of verbs that have no supine
is required.
I 4. The object of adiuvabat is consil£um, and the subject is the
long quod-clause that goes down to the end of the section, whose
main subject is Nervii and the verb effccerunt, to be translated as
"the fact that ... "; it will be easier to make the main sentence
92
NOTES
passive and say, "the plan of those who brought this information
(rem) was supported by the fact that the Nervii . . . ". cum
equitatu nihil possent: "since they had no strength in
cavalry" ; equitatu is ablative of respect, and nihil is adverbial
accusative, as in 4, I, and in the parenthesis that now follows,
where quidquid possunt . . . cop£is is lit. cc in whatever they are
strong, they are powerful in infantry forces ", i.e. "all the strength
they have lies in their infantry", neque __ • student: ufor
indeed up to this day they pay no attention to that part of the
army", i.e. to the cavalry; most other Gallic tribes, except the
Helvetii, were more powerful in cavalry than in infantry. quo
facilius •• _ impedirent: a purpose clause containing a com-
parative adjective or adverb has quo instead of ut. si 'lJetlissent is
subjunctive because it is a conditional clause in "virtual oratio
obliqua" depending on the purpose -clause quo . . . impedirent,
which contains an implied verb of thinking; the pluperfect
represents the future perfect of direct speech; we say U if they
came" or .. if they should come against them to get plunder",
lit. "for the sake of plundering ". ad se might be expected
instead of ad eos. teneris ••• interiectis: we should translate
these ablatives absolute in two different ways; U by cutting into
trees when they are young (teneris) and bending them (sideways),
and, after the branches had grown out thickly (crebris is used
predicatively) in a lateral direction, by planting brambles and
thorns among them". Hedgers can be seen to-day making
hawthorn field-hedges exactly like this, though on a smaller scale.
eft'ecerunt ut ••• praeberent: the subject is Nervii; cc had caused
these hedges to provide for them defences like a wall", lit. cc had
brought it about that these hedges , . .n, instar is an indeclinable
noun followed by a genitive, U the likeness of a wall", in apposition
to munimenta. eis again might be sf'hi, like in eos a few lines earlier.
quo: U into which'\ lit. "whither". inrrari and perspici are
impersonal passives, lit. "it could be entered"; we should say
"which could not only not be entered but could not eveD be
seen through n. posset is a consecutive subjunctive, sometimes
called generic, meaning that it was the kind of place which could
not be entered, but we can hardly bring this out in English;
quo . .. esset in 16, 4 may be another example, and quam quo . ..
posset in 2.1, 3 is a slightly different kind of consecutive clause.
s- cum: "since". non omittendum (esse) consilium means
"that the plan (suggested by the Gauls in Caesar's army) should
not be left untried".
93
 NOTES
18
I. loci ••• quem locum: we do not repeat the antecedent in
English; Ie the natural position of the place which Qllr men ...
was as follows (haec)". castris is dative of purpose. ab summo
'" declivis: '-sloping evenly down from the top", without any
irregularities in the descent. quod agrees in gender with fiumen,
not with its nearer antecedent Sabim, like jlumen Axonam,
quod . .. in 5, 4; the masculine could have been used in both
sentences. supra, in 16, I. The hill on which the Roman camp
was placed was a little to the north (on the left bank) of the Sambre,
opposite the modern Hantmant, about three miles south-west of
Maubeuge, near the village of Neuf-Mensil.
2. pari acclivitate: ablative of description or quality;
I f (another) hill with the same slope rose up", from the southern
bank of the river. huic is the first'hill mentioned. passus •••
apertus: "open (i.e. unwooded) at its foot for about . . . ";
passus ducentos is accusative of extent of space, and infimus is
equivalent to ab infima parte. Notice the meaning of ab in ab
superiore parte, "on its upper part"; ab lateribus occurs in 8, 4,
and ex utraque parte, also meaning "on", in 8, 2. perspici:
impersonal passive, as in 17, 4, but we should say "so that it
(i,e, the wood at the top) could not easily be seen through from
the outside", though introrsus means "to the inside".
3. secundum: a preposition governing flumen. 'Videbantur
is II could be seen JJ, not "seemed". pedum. • • trium:
genitive of description or quality; lit. "was of about three feet",
i.e. "the depth ... was about three feet". We are told in 27, 5
that the river was very wide and had very high banks,
I!/
I. omnibus copiis: ablative of accompaniment, often used of
troops and sWps without cum; it occurs again in § 6. ratio •••
detulerant: u the arrangement ... was different from that which
the Belgae had reponed ... ", lit. "held itself otherwise and the
Belgae had (otherwise) reported"; idem atque is uthe same as" and
alius atgue I t different from", with a word similarly omitted. habebat
is singular because ratio ordoque expresses a single idea. The
report of the Belgae is given in 17, 2 •.
2. For the reading of the Oxford Text, see the Preface. con-
suetudine sua is II according to his usual custom", for which see
the note on inter singulas legt'ones in 17, 2. On this occasion the
troops were expediti, U in light order" J but must still have been
94
NOTES
carrying their tools for fortifying a camp, such as spades, saws,
baskets for carrying earth, mallets, and valli, wooden stakes for the
palisade. post is I< behind") and collocarat is the shortened form
of collocaverat.
3- quae proxime conscriptae erant: "which had most recently
been rsised"; these were the I 3th and 14th, raised in the spring
of this year in Cisalpine Gaul (2, I). claudebant is "brought up
the rear of . . .". praesidio ••• erant: predicative dative'
"guarded the baggage ", lit. "were as a guard to ... ". '
5· neque nostri ••• auderent: "and our men did not dare to
pursue them as they retreated further than the limit to which the
open ground stretched and extended". For the reading of the
Oxford Text, see the Preface. quem ad finem = ad finem ad
quem, and porrecta (from porrigo) pertinebant is lit. "being
stretched out,- extended". cedente5 agrees with i/los, or hostes,
understood. quae primae venerant: uwhich had been the
first to arrive". dimenso is passive in meaning though it comes
from a deponent verb dimetior; the troops ineasured out the
(lines of the) work, i.e. the site and extent of the camp, before
starting to entrench it.
6. prima impedimenta: "the first part of the baggage
train". visa sunt is the true passive again, II was seen", as in
18, 3, and in § 7 of this chapter. quod tempus ••• convenerat:
"the moment which had been agreed upon among them (as the
~ime) for joining battle"; tempus is the antecedent of quod but
IS placed inside the relative clause; it is in apposition to the
clause ubi . .. vt'sa sunt. Notice this special meaning of convenio.
The ut ... confirmaverant clause should be taken after subito ...
evolaverunt; U they suddenly rushed not . . . in the formation in
which (ut, lit. 'as ') they had drawn up ... and had encouraged
one another (to fight)". inter se is another way of expressing
"one another".
,. his: the Roman auxiliary cavahy, who had crossed the
river in § 4. ut = ita ut, "with the result that . . ."; hastes
should be taken from the ut~clause and made the subject of
decucurrerunt. ad silvas: "at the edge of the woods'" the
'
d Istance from the edge of the wood to the river was 'about
half a mile, and from the river to the Roman camp about three-
quarters of a mile. in manibus nostris is U at close quarters with us ".
8. adverso colle: "up the hill", ablative absolute, lit. "the
hill (being) against (them)". contenderunt is U they rushed",
not "marched".
95
 NOTES
20
•
I. Caesari: dative of the agent with 8 gerundive; "Caesar
had to do everything at the same time". erat or erant must be
supplied with the gerundives that follow, but as Caesar did not
himself do all the things mentioned here but gave orders for some
of them to be done we can keep the other verbs passive; "the
flag had to be raised ... ". The vexillum was a red flag that was
hoisted outside the general's headquarters as a sign (insigne) for
the troops to prepare for action. Three separate signals are
mentioned here, the vexillum to show that action was imminent,
the trumpet-call for the men to fall in, and the final trumpet
signum, with proeli understood, for starting the battle. concurri:
another impersonal passive; "when it was necessary for the men
to assemble under arms", lit. "for it to be run together to arms IJ.
opere is the work of fortifying the camp. qui: the antecedent is
ei understood j U those who had gone a little further away to
obtain material for the rampart of the camp had to be swnmoned
back". This agger is the earthwork defending the camp which
was strengthened with timber and stones; agger has two different
meanings in 12, 5, and 30, 3. paulo is ablative of measure of
difference, lit. "by a little IJ.
2. quarum rerum: H of these duties". The two subjects
have a singular verb, impedjebat, though they do not express a
single idea, like ratjo ordoque in 19, 1.
3. erant subsidio: U relieved these difficulties", lit ... were as
a relief to . . . "; predicative dative. The "two things" were
(i) scienta atqlle usus mjlitum, which is explained by quod • .. poterant,
and (ii) the clause from quod to 'Vecuerat, which means" the fact
that Caesar had forbidden . . .". The U previous battles" were
the defeats of the Helvetii and of Ariovistus in Caesar's first
campaign, described in Book I. quid fieri oporteret: indirect
question depending on praescribere; "being trained . . . they
could dictate for themselves what ought to be done just as well
as (lit. •no less conveniently than') they could be instructed
by others". singulos legatos: the duties of Caesar's legati are
described on pages 28"-9. On this occasion, as he often did in a
crisis he had put each one in command of a legion and "had
orde:ed each one not to leave the work (of entrenching the camp)
and his own legion until (lit. 'except when ') the camp was
fortified"; nisi is here used adverbially with an ablative absolute,
as also in 32, I, nisi armis trad~·tis, II except when the arms had been
given up".
NOTES
4. hi are the legati, and nihil is adve1'bial accusative, lit. II in
respect of nothing ", which here is stronger than non and with iam
means U no longer indeed". per se: lion their own initiative".
quae videbantur is "what seemed (necessary) ", with ea understood
as the antecedent and object of admim'strabant; videor often has
this meaning.
21
I. necessBriis rebus imperatis: II ~fter giving the necessary
orders", mentioned in 20, 1. impero is transitive when a thing is
ordered, but requires a dative when orders are given to a person.
ad cohortandos milites: II to encourage the troops"; a general's
exhortation to his men to fight bravely was given whenever
possible, even in a crisis like this, when only· a few words could be
spoken. quam in parter", = in eam partern in quam; I I to whatever
quarter chance directed him ", lit. u to that part to which ... ".
The 10th Legion had been Caesar's favourite legion since he took
over the command in Gaul in 58 B.C., and remained so to the end.
2. non longiore ••• quam uti: .. in a speech just long enough
to urge them to remember ... ", lit. "in a speech no longer than
that they should ... ". neve is used for et ne in an indirect com-
mand; "and that they should not", and animo is ablative of
respect. Another uti (= ut) must be understood with sustinerent;
we should say .. but" instead of I I and" for -que; "but that they
should withstand ... ".
3. The causal clause quod . .. aberant is the reason for signum
dedit and is not part of what Caesar said to his men, which would
require the subjunctive. non longius . . . posset is "no further
away than (the distance that) a spear could be hurled", lit. "than
whither a spear ... "; the subjunctive is consecutive or generic,
implying" at such a distance that ... "; see the last note on 17, 4
for a different kind of consecutive clause. A Roman pi/urn could
be thrown up to about forty yards and the lighter Gallic spears
proportionately further. proeli committendi signum: a
gerund or gerundive depending on a nOUn is always genitive in
Latin, though we say I< the signal for joining battle".
4. in alteram partem: Clin the other direction", i.e. to the
right of the Roman position, for we sec from 22, 1 that the 9th
and loth Legions were on the left. pugnantibus occurrit is "he
found (lit. 'met ') his men already fighting".
s. tanta: must here be translated as "such" (" so great" would
be nonsense), and tam paratus ad dimjcandw-n is "so ready for
fighting". ad insignia accommodanda: "for fitting their
97
 NOTES
badges (on to their helmets)", probably crests of coloured plumes,
different for each legion, that were fitted on to the helmets just
before battle; the heavy iron helmets were carried slung over one
shoulder except in action. The men had no time even to put their
helmets on or "to remove the covers from their shields", which
were made of wood bound with leather and strengthened with
metal, and kept in removable leather cases to prevent the wood
from warping and the metal from rusting in bad weather. seuris
is ablative of separation; when a person, not a thing or a place, is
concerned, the dative of disadvantage is used with a verb of
taking away, as in 7, 2, hostibus, and in 25, 2, militi. tempus
defuerit: we might expect the imperfect deesset for a continuous
result instead of the perfect which usually expresses a momentary
action; but perhaps it means II there was no time at all" instead
of "time was lacking".
6. quam quisque ••• constitit: U to whatever point each man
chanced to come from the work (of fortifying the camp) and
whatever standards he first saw, beside (ad) these he took his
stand" ; quam in partenJ = ill eam partern in quam, and quaeque
= et quae. The standards of the maniples and especially of the
legions were the rallying-points of the army, and each man would
normally fight beside his own manipular signum, so that signis
must be understood with in quaerendis suis, II in looking for his
own standard". The manipulus or double century was no longer
a tactical unit but still had its own signum. tempus pug"andi is
"time for fighting" .
I.
••
magis ut ••• postulabat: U more as ... than as military
tactics and order demanded"; deiectus is a noun with the genitive
collis depending on it. ratio atque ordo occurred in 19, 1 with a
different meaning and again with a singular verb. cum, is
U since" and diversis legionibus is a causal ablative absolute; we
might combine them into one clause and say, U since the legions
were separated and some were resisting in one place, others in
another (lit. 'others in another place '), and the line of sight was
interrupted by the very thick hedges that had been planted as a
barrier"; ante, in 17, 4. Since aUae refers to legionibus we might
expect to find diversae legiones in the nominative case, divided into
U some . . . others". The main sentence starts at neque certa,
with poterant as the verb for certa subsidia and omnia imperia, and
poterat (understood from porerant) as the verb for the quid . . .
opus esset indirect question; U no fixed reserves could be placed
98
•
NOTES
nor could it be foreseen what was needed in each part (of the
battle) nor could all the orders be given out by one man"; there
is a slightly different use of opus est in 8, S (note). Caesar's view
was impeded by the various lines of hedges so that he could not
station reserves in strategic places or direct the battle in the
usual way.
2. in tanta rerum difficultate = in rebus tam difficilibus,
"in such a difficult situation". fortunae; genitive; "various
vicissitudes of fortune also ... ".
'3
I. ut ..• constiterant: U in the order in which (lit. 'as ') they
had taken up their position", i.e. they now advanced in the same
formation in which they -had been fighting; acie may be an old
form of the genitive aciei, or local ablative "in line of battle u.
The Atrebates had charged straight up the hill and were now out
of breath and wearied by running (lit. by running and weari-
<C
ness "). his refers to the 9th and loth Legions, and ea pars to the
Atrebates; "that section of the enemy". conantes agrees with
eos understood, and impeditam means "while in difficulties"; the
river was only three feet deep (18, 3), but very wide and with very
high banks (27, 5).
2. ipal are the Romans, and non dubitaveYUnt is "did not
hesitate". in locum iniquum: "up the slope", or "on to
. unfavourable ground". resistentes hostes is accusative.
3. diversae: to detached",. as in 22, I. congressi is masculine
to agree with milires understood, though legiones is the grammatical
subject. ex loco superiore goes with projUgatis; the Virimandui
also were driven down the hill. it, ipst"s rip-is, II on the very banks",
probably on both sides of the river.
4. totis ••• nudatis: II since almost the whole camp was open
to attack in front and on the left", another instance of a (or ex)
meaning" on", as in 8, 2 and 18, 2. cum is "although", and non
magno imervallo "at no great distance", ablative of measure of dif-
ference. The pursuit of the enemy by the 8th and I nh Legions,
which were guarding the front of the camp, and by the 9th and loth,
which were guarding the left, meant that only the right of the camp
was being defended, by the 7th and 12th Legions. conCerti.simo
agmine: "in mass formation", or "in close array", ablative of
manner. duce Boduognato is ablative absolute, "under the leader-
ship of Boduagnatus", lit. "Boduagnatus (being) leader". ad eum
locum, i.e. the front and left side of the camp.
99
 NOTES
5- quorum pars: fC some of them". aperto latcre is local
ablative without in, "on the exposed flank") the right flank, which
was unprotected by shields and in the case of the 7th and 12th
Legions (called here simply legiones) had no troops on their right
to defend their open flank. summum ••• locum: "the high
ground where the camp was placed"; some of the Nervii attacked
the undefended front and left of the camp, others tried to outflank
the 7th and 12th Legions by going round the extreme right of the
Roman line. The much higher ground -of Neuf-Mesnil was
a short distance to the north of the camp (26, 4).
24
I. levis armBturBe pedites: "the light·armed infantry",
lit. U infantry of light armament" ; for these non-Roman auxiliaries,
see page 35. una is an adverb. dixeram, in 19, 4-7; we should
say "who, as I have said, were driven back". Caesar the historian
generally used the first person plural, as in 18, 2, rarely the first
person singular, and always speaks of himself as the general in the
third person singular; the first person plural perfect and pluperfect
appear in the same sentence in I, I. Bdversis: "face to face",
because some of the Nervii had already reached the Roman camp
by outflanking the legions on the Roman right and now turned
to face the auxiliaries who were retreating into it after crossing the
river again in their flight. jugam petebant is "tried to flee", or
"took to flight".
2. calones were officers' servants, grooms, and other non-
combatant camp-followers, probably all slaves. decumana porta
was the rear gate of the camp, for which see page 36; we should
omit the ac in translation, for it explains that the rear gate was
on the summit of the hill, the camp being placed on a slight
downward slope, with the rear gate at its highest point, nostros
victores transisse: "that our men were victorious and had
crossed ... ", in 23, 2~3. praecipites ••• mandabant: "began
to flee headlong", lit. co headlong gave themselves to flight".
3. eorum qui ••• veniebant: i.e. the drivers of the baggage-
train, which was guarded by the 13th and 14th Legions (19, 3);
these men now" rushed (ferebantur) panic-stricken, some in one
direction, others in another"; see the similar phrase in 22, I.
4. equites Treveri = equites Treverorum; Treveri is really
in apposition to eqw'tes, virtutis opinio: II reputation for
valour", as in 8, I, where it refers to the Suessiones. The
antecedent of quorum is Treveri, not merely equites, au,.,/i causa
100
NOTES
is probably "to serve as auxiliary troops" J known as aUX1'/ia, but
lit. is " for the sake of help". Notice ab civitate, ablative of the
agent (equivalent to a civjbus), but multitudine, ablative of the
instrument. The verb for cum is vidissent. pre~i: U hard
pressed". iegiones were the 7th and 12th (23, 4~5), and
circumventas teneri is "surrounded and held fast". Numidas
refers to the auxiliary archers (7, I; 10, I). diversos dissi..
patosque: U scattered in different directions"; we omit the ~que
in English. desperatis nostris rebus: "despairing of our
fortunes" .
s. pulsos superatosque: supply esse for indirect statement
depending on renumiaverunt; also with potitos, which governs the
two ablatives.
25
I. Most of this chapter is taken up by a long and involved
sentence in which the verb of ubi (" where ") is vidit (after impedi-
mento), repeated (without et) for the sake of clarity lower down, after
angusto. The two main verbs are processit and iussit. The
repeated vidit has nine verbs in the infinitive (indirect statement)
depending upon it, and there are six ablatives absolute, two
deponent past paniciples, a consecutive clause, a causal clause,
and a purpose clause. The sentence can be split up by omitting
ubi and taking the two vid;t verbs as main verbs, and the ablatives
absolute either as main verbs or depending on the second vidit.
Caesar now returns to describe his own actions in the battle,
after digressing to describe the course of events elsewhere, after
occurrit in 21, 4. ab ••• cohortatione: we should say" after
encouraging the loth Legion". urgeri is "were being hard
pressed". signis ••• collatis, ablative absolute; "the soldiers ...
packed together (con/ertos) with the standards collected in one
place". sibi ••• impedimento: predicative dative; "were
hindering one another in fighting", lit. "were themselves as a
hindrance to themselves to the fight", The legionary standard of
this legion, and the thiny manipular standards, were massed
together with the soldiers tightly packed around them, instead of
being deployed at the usual intervals so that each man should
have room to fight properly. The signum of the first of the three
maniples in a cohort was probably also the standard of the cohort
itself. omnibus centurionibus: there were six centurions in
each cohon and sixty to each legion; the loss of a standard was
considered a terrible disgrace, as it was in all armies until the
colours were no longer carried into battle. In the British Army
101
 NOTES
the last campaign in which the colours were taken into action
was in 1881 in the First Boer War. In this battle ,with the Nervii
the standard was recovered when the Romans eventually won
the day. The fourth cohort occupied the extreme left of the
front line of the 12th Legion, one of the two legions on the
right flank, and was therefore exposed to the full weight of
the enemy attack on the camp, since the 8th Legion on its left
had charged down to the river in pursuit of the enemy who had
attacked it shortly before this (23, 3). in his: U among them".
For the duties of a primipilus, the Senior Centurion who
commanded the first century in the first cohort and the first
cohort as well (on this occasion a legatus was in command of each
legion; 20, 3), see page 30. Sextius Bacu1us recovered from his
U many severe wounds" (the ~que is necessary in Latin but is
omitted in English between two adjectives) and served with
distinction at the defence of Octodurus when the 12th Legion
was attacked by the Gauls in the winter of this same year (III, 5, 2),
and again with great gallantry at the defence of the camp at
Aduatuca in 53 B.C. (VI, 38), when he left his sick bed at a critical
moment to repel a German attack, receiving many wounds in
this action also. ut = ita ut, "with the result that", and se
sustinere is U to stand up". The infinitives that follow all depend
on mdit. esse tardiores is "were becoming tired", lit. "were
slower". nOD nullos is sometimes written as one word
nonnullos, U some"; with a novissimis it means U some of those in
the rear"; this meaning of novissimis and of ab both occur in
II,4; so also a/ronte is "in front" and ab utroque latere lion each
flank". deserto proelio is ablative absolute, and excedere is "were
retreating". hostes neque •.• et ••• : "and that the enemy did
not stop advancing from ... and ... ". rem esse in angusto:
U that the situation was critical", lit. II in a narrow (place)".
quod • . • posset: subjunctive in a relative clause in oratio
obliqua, but it would be subjunctive also in direct speech because
it is a consecutive or generic clause, U such as could be sent up",
but we can say simply II which could be sent up".
2. The main sentence starts here, after the ubi~clauses, the
ablative absolutes, and the indirect statements depending on the
repeated vidit. uni militi is dative of disadvantage used after a
verb of taking away (like hostibus in 7, 2), and ab novissimis is
like the same phrase a few lines higher up j "snatching up a
shield from one of the soldiers in the rear ranks". quod is
U because", and eo is an adverb; the Commander-in-Chief would
not normally carry a shield, as he would not expect to go into
102
NOTES
action himself at close quarters j officers and centurions also did
not carry shields as a rule, though they were in the thick of the
fighting. Dominatlm: Caesar evidently knew the names of
most, if not all, of the centurions in his army, which no doubt
accounted in part for their loyalty to him. laxsre: because the
troops had become too closely packed together, as mentioned at
the beginning of this chapter. The object of iussit is eos, the
standard-bearers and centurions. signa in/erre is a phrase often
used for "to advance", because wherever the standard~bearers
took the standards the soldiers were bound to follow. quo
fscilius: quo is always used instead of ut when the purpose clause
contains a comparative adjective or adverb, as in 17,4.
3. cui us ••• animo: .. on his arrival hope was given to ... and
their courage renewed". cum pro se quisque: "since each
man individually", lit. "each for himself". etiam ••• rebus:
"even in his own very great peril u. Beware of confusine: operam
with opus.
26
I. iuxta constiterat: .. had taken up a posIUon close by",
to the right of the 12th Legion, on the extreme right of the line.
tribunos ••. inferrent: "commanded the military tribunes (to
give orders) that the (two) legions should close up (lit. 'join
themselves together ') and should wheel round and face the
enemy") lit. "should advance the turned round standards
against ... ". This means that the rear rank wheeled round to
oppose the enemy who were attacking from the rear, and probably
that the flank cohorts turned right and left respectively to ward
off attacks from each side; the same phrase is used in I, 25, 7, in
the battle against the Helvetii in 58 B.C., but on that occasion only
the front and rear of the Roman line were involved, not the
flanks. For the military tribunes, sec page 29; they would not be
experienced enough in warfare to be able to handle troops on
their own initiative in such a crisis and were merely relaying
Caesar's orders to the centurions, but we may wonder where the
legati in charge of these two legions were at this moment.
2. quo facto: "whereupon", lit. "which having been,done".
alius alii is II one man ... to another". aversi, " with their backs
turned", i.e. in the rear.
3. quae ••• fuerant: .. which had formed the baggage-guard
(predicative dative) at the rear of the column)l, as mentioned in
19, 3; these were the newly~raised legions, the 13th and I4th.
proelio ••• incitato: .. having quickened their pace on hearing
103
 NOTES
news of the battle". in summo colle: i.e. the hill of Neuf-
Mesnil, a little to the north of, and behind, the Roman camp;
when they reached the crest of this hill they could be seen by the
enemy.
4. castris hostium: on the other side of the river, on the top
of the rising ground behind the wood in which the Nervii first
concealed themselves (18, 2-3). We now learn that Labienus
was in command of the loth Legion, which together with the
9th had crossed the river and pursued the Atrehates up the hill
(23,2). quae res gererentur, "what was happening", is an indirect
question, and subsidio nostris, "to help Qur men", dative of purpose.
s. qui are "the men of the loth Legion", with an antecedent
taken from decimam legionem. The flight of the cavalry and the
camp-followers is described in 24, 1-2. quo ••• esset: "the
state of the battle", lit. "in what a position the matter was".
'Utrsaretur is singular with imperalOr, but refers also to castra and
iegiones; "were placed". nihil • 0 • fecerunt: U made all
possible speed", lit. "made nothing left undone (partitive
genitive) for themselves with regard to speed".
Z7
Io horum adventu: "on the arrival of these men", temporal
and instrumental ablative. rerum, "in the situation", For
nostri, etiam qui we should say" even those of our men who had
fallen . . ."; procubuissent is a consecutive or generic relative
clause (like quo . .. posset in 17, 4), meaning "such men as had
fallen". etiam... occurrerunt: "even though unarmed,
went to meet the armed foe".
2. quo • 0 • praeferrent: U in order that they might show
themselves superior to the soldiers of the legions"; quo is used
in this purpose clause instead of ut because there is a comparative
adjective implied in se praeferrent (see the last note on 2S, 2).
3. etiam ••• salutis! "even when all hope of safety was lost",
lit. U in the last hope . . .". primi eorum is U their front ranks".
proximi •• insisterent: '~those who were next to them took
0 as in 13, 2-3. una is an adverb again. collectos (esse) dixeramus,
their stand upon them as they lay dead". For ex corporibus we
might say "while standing on their bodies", rather than "from"
or "on",
4. his refers to the proximi; "when these had been ,struck
down and the corpses piled up in heaps". qui superessent is
another consecutive or generic clause, as in § I; "such as
survived", i.e. .. the survivors" J an indefinite statement, compared
104
NOTES
with the definite statement in 28, 2, omnium qui supererant,
Clof all those who (actually) survived"; we cannot distinguish
them in English. ut ex tumulo: U as though from a hill". pila
intercepta remitterent = interciperent et remitterent; the subjunc-
tives still depend on the ut after praestiterunt. The Roman
pi/um had a head of soft iron that bent when it struck a hard object
like a shield so that it could not be pulled out and liung back; but
the Nervii apparently caught the pi/a in Bight and hurled them
back at the Romans.
S. ut = ita ut in a consecutive clause; "so that it ought not
to be thought (iudicari) that men of such great courage (genitive
of quality or description) had without good ,eason (nequiquam,
i.e. without good hopes of success) dared to cross . . . and to
advance over very unfavourable ground", i.e. up the steep slope
to the Roman camp. quae ••• redegerat: "(all) these (tasks)
their great courage (lit. 'greatness of spirit ') had made easy
instead of being (ex) very difficult", Caesar more than once
praises the courage of the Gauls, but never in such generous terms
as these. In the words of Wellington about Waterloo, this battle
was H a damned nice thing, the closest run thing that ever you
saw in your life", which might easily have ended Caesar's career
and his life too.
z8
I. (acto: "fought". prope .. , redacto, "when the nation and
name (i.e. perhaps 'the power') .. , had been reduced to almost
utter destruction"; this was obviously an exaggeration, perhaps
made intentionally by the Nervian envoys to rouse Caesar's pity,
because in S4 B.C, they had recovered enough strength to make a
dangerous attack on Cicero's winter camp, which was eventually,
repelled with great losses (y, 38-51); they rebelled and surrendered
again in S3 B.C. (VI, 2-3), and they sent a contingent of 5,000 men
to help Vercingetorix in the final revolt of 52 B.C. (VII, 75, 3).
maiores natu ••• puecis: U the older men . . . the children JJ,
in 16, 4; the pluperfect is also used in I, I, and 24, I. aestuaria
suggests that the non-combatants were sent away for safety
(collectos) to the creeks and matshes of the estuaty of the Scaldis
(Scheidt). victoribus nihil impeditum: "that nothing (was)
too hard for the victors". For the indicative omnium qui supererant
(on which consensu depends), see the note on qui superessent in
27,4·
105
 NOTES
2. ex sescentis • . • redactol esse: II that they had been
reduced from 600 senators to three. . .... flix goes with quingencos,
and qui ..• possent is another consecutive or generic subjunctive,
II such as could .. ,", as well as being in oralio obligua.
3. ut ••• usus (esse) •.• videretur: "so that he should be
seen to have shown mercy towards pitiful suppliants"; we omit
the et in translation. Caesar often behaved with the most
callous brutality towards a conquered foe (especially after a
rebellion; see page 25), and perhaps he later regretted his
clemency on this occasion when the Nervii thrice took up arms
against him, as mentioned in the note on § I. conservavit:
"protected them from harm tJ • uti is II to keep", or II to go on
using". ut ••• prohiberent: "to restrain themselves and their
dependents from (doing) outrage and injury (to the surviving
Nervii) ".
29
I. supra: in 16, 3, when they were said to be on the march to
help the Nervii; they had promised 19,000 men in 4, 9. cum,
Ie although". auxilio is dative of purpose, and ex itinere "while still
on the march" or II without halting", a different meaning from
that in 6, I and 12, 2.
z. sua omnia: "all their possessions". natura is "by its
natural position". The site of this town was probably Mont
Falhize, on the north bank of the Meuse, opposite Huy and
nineteen miles west of Namur; the river flowed round it in a
horse-shoe curve that allowed the town to be approached only
from the north-east, where it was strongly fortified.
3. quod cum ••• haberet: "although this town was built on
very steep rocks and commanded views on every side round about",
lit. II in a circle". Notice again this common use of ex or ab to
mean "on" or "in", for which see the note on II,4; so also
una ex parte is "on one side", the north-east. The subject of
relinquebatur is aditus, "a gently sloping approach of not more
than 200 feet in breadth"; see the note on amplius without quam
in 7, 3; it is here used as an adverb, and ductntorum pedum is
genitive of description depending on aditus. duplici ••• muro:
"with a double wall of great height"; the et or -que that usually
connects two adjectives (as in 25, 2, multis gravibusque vulneribus)
can be omitted if one of them is an adjective of place, size, or
number. tum is co (and) at that time"; they were still engaged
in placing stones of great weight (genitive of description or
quality) and pointed beams upon the wall to repel an attack.
106
NOTES
4. The invasions of the Cimbri and Teutoni are mentioned in
the note on 4, 2. provincia nostra means Transalpine or Narbonese
Gaul, still called Provence, which was made into a province in
lIB B.C. Italiam means northern Italy, at that time Caesar's
province of Cisalpine Gaul, as in 35, 2. eis ••• depositis:
"leaving behind the (cattle and) baggage"; the verbs agere ac
portare (U drive and carry") show that part of their impedimenta
consisted of cattle. We do not translate eis in a relative clause
like this. citra is the western or Gallic bank, which was nearer
to Rome, as in 3, 4. ex suis depends on sex milia homi1zum, and
custodiam ac praesidium are in apposition, U as a guard and a
garrison"; the guard was perhaps for the cattle and the garrison
to defend the baggage and the place itself. una is an adverb,
"with it", i.e. with the baggage.
s. hi: the 6,000 who were left behind, and post eorum obitum,
U after the destruction of the others J1, refers to the annihilation of
the main body of Cimbri and Teutoni by Marius' at Aquae
Sextiae and Vercellae in 102 and 101 B.C. multos annos:
accusative of duration of time. alias . . . alias are adverbs, and
inlatum agrees with bellum understood; U sometimes made war,
sometimes defended themselves against war made (on them by
others)". eorum omnium: i.e. of all their Gallic neighbours.
domicilio, dative of purpose; II as a home".
3"
I. adventu: ablative of point of time; "on_ the arrival",
depending on the genitive exercitus nostri. parvulis proeliis,
U in skirmishes J1, local ablative without t·n, like oppido in the next
section. vallo ••• circummuniti: "being hemmed in by a
rampart 15,000 feet in length", lit. "circumference", i.e. just
under three English miles. The rampart did not blockade the
town entirely but only on the north-east, where it shut in the horse-
shoe bend of the Meuse from one part of the river to the other.
quindecim milium is genitive of description or quality, with pedum
depending on it; Caesar generally expresses long distances in
passus, not pedes. sese continebant: "they remained".
3. For vineae, agger, and turris, see page 39. This agger was
the "siege-mound" used for-blockading a town, not the "loose
earth" of 12, 5; a siege-mound was a very elaborate structure of
timber and earth that was gradually built nearer and nearer to
the walls until the attackers could make the final assault from it.
cO'nstitui is present infinitive passive, U was being erected".
107
 NOTES
The turris was at first a long way off, but it would gradually be
pushed forward on rollers to protect the men working on the
agger as it too drew near the walls; the defenders did not know
this, and at first laughed at the Roman's efforts. irridere and
increpitare: these arc historic infinites used in repeated or vivid
descriptions; "began to laugh at our men . . .". fJocibus, in
Celtic, but the Gallic auxiliaries in the Roman army would
translate the taunts to the Roman soldiers. quod ... instrueretur
is subjunctive because it gives the reason in the minds of the
Aduatuci; "at the idea of such a great engine being raised at so
great a distance IJ; ab is used in 7,3 in this sense of" at a distance of" ..
4- quibusnam ••• confiderent: a question in oratio obliqua,
depending on rogaverunt understood; It with what hands indeed
(the suffix nam is here sarcastic) . . . did men, especially of 60
small stature ... believe that they could ... ? n; tantulae staturae
and tanti oneris are genitive of description or quality. The
Aduatuci perhaps thought that the Romans hoped to lift up and
place the tower on the wall. est in the parenthesis shows that
this is a note added for the reader by Caesar as historian. In
I, 39, I we read that the Germans, from whom the Aduatuci were
descended, were reported to be men of such great stature that
there was a panic in the Roman army. bretJitas nostra = brevitas
nostrorum, and Gallis, which is a noun, is really in apposition to
hominibus, but we say simply II to the Gauls". It seems from this
statement that the, Gauls generally, not only the Germans, were
very tall, unlike our modern idea of small dark Celts. contemptui
est: predicative dative; Ie as an object of scorn to the Gauls".
For the reading of the Oxford Text, which omits posse, see the
Preface.
31
I. The subject of moveri (passive with intransitive meaning) is
turrim understood. locuti is either locuti sunt, followed by the
indirect statement down to possent, in which case dixerunt governs
se ... permittere; or it is a participle, with dixerunt governing both
indirect statements; "who, speaking as follows (ad hunc modum),
said that ... ".
2. non existimare: supply se as the s1:lbject, and note the
emphatic position of non, which is to be taken with sine ope
divina i U they thought that it was not without divine aid that the
Romans ... ". qui ••• possent: <'because they were able to ...",
3 causal relative clause, which would be subjunctive in direct
speech also. The se in se suaque omnia is the object of permitter,
108
NOTES
CI to surrender "), for which another se must be understood as the
subject; it is omitted, as in 3, 2, perhaps to avoid the repetition
of the same word. From here to the end of the chapter is all in oratio
obliqua depending on dixerunt, with se again understood as the sub-
ject of perere ac deprecari; "(they said that) they requested and
begged (him not to do) one thing only", which is explained by the
indirect petition ne ... despoIiaret, U that he should not deprive them
of their arms" (ablative of separation). sua refers to Caesar, ips;
and se to the Aduatuci. Their own words were si forte pro
C'in accordance with") tua ..• , quam nos ipsi ... audimus, statueris
(fumre perfect, lit. uif you shall have decided", i.e. "if you
decide") . . . , ne nos armis despoliaf)eris (or noli despoliare). si
statuisset is translated CI if he decided", or "if he should decide
that the Aduatuci should be spared".
4. sibi ••• inimicos: "were hostile to them"; see 29, 4~5.
se non posse could have been used instead of 1I0n possent, because the
relative clause is really a new sentence after a semi-colon; "they
could not defend themselves against those people if they gave
up . . .", the ablative absolute being equivalent to a conditional
clause.
6. praestare: impersonal; "it was better for them", or
perhaps" it would be better", because Latin often uses the present
indicative in such impersonal phrases (e.g. longum est, "it would
be tedious") instead of a present subjunctive, which would become
future infinitive in oratio obliqua. si ••• deducerentur: "if
they were to be brought to such an extremity", i.e. that they had
to choose between punishment inflicted by the Romans and
vengeance inflicted by their neighbours. quamvis is an adjective,
" ll::''j", from quivis, an d for a populo Romano after pati we should
say "at the hands of . . .". quam, U than", can be used because
praestare implies a comparative adjective. consuessent: shortened
form of consuetJissent, from consuesco.
32
I. respondit: Caesar's reply, in oratio obliqua, goes down to
injerrent in § 2. magis ••• eorum: "more according to his
usual custom (i.e. of sparing enemies who surrendered) than
because of their own deserts"; in Caesar's eyes they deserved
little mercy, because they had intended to help the Nervil.
attigisset and dedidistent: represent the future perfect of direct
speech, like statuisset in 31, 3; I I if they surrendered (or I should
surrender ') before the battering-ram touched . . .", his own
109
 NOTES
words were civitatem conservabo (which becomes se consttrvaturum
esse), si 'liDS dederitis prius quam aries tetigerit. deditionis •••
traditis: II no terms ... were (possible) except after their arms
had been given up"-; nisi is used as an adverb with an ablative
absolute, as in 20, 3.
z. id quod ••• fecisset: U what he had done in the case of
the Nervii IJ J in 28, 3. ne _••• inferrent: "not to do any (quam)
harm to those who had surrendered to the ... ") or II to the sur-
rendered subjects of ... ". quis and qui are ,regularly used after
ne (and si) to mean" anyone" and II any".
3. The subject of dixerunt is legati, and ofJacere is se understood;
the present infinitive means U that they were already doing", or
perhaps" that they were ready to do". quae = ea quae, lit. U those
things which", i.e. "what", with the verb subjunctive in orat~'o
obliqua.
4. sic ut: "with the result that". summam altt'tudt'nem is "the
very top". aggeris: Caesar's siege-mound (30, 3), which by
now must have been brought up to the edge of or perhaps even
into the 200 foot wide ditch that defended the town in front of the
double wall (29, 3). parte. . . retenta is an ablative absolute
parallel to magna multt'tudinc . . . iaeta, but portis pate/aetis
describes what happened a little later. ut is "as". pace usi
sunt: "they kept quiet", or "remained at peace".
33
I. lub vesperum: "towards evening". For ne quam
iniuriam see the note on 32, 2. This sentence shows that even
Roman discipline could not keep troops under strict control in a
surrendered town at night. Uti... quod: "the townsfolk,
having previously formed a plan, as was (later) realised, because
. . . ", praesidia . . . servaturos (esse) is "would withdraw their
outposts (i.e. from the wall and the 'Val/um mentioned in 30, 2)
or at least would guard them less carefully". It may be better
to make ;nito consilio into a main verb and to start another sentence
at partim. Notice the position of armis after the relative clause.
We might translate cum C'with") as "taking up the weapons
which ... ". cum must be taken again with scutis; "others taking
up shields made from bark or plaited osiers, which they had
hurriedly ... , as the shortness ... "; ex governs t)iminibus intextis
as well as eoru'ce, and the antecedent of quae is scutis. tertia
vigilia: "at the third watch" (ablative of point of time), i.e.
soon after midnight, for the night was divided into four" watches n
IIO
NOTES
of equal length, varying with the time of year. qua • . •
videbatur: "at a place where the ascent, .. seemed least steep" ;
this clause should be taken after the main verb fecerunt. nostras
munitiones were the three-mile-long fJallum of 30, 2 that enclosed
the town within a loop of the river and was evidently built on
rising ground, as his sentence shows, and also iniquo loco in § 4.
omnibus copiis: ablative of accompaniment, as in 7, 3.
3. imperarat: imperaverat, and ut is again" as IJ. ignibus ...
facta, "when the signal was given by means of flares") probably
from the crebra castella on the vallttm. eo concursum est:
impersonal passive; <I a rush was made to that place JI, lit. "it was
run together thither". pugnatum est -and pugnari are also impersonal
passive; we should say .. the enemy fought as fiercely as brave
men were bound to fight . . .". in extrema spe: U in the
desperate (lit. 4last ') hope"; not quite the same as in 27, 3,
where the phrase meant that the Nervii had no hope of safety at all.
iniquo loco: "on unfavourable ground" (local ablative without
in), because they were fighting uphill (ascensus in § 2, even though
it was minime arduus). qui ••• iacerent: a consecutive or generic
relative clause, as in 27, 1 and 4; lit." such men as were throwing",
but we must say" men who were throwing". The turribus were
not the castella built on the'Vallum but additional defences. cum
is "since J1, and in una 'Virtute, "on courage alone".
5. ad is here an adverb meaning II about" J like circiter j with
an accusative numeral it means" up to II or again I I about".
6. postridie eius diei: see the note on 12, I. cum is Hsince",
and the position of nemo is emphatic; H by this time defenders
there were none". sectionem ••• vendidit: U put up for sale
the entire plunder of that town"; seetio meant the dividing up
for auction of property confiscated to the state, hence the plunder
itself which here included all the inhabitants .
7. ab eis qui emerant: these were the slave-dealers (mangones)
who accompanied a Roman army among the camp-followers;
they bought lit auction the prisoners who were to be enslaved,
marched them to Italy, and sold them there at a good profit.
Very few of such slaves would ever see their homes again, and
all were entirely at the mercy of their owners, so that often death
in defence of their country would have been preferable. In
The Conquered Naomi Mitchison tells the story (imaginary) of a
young Gallic prince who was enslaved after the rebellion of the
Veneti (Book III of the Gallic War) and taken to Rome; both this
book and her short stories, When the Bough Breaks, also mainly
about Gauls, are well worth reading. capitum... trium:
III
 NOTES
IIthe number of persons (capitum) was reported to him to be
53,000", lit. U(to be the number) of 53,000"; milium quinquaginta
trium also depends on numerus. This figure is probably accurate,
because Caesar would have a detailed account from the slave-
dealers when they paid him the purchase-money, which was one
of the chief sources of wealth for a victorious general; the soldiers
would no doubt get a share of the proceeds, or sometimes a slave
each as personal servants or to sell. Some of the Aduatuci
escaped enslavement and revolted again in 54 B.C. (V, 38-9)
and also in 53 B.C. (VI, 2).
34
legione una: the 7th, as we read in III, 7, 2. Publius
I.
Crassus was the younger son of the rich Marcus Crassus, who
was a member of the Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey in
60 B.C. Publius was one of Caesar's most trusted officers; he
commanded the cavalry in the battle against Ariovistus in 58 B.C.,
where he saved the day by attacking at a critical moment (I, 52, 7).
quae: the antecedent is the masculines tribes just named, but
the relative pronoun is "attracted JJ into the gender of civitates;
"which are maritime tribes" of Brittany. maritimae would
suggest the Mediterranean to Roman readers, so Oceanum
attingunt is perhaps added for clarity, in deditionem • • •
redactas: "had been forced to surrender and to accept the power
of . . ."; their submission was brief, for in the next year
(56 B.C.) they revolted, and the Veneti, the ring-leaders, were
punished with terrible severity (III, 7-16).
3S
omni Gallia: i.e. all parts that had so far resisted Caesar's
I.
advancf;:; the conquest was short-lived, for revolts broke out
again almost at once. tanta opinio: U so impressive a report";
the barbari were presumably the Gauls who had not yet been
approached by Caesar, and neighbouring peoples like the Germans
and perhaps even the Britons, though only the German tribes
sent envoys to Caesar. uti = ut. quae ••• incolerent: the
subjunctive is apparently due to "attraction", i.e. a verb depend-
ing on a SUbjunctive clause (here consecutive) is sometimes drawn
into the same mood; see the note on viderentur in II, 5. qui •••
pollic:erentur: a relative clause of purpose, "to promise".
daturas and jacturas (esse) are feminine in agreement with se,
Il2
NOTES
as though the subject of poLHcerentur were nationes, not the /egau"
who spoke for the nationes.
2. quas: we say "these", not "which", at the beginning of a
sentence. Italiam II/yricumque were the two provinces under
Caesar's command beside Transalpine Gaul, "Italy" being used
for Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy south of the Alps), and
Illyricum being the country on the northern shores of the Adriatic.
As they were peaceful, Caesar visited them only in the winter
months to hold the assizes and transact other business; a provincial
governor was not allowed to enter Italy proper during his term
of office (normally a year, but in Caesar's case two consecutive
periods of five years). inita proxima aestate: "at the begin-
ning of the following summer", as in 2, I (note), i.e. 56 B.C.
3. in Carnutes ••• Turones: "into the territory of . . . ",
to be taken with legiom'bus ... deductis, but after in hibernacula we
say U into whiter-quarters in the territory of . . .". quaeque...
erant = et in eas civitates quae propinquae . . . erant.
4. ob: -que can be attached to a monosyllabic preposition
(obque eas res), or to the next word, as here, and in II, 6. ex
litteris is "on receipt of Caesar's dispatches". dierum quin..
dec:im supplicatio: for the reading of the Oxford Text, see the
Preface; "a public thanksgiving lasting fifteen days OJ, lit. "of
fifteen days", genitive of description. The Senate could order
such a thanksgiving for a victory, usually for three or four days,
though Pompey had been granted one of twelve days after his
victories in Asia Minor in 63 B.C. Caesar received a supplicatio
of twenty days after his first invasion of Britain in 55 B.C. (IV, 38, 5)
and again after his great victory over Vercingetoris in 52 B.C.
(VII, 90, 8). quod ••• Rulli: U an honour that had fallen to
no one ... "; the position of "I'lulli is emphatic, like that of nemo
in 33, 6. The antecedent of quod is the whole sentence dierum
... decreta est.
II3
 VOCABULARY VOCABULARY
Diphthongs are always long, and a11long vowels are marked. A adfinitas, Matis, t., relation-
All other vowels can be assumed to be short, except that the ii, ab, prep. with abl., by, ship by marriage.
fTom~' ab Jateribus, on theflanks~' adigo, 3, -egJ, -actum, tr.,
quantity of some Gallic names is uncertain. Second declen- ab utroque latere, on bothfianks throw, hurl.
sion nouns ending in -ius and -ium have the contracted genitive (8); ii fronte, in front (23); ab aditus, -us, m., access, ap-
mllibus duobus, at a distance of proach.
singular in Caesar, e.g. fili, imperi. two miles (7). adiuvo, I, -invl, -Hitum, tr.,
abdo, 3, -didl, -ditum, tr., help.
ABBREVIATIONS hide, conceal. administro, I, tr., execute,
. absum, abesse, afut, z'ntr., be perform, give (orders).
act. active interrog. interrogative d,stam. adorior, 4, -ortus, dep. tr.,
abl. ablative intr. intransitive Be, conj., and, and indeed,' attack.
aUus ae, different from, aliter ae, Aduatuci, -erum, m. pl., the
ace. accusative m. masculine otherwise than. Aduatuci, a Belgic tribe of
adj. adjective n. neuter . Bccedo, 3, -cessi, -cessum, German origin, living on the
adv. adverb part. participle mtr" approach, draw neaT; be north bank of the Sabi.
added, be inspired in (7). (Sambre).
c. common pass. passive accido, 3, -cidl, intT., hap- ~dveDtus, -fis, m., approach,
comp. comparative pl. plural pen; be given to (35). amval.
con). conjunction prep. preposition . accipi~, 3, -cepi, -eeptum, adversus, -a, -urn, facing,
mtr., recelve, accept. opposite, face to jace, in front;
dat. dative pres. present acclivis, -e, steep, sloping up- adverso coile, uphill (19).
defect. defective p.p.p. past participle passive wards. aedificium, -I, n., building.
pron. acclivitas, -atis, j., ascent, Aeduus, -8, -urn, Aeduan;
dep. deponent pronoun slope. Aedul, -arum, m. pl., the Aedui,
f· feminine reflex. reflexive accommodo, I, tr., fit on, a powerful tribe of central Gaul
gen. genitive rei. relative put on. living between the Arar (SaOne)
acervus, -i, m., heap, pile. and the Liger (Loire), allied
impers. impersonal semi-dep. semi-deponent aCies, aciel, j., gen. also acie with Rome.
inded. indeclinable sing. singular (23), line of ballic. aegre, adv., with difficulty.
indef. indefinite superl. superlative acriter, acrius, acerrime, aequiliter, adv., evenly, um'-
adv. of acer, fiercely, fo,.mly.
infin. infinitive tr. transitive ad, prep. with ace., to, to- aestis, MatiS, f., summer.
wards, against, up to, for, near, aestuarium, i, m., creek, in~
I, 2, 3, or 4 after a verb means that it is a regular verb like beside, with regard to, at; as let, estuary.
amo, moneo, rego, 'or audio, unless the perfect and supine are adverb with numerals, about aetas, -atis, j., age.
(33)· a~er, agrl, m., land, country,
given. adaequo, I, tr., reach, equal. cerr'tory.
addiico, 3, tr., lead, bring to. agger, aggeris, m., loose earth,
adeo, Rire, Ril, -itum, tr., go rubble (12, 20); siege-mound
to, approach. (30).
adfero, -ferre, -tull, -latum, aggredior, 3, -gressus, dep.
cr., bring (to). tr., actack.
Iq lIS
 VOCABULARY
agmen, agmlnlS, n., column apertul, -a, -UIn, open, ex-
0/ march, body of troops, army. posed, bare, treeless; (p.p.p. of
aperiO, open).
ago, 3, egl, iictum, fr., do;
bring up (Il); drive (29). appello, I, tr., call, call upon.
appropinquo, I, intT., with
alias, ad'fJ., at another time~'
alias ... aWi5, at one time . .. at dat. or adv, approach.
apud, prep. with ace., at,
another.
alienus, ·8, -urn, belonging to among, near.
arbitror, I, dep. fr., think.
another. arbor, arboris, ,., tTee.
alius, alia, aliud, other, an-
other; alius alia in parte, some in arcesso, 3, -lvi, -Itum, tr.,
send for, summon.
one place, others in another (22); arduus, -a, -urn, steep, diffi-
alius, alii, to one another (26);
cult.
adf), aliter, otherwise, differently aries, arietis, m., battering-
alter, -era, -erum, one of two, ram.
the other of two,' another. arma, -orum, n. pl., arms,
altitudi), -tudinis, j., height, weapons.
depth. armatura, -ae,f., equipment;
altus, -a, -urn, high, deep. levis armatlirae Numidae, light-
Ambiini, -arum, m. pl., the armed Numidians.
Ambiani, a Gallic tribe living on armo, I, tr., arm; p.p.p.
both sides of the Samara armatus, armed.
(Somme) in Normandy. asceodo, 3, ascendl, -cen-
Bblicitia, -ae, j., friendship. sum, tr., climb up.
amitto, 3, amIsl, amissum ascensus, -us, m., ascent,
IT., lose. climb.
amplifieD, I, tr., increase, at, conj., but.
enlarge. atque, conj., and, and in-
amplius, compo adv., more, deed,' Idem atque, the same as;
more than. aliter atque, otherwise than.
Andecumborius, -I, m., Atrebites, -urn, and Atre-
Andecumborius, a leader of the bati, -orum, m.pl., the Atrebates,
Remi. a Belgic tribe living north of the
Andes, -iurn, m. pl., the Samara (Sonune).
Andes, a Gallic tribe living attingo, 3, -tigl, -tactum, fr.,
north of the Liger (Loire) in touch, border on.
Brittany. auctoritis, -ads, f., influ-
aogustus, -a, -urn, narrow, ence, authority.
difficult; n. as noun, angustum, audacter, audacius, audacis-
a critical position (25). sime, adv. of audax, boldly.
animus, -I, m., mind, pur- audeo, 2, ausus, semi-dep.
pose, courage, spirit; pl., spirits. intr., dare, be bold.
aonus, -1, m., year. audio, 4, tr., hear.
ante, prep. with ace., before, Aulerci, ~orum, m. pl., the
in/ront 0/; as adv., before. Aulerci, a Gallic tribe living on
aotiquitus, adv., long ago, in the Sequana (Seine) in Nor-
ancient time~. mandy.
u6
VOCABULARY
Auruoculeiua, -I, m., Lucius
Aurunculeius Cotta, one of Cae-
sar's legat; (II), killedinS4B.c.
aut, coni., or; aut . . . aut,
either . .. or.
autem, conj., moreOfJer, but.
auxilium, Ri, n.,help, aid,
reinforcemems; pl., auxiliary
forces.
averto, 3, 3verti, aversum,
tr., turn" turn away; p.p.p.
3versus, in the rear.
Axooa, ~ae, f., the Axona,
the river Aisne.
B calo, calonis, m., camp-fol-
Baculus, -I, m., Publius Sex-
tius Baculus, Senior Centurion
the 12th Legion (2S).
Baleiris, -e, Balearic, from
the Balearic Isles, which pro-
duced famous slingers.
barbarus, -I, m., barbarian,
native.
Belgae, -arum, m. pl., the
Belgae, a group of tribes living
in Belgic Gaul, between the
Sequana (Seine) and the Rhine.
Bellovaci, -orum, m. pl., the
BeUovaci, the most warlike of
the Belgic tribes, living between
the Samara (Somme) and the
Sequana (Seine).
bellum, -I, n., war.
Bibrax, Bibractis, n., Bibrax,
a town of the Remi, probablY
Vieux-Laon.
Boduognitus, -i, m., Bodu-
ognatus, leader of the Nervii.
Bratuspantium, -i, n., Bra-
tuspantium, a town of the Bello-
vaci, now Breteuil.
brevitis, -atis, j., shortness;
small stature.
Britannia, -ae, j., Britain
(4 and 14).
117
C
cadaver, -eris, n., corpse,
dead body.
cada, 3, cecidl, casum, intr.,
fall, die.
Caerosi, -arum, m. pl., the
Caerosi, a Belgic tribe living
between the Rhine and the
Mosa (Meuse).
Caesar, -aris, m.,Julius Cae-
sar, the author of this book.
calamitis, -atis,f., disaster.
Caleti, -orum, m. pl., the
Caleti, a Gallic tribe living on
the coast of Normandy north of
the Sequana (Seine).
lower" officer's servant.
captivus, -1, m., prisoner.
caput, capitis, n., head; pl.,
people, persons.
Carnutes, -urn, m. pl., the
Carnutes, a Gallic tribe living
near Cenabum (Orleans).
castellum, -I, n., jort, re-
doubt.
castra, -arum, n. pl., a camp.
casus, -us, m., chance, jate,
exu·emity.
causa, -ae, f., reason, cause;
de eadem causa, for the same
reason; in abl., preceded by a
gen., for the sake of.
ceda, 3, cessl, cessum, intr.,
give ground, retreat.
celeritis, -atis, f., speed,
SWIftness.
celeriter, celerius, celerrime,
ad'll. of celer, quickly.
cela, I, tr., hide, conceal.
centum, indec/., pl., a hun-
dred.
centurio, -onis, m., centu-
"ion, commander of a century
(100 men).
certus, -a, -urn, sure, cer-
tain, fixed, regular; certiarem
 VOCABULARY
facio, itiform; certior fio, be
informed.
ceteri, -Be, -3, pl., the rest, the
other.
Cimbri, -arum, m. pl., the
Cimbri, a German tribe defeated
by Marius at Vercellae in 101.
circiter, adv., about (with
numerals).
circultus, -us, m., way l'ound,
circumference; in circuitG, in
extent (30).
circumicio,3,-iecI,-iectum,
lr., surround, place round.
circumiinio, 4, tr., surround,
hem in.
circumvenio, 4, -veni, -ven-
tum, tr., surround.
cis, prep. with ace., hon Rthis
. " congredior, 3, -gressus, dep.
side of (t.e. nearer to t e 0-
mans),' cis Rhenum, west of the
Rhine.
citerior, -ius, compo adj.,
nearer, hither,' citerior Gallia,
Gaul south of the Alps, north
Italy(oneofCaesar'sprovinees).
citra, prep. with ace., on this
side 0/ (like cis).
civitas, -atis,j., tribe, commu-
nity, state.
clamor, -arts, m., shout,
shouting, din.
claudo, 3, clausI, clausum,
tr. shut, close; tatum agmen
daudere, fotm a rearguard jor
the whole army.
clementia, -ae, j., mercy,
forbearance.
coacervo, I, tr., heap up, pile
up.
coepi, eoepisse, defective tr.,
began.
cognosco, 3, -novi, -nitum.,
tr., learn, discover, find out.
cogo, 3, coegI, coactum, tr.,
collect, compel.
cobors, cohortis, f.} cohort,
one sixth of a legion, 600 men.
lI8
c;:ohortitio, ~onis, t., $peech
of exhortation, encouragement.
col1ltus, p.p.p. of confero.
coieio, 3, -iecl, -iectum, tr.,
hurl,rhrow,place(r6); infugam
coicio, put to flight.
colligo, 3, -legl, -lectum, tr.,
coliect, send away together.
collis, -is, m.,hill.
col1oco, I, tr., place, station.
commeatus, .us, m., sup-
plies,/ood.
commemoro, I, tr., men-
(ion, relate.
committo, 3, -misl, -mis-
sum, fT., entrust; proelium
committo, join battle.
commode, adv., convenient-
Iy, weII•
commoveo, 2, -movl, -mo-
tum, tr., rouse, aIarm, d'utUT.
b mtr., meet, fight.
commiinis, -c, common,gen-
eral.
commiititio, -(mis, f.,
change.
comparo, I, tr., prepare,
provide.
compello, 3, -puli, -pulsum,
tr., drive,/orce back.
compleo, 3, -plevi, -pletum,
tr., fill.
compliires, -pIUra, gen.
-pliirium, pl., several.
concido, 3, -cldl, -clsum, tr.,
cut down, destroy.
concilium, -I, n., assembly,
council.
concurro, 3, -cucurrl or
-curd, -cursum, inrr., run to-
gether, rush; concursum est, a
rush was made (33)·
condicio, -onis, f·, terms,
couditions.
Condriisi, -orum, m. pl., the
Condrusi, a Belgic tribe living
between the Mosa (Meuse) and
the Ardennes.
VOCABULARY
condiico, 3, tr., collect; re-
crw"t, hire.
confectus, -3, -urn, worn out,
exhausted, disabled (p.p.p. of
conficio). '
confero, -ferre, -tuli, colla-
tum, tr., bn"ng together, convey;
se conferre, betake oneself, go.
confertus, -3, -urn, closely
packed, dense.
conficio, 3, -feci, -fectum,
tr., finish, accomplish; supply,
muster, raise; disable.
confido, 3, -fisus, semi-dep.
jntT., trust, believe.
confirmo, I, (T., confirm, en-
courage; declare.
confiigo, 3, -fiixi, -ftlctum,
hItr., fight.
coniungo, 3, -iiinxl, -iUnc-
tum, tr., join; me coniungo
cum, unite with.
coniiiro, I, tr., conspire,jorm
a conspiracy.
conor, I, dep. intr., try.
consanguineus, -a, -urn, re-
lated by blood; m. pl., relations,
kins/olk.
conscribo, 3, -scripsi,
scriptum, tr., levy, enrol, raise.
consensus, -fis, m., agree-
ment, consent. . abuse, ill-treatment.
consentio, 4, -scnsI, -sen-
sum, intr., agree, combine.
consequor, 3, -secfitus, dep.
intr., pursue, obtat"n, achieve.
conservo, I, tr' J keep, spare,
protect.
considli, 3, -sedI, -sessum,
intr., encamp, settle, take up a
position.
cODsilium, -I, n., advice,
plan; eo consilio ut, with the
intention of.
consimili!, -e, very like.
cODsisto, 3, -stitf, -stitum,
II9
i~tr", halt, stand, .take up a posi-
tW1'l; rest, depend on (33).
cOnspectus, -Us, m., sight.
conspicio, 3, -spexI, -spec-
tum, tr., see, observe.
conspicor, I, dep. tr., see,
observe.
constanter, adv., unani-
mously.
constiti,.perj.. of consisto.
constituo, 3, -ui, -fitum,
tr., determine, decide; draw up,.
build, construct.
cODsuesco, 3, -suev!, -sue-
tum, intr., become accustomed;
£1'1 perf., be accustomed.
consuetiido, -tfidinis, j.,
hablt, custom.
contemptus, -fis, m., scorn,
contempt; contemptui esse, be
an object of scorn.
contendo, 3, -tendl, -ten-
tum, t"ntr., hasten,fight, march.
continen,2, -tinui, -tentum,
tr., keep, restrain,' me contineo,
remat"n.
contra, prep. with ace.,
against.; as adv., on the opposite
side.
contrarius, -a, -urn, oppo-
sile,facing.
contumelia, -ae, f", insult,
cODveniO, 4, -venl, -ventum,
intI'., come together, assemble; be
agreed upon.
converto, 3, -verti, -versum,
tr., turn,' conversa signa Infero,
wheel round and attack.
convoco, I, tr., summon,
assemble.
copia, -ae, f., plenty; pl.,
forces, troops; supplies (10).
cornu, -us, n., horn; wing
(of an army).
corpus, corporis, n., body,
corpse.
 VOCABULARY
cortex, -ticis, m., bark (of a decimus, -a, -urn, tenth.
tree). declivis, -e, sloping dOtvn-
cotidie, adv., every day, wards.
daily. decumina,j. adj. withpona,
Cotta, -ae, m., Lucius Aurun- the decuman gate of a Roman
culeius Cotta, one of Caesar's camp, furthest away from the
legat!, killed in 54. enemy.
Crassus, -i, m., Publius Li- decurro, 3, -cucurrl or -cur-
cinius Crassus, son of the Trium- ri, -cursum, incr., run down.
vir and one of Caesar's staff dSditicius, -3, -urn, having
officers. surrendered,' m. pl., surrendered
creber, -bra, -brum, fre- subjects.
quent, numerous; thick (17); at dSdo, 3, -did!, -ditum, fr.,
short intervals (30). surrender; intr" se dedere.
credo, 3, -didi, -ditum, intr. dedfico, 3, tr., lead down,
with dat., trust, believe~' tr. bring, withdraw,' induce to ad-
with acc. and inf., believe, think. opt (10); reduce.
Cres, Cretis, acc. pl. -as, a defendo, 3, -fendi, -fensum,
Cretan, famous with the bow. tr., de/end; defend oneself
cruciitus, -us, m., torture. against, ward off.
cum, prep. with abl., with, defensio, -onis, I., defence.
together with. defensor, -oris, ,., defender.
cum, conj., when, whenever, dSfero, -ferre, -tuli, .latum,
since, although; cum ... turn, tr., confer, hand over (4); report
not only . .. but also. (17, 19)·
cunctus, -a, -urn, all. diSficio, 3, -feci, -rectum,
cupiii, 3, cupivi, cupitum, intr.,jail; with ab, revolt (14).
tr., des~ore. dildo, 3, -iecl, -iectum, tr 0'
Curiosolites, -urn (pl. -as), throw down, dislodge.
m. pl., the Curiosolites, a Gallic deiectus, -us, m., slope.
tribe Iivi~g on the coast of deinde, adv., then, next.
deleo, 2, delevi, -etum, tr.,
Brittany.
cursus, -us, m., running, destroy, wipe out (27).
speed; cursu ihcitiitfi, quickening deligo, 3, -legl, -lectum, tr.,
their pace (26). choose.
custodia, Mae, f., guard. demonstro, I, tr., show, in-
dicate, mention.
denique, adv.,jinally, at last;
at least (33).
D densus, -3, -urn, thick.
de, prep. with abl., from; depiino, A, -posul, positum,
about, concerning~' eadem de tr., set dOWh; put down, leave.
causa, for the same reason (7). depopulor, I, dep. tr., rau-
debeo, 2, tr., owe, ought. age, lay waste.
decem, indecl. pl., ten. deprecor, I, dep. tr., pray
decerno, 3, -crevl, -cretum, that something should not hap-
tr., decree. pen, request someone not to do
decerto, I, intr., fight it out. 3 thing.
120
VOCABULARY
dcsero, 3, -sernI, -sertum,
tr., abandon, desert.
desisto, 3, -stitl, -stitum,
intr., stop, cease.
despero, I, intr., despair,
lose heart; tr., despair of.
despolio, I, cr., deprive 0/,
with ace. and abl.
desum, deesse, dSfui, intr.,
be wanting, be lacking.
deterreo, 2, tr., hinder, pre-
vent from, with quln and subj.
in a negative sentence.
detraho, -traxl, -tractum,
tr., removet snatch up from, with
ace. and dat. of person.
devenio, 3, -venI, -ventum,
intr., arrive, reach.
dexter, dextra, dextrum,
right, .right hand.
dico, 3, tr., say, declare.
dies, diSi, m. (f. for an ap-
pointed day), day, time.
difficilis, -e, difficult.
diligenter, adv., carefully,
punctually; superi., diligentis-
simS, with the greatest care.
dimetior, 4, -mensus, dep.
.tr'J measure out; p.p. used as
passive in abI. abs. (19).
dimico, I, intr., fight.
dimitto, 3, -mIst, -missum,
tr., send away, dismiss; lose
(time) (21).
diripiO, 3, -ripui, -reptum,
tr., plunder.
discedo, 3, -cessi, -cessum,
intr., depart, go away, leave.
discessus, -us, m., departure.
dissipo, I, tr., scatter, dis-
perse.
distineo, 2, -tinw, -tentum,
tr., keep apart, separate.
diu, adv., for a long time,
compar., diiitius, any longer, too
long.
diversus, -a, -urn, different;
detached (22,23); scattered (24).
121
Diviciicus, -I, m., Diviciacus,
(i) a leader of the Suessiones (4);
(ii) a Druid and leader of the
Aedui (5).
divinus, -a, -urn, divine.
do, I, dedi, datum, tr., give.
doceo, 2, docui, doctum, tr.,
inform, tell, £nstruct.
domesticus, -a, -urn, home
(as adj.), private.
domicilium, -I, n., home,
dwelling.
dominor, I, dep. intr., rule,
hold sway.
domus, -Us, /., house, home;
locative, domI, at home.
dubito, I, intr., hesitate.
diicenti, -ae, -a, pl., two
hundred.
diico, 3, tr., lead.
duo, duae, duo, pl., two.
duodecim, indecl., twelve.
duodecimus, -a, -urn,
twelfth.
duodeviginti, r°1tdecl., eight-
eetl.
duplex, duplicis, double.
dux, ducis, m., leader,general,.
guide (7).
E
e or ex, prep. with abl.,from,
out 0/, as a result 0/; ex utraque
parte, on each s£de (8); ex
itinere, straight from the march
(12); ex corporibus, on top of
the bodies.
Eburones, -urn, m. pl., the
Eburones, a Belgic tribe living
between the Mosa (Meuse) and
the Rhine.
editus, -a, -urn, rising (p.p.p.
of eda, give out).
ediico, 3, tr., lead out.
efticio, 3, -feci, -fectum, tr.,
cause, bring it about that (with
ut).
 VOCABULARY
egredior, 3, egressus, dep.
intT., go out, come out.
egregie, adv., excellently,
admirably,
electus, -a, -urn, picked
(p.p.p. of oligo, choose).
emitto, 3, emisi, emissum,
tr., throw, hurl.
emo, 3, emi, emptum, tr.,
buy.
eniscor, 3, enatus, dep. int7.,
grow out.
enim, conj., for; neque
enirn, for indeed . .. not . ...
eo, adv., thither, to that place.
eques, equitis, m., horseman,'
pl., cavalry.
equester, -tris, -tre, cavalry
(as adj.). • exstruo, 3, -stru.xI, -struc-
equititus, -ils, m., cavalry.
eruptio, -onis, t., sally,
sortie.
Esubii, -arum, m. pl., the
Esubii, a Gallic tribe living on
the coast of Normandy.
et, conj., and, even, a/so, too;
ct ... et, both . .. and.
etiam, adv., even, also.
eventus, -Us, m., result,
occurrence; pl., vidssitudes.
ex, see e.
exagito, I, tr., harass.
exanimaitus, -8, -urn, out of
breath (p.p.p. of exanimo,
exhaust).
exaudio, 4, tr., hear at a
distance.
excedo, 3, -cessi, -cessurn,
intr., withdraw, retire.
excursio, -finis,f.} sally.
exeo, -Ire, -ii, -iturn, intr.,
go out, leave.
exercititus, -a, -urn, trained,
practised (p.p.p. of exercit6,
train).
exereitus, -us, m., army.
exiguitis, -atis, f., shortness
(of time).
122
eximius, -a, -urn, remarkable,
extraordinary.
existimo, I, tr., think, con-
sider.
expeditus, -a, -uol, ready for
acu'on, in light marching order
(p.p.p. of expedio, set free).
expella, 3, -pull, -pulsurn,
tr., drive out.
experior, 4, -pertus, dep. tr.,
try, test, n·sk.
exploritor, -oris, m., scout.
exploro, I, tr., ascertain;
omnia habere explOrata, have
complete information (4).
expugno, I, tr., take by storm.
exspeeto, I, tr., wait, wait
for.
tum, tr., raise, build up.
extremus, -a, -um (superl.
of exterus), last, furthest, most
distantj ad extremas fossas, at
the ends of the trenches (8); ab
extrema agmine, at the rear of
the army; in extremis suls
rebus, in his most desperate
situation (25).
F Criimentirius, -a, -urn, corn
Caeilis, -e, easy,- adv., facile;
comp., facilius.
facio, 3, feci, factum, tr., do,
make, accomplish; carry out
(orders); facio verba, speak
(14); certiorem facio, inform.
facnltas, -atis,f., opportunity.
falla, 3, fefelli, falsum, 3, tr.,
deceive, cheat, disappoint, fail.
fasngatus, -3, -urn, sloping
downwards.
ferax, -ads, fruitful, fertile.
fere, adv., nearly, almost,
generally.
fero, ferre, tuli, latum, tr.,
bring, bear, carryj pass., rush
(24); moleste fero, resent (I),
VOCABULARY
CertlIltiis, -atis, f., fertility.
Cerul, -a, -urn, wild, savage,
fierce; superl., maxime ferus.
fides, fidei, f., trust, loyalty,
faith,. protection (3, 13, 14, IS).
filius, fill, m., son.
finis, -is, m., end, limit; pl.,
frontiers, territory.
finitimus, -a, -urn, neigh-
bouring,- m. pl., neighbours.
fio, fieri, factus, intr. (used as
pass. of facio), be made, become,
be done,- happen)' certior fio, be
informed.
Rumen, fifuninis, n., river.
fors, fortis, t., chance)' abl.,
used as adv., by chance.
fortis, -e, brave, strong)' adv.,
fortiter; comp., fortius.
fortuna, -ae, f., fortune,
chance.
fossa, -ae, f., trench, ditch.
frater, fratris, m., brother,·
kinsman (3).
fremitus, -us, m., uproar,
din.
frons, frontis, j., front)· a
fronte, in front (23, 25); in
Jrontem, to the front, in front
(8).
(as adj.); res frftmentaria, corn
supply.
friimentum, -I, n., corn.
fuga, -ae, f., /light.
fugio, 3, fiigl, fugitum, intr.,
/lee,- tr.,jleefrom.
Ciimus, -I, m., smoke.
funditor, -oris, m., slinger.
Curor, -oris, m., rage, mad-
ness.
futiirns, -3, -urn, future part
and infin. (with esse) of sum.
G iam, adv., now, already; non
Galba, -ae, m., Galba, king
of the Suessiones (4, '3).
12 3
galea, -ae, f., helmet.
Gallia, -ae, j., the country of
Gaul (see pages 4-S).
Galli, -orum, m. pl., the
Gauls.
gens, gentis, f., tribe, people.
Germani, -orwn, m. pl., the
Germans, some of whom lived
west of the Rhine.
gera, 3, gessi, gestum, tr.,
bear, wear, do, fight (a war); in
pass., happen.
gladitis, -i, m., sword.
gratia, -ae, j., i,ifluence,
authorr·ty.
gravis, -e, heavy, serious.
H
habeo, 2, tr., have, hold; con-
sider; aliter se habere, be
different.
hIberna, -orum, n. pl., win-
ter-quarters.
hibernaeula, -orum, n. pl.,
huts for winter-quarters, winter-
quarters.
hie, haec, hoc, this, such, as
follows; as pronoun, he, she, it.
hiemo, I, intr., spend the
wz·nter.
homo, hominis, m., man.
honos, honoris, m., honourj
honoris causa, as a mark of
respect.
hostis, -is, m., enemy.
I
iaceo, 2, intr., lie, lie down,.
pres. part.} iacentes, those who
had fallen.
iacifi, 3, ieci, iacturn, tr.}
throw, hurl.
iam, no longer.
ibl, adv., there.
 VOCABULARY
ledus, -I, m., Iecius, a leader
of the Remi.
idem, eadem, idem, the same;
Idem atque, the same as.
identidem, adv., repeatedly,
again and again.
idoneus, -a, -urn, suitable,
convenient.
ignis, -is, m., fire, camp fire,
beacon fire.
ille, illa, illud, that,. as pro-
noun, he, she, it,' m. pl., illi, often
the enemy.
illyricum, -1, n., Illyricum,
Illyria, on the northern shores
of the Adriatic, one of the
three provinces governed by
Caesar.
impedimco,tum, -i, n., hin-
drance; pl., baggage, baggage
animals.
impedio,4, rr., hiuder, ham-
per, obstruct; p.p.p.,impedltus,
in heavy marching order, in diffi-
culties; n., too difficult (28).
impeUo, 3, -pull, -pulsum,
(r., urge, drive on.
imperator, -oris, m.,general,
commander.
imperatum, -I, n., command,
order.
imperium, -i, n., rule, su-
preme command, authority, order,
discipline.
impero, I, intr., order, give
orders to, with dat.; tr., give
orders jor, demand, command.
impetro, I, tr .., obtain a
request.
impetus, ~iis,. m., attQc.k;
magna impetu, wlth great Vto-
lenee (6).
improvisus, -a, Mum, un-
expected; de improvlsa, un-
expectedly.
in, prep. with ace., to, imo,
against, towards; with abl., in,
on, over (a river).
124
ineendo, 3, -eendl, -censllm,
tr' J set on fire, burn.
incido, 3, -cieli, intr., happen,
occur; of wars, break out (14).
incido, 3, ~cldl, -elsurn, tr.,
cut into (17).
incipio, 3, -cepl, -ceptum,
intr., begin.
ioeito, I, tr., hasten, quicken,·
eursu incitato, increasing their
speed (26).
ineolo, 3, -colnl, -cultum, tr.
and intr., live in, live, dwell.
incredibilis, -e, incredible,
unbelievable.
increpito, I, tr., jeer at,
taunt, upbraid.
inciiso, I, tr., accuse, blame.
inde, adfJ., then, next, from
that place.
indignitis, Matis, f., indig-
nity, humiliation.
indiligenter, adv., care-
lessly; comp., indlligentius, less
carefully.
indiico, 3, tr., cover over with.
induo, 3, -dul, -dutum, tr.,
put on.
ioeo, -Ire, -ii, -itum, tr., go
into; form (a plan); inita aes-
tate, at the beginning of summer.
inermis, -e, unarmed.
inferinr, -ius (comp. of 10-
ferus), lower; inferior (in cou-
rage).
infero, -ferre, -tull, -latum,
tr., bring in, carry forward, im-
port,- inspire (hope); cause
(harm); make (war).
infimus, -a, -urn (superl. of
Inferus), lowest, at the lowest
part (18).
inftecto, 3, -flexl, -flexum,
tr., bend, bend over; p.p.p.,ln-
flexus, bem (17).
ingredior, 3, -gressus, dep.
tr., enter.
VOCABULARY
inimicuI, -a, -urn, hostile,
unfriendly.
iniquitis, -atis, j., difficulty,
unfavourable state.
iniquus, -a, -urn, uneven, un-
favourable.
.ii:Utium, -1, n., beginnt'ng.
iniiiriB, ~ae, t., wrong, in-
justice, harm.
inliitus, p.p.p. of lnfero.
innitor, 3, -nlxus, dep. ;ntr.,
lean on, with abl. (27).
insequor, 3, -secutus, dep.
tr., follow up, pursue.
insidiae, -arum, f. pl., trap,
ambush.
insigne, -is, n., signal (20);
pl., badges, crests (n. of adj.
insignis).
insisto, 3, -stili, z·ntr., stand
on, with dat.
instar, ;ndecl. n., used as
prep. with gen., l£ke; iostar
murl, like a wall (17).
insto, I, ~stitf, intr., press
forward.
instruu, 3, -striixi, -struc-
tum, tr., draw up (a battle line);
build (a structure).
intellego, 3, -lexl, Rlectum,
tr., understand, perceive, realise.
inter, prep. with ace., be-
tween, among, with; inter se,
with one another, mutually.
intercedo, 3, -cessl, ~cessum~
intr., come between, intervene.
intercipio, 3, -cepl, -eep-
tum, tr., intercept, catch.
interest, -esse, -fnit, z"mpers.
intr., it is important to, with
gen.
interficio, 3, -feci, -fectum,
tr., kz"ll.
intericio, 3, -ieci, -iectum,
cr., plant as a barrier.
interim, adv., meanwhile.
interior, -ius, comp. adj.,
t'nner, the interior of (2, but
I25
interior Gallia there may mean
ulterior Gallia, Further Gaul).
intermitto, 3, -mlsl, -mis-
sum, t'ncr., cease, stop, with pre-
sent part.
internecio, -onis, f., annihz·-
lation; ad internecionem redigl,
be completely destroyed (28).
interscindo, 3, ·scidl, scis-
sum, tr., break down (a bridge).
intervallum, -I, n., space,
interval.
intexo, 3, -texuJ, -textum,
tr., interweave, plait together.
intra, prep. with ace., within,
inside, into.
intru, I, tr. and in!T., enter.
iotroduco, 3, tr., lead into.
intromitto, 3, ~misl, -mis-
sum, tr., lead in, send in.
introrsus, adv., ins~'de, to the
inside.
iniisitatus, ~a, ~um, unusual,
uncommon.
in"iitilis, -e, useless.
invenio, 4, -veni, -ventum,
tr., find, learn.
inveterasco, 3, -veteravl,
intr., become established.
invideo, 2, -vldi, -visum,
intr., with dat., envy.
ipse, ipsa, ipsum, emphatic
adj. and pronoun, himself, her-
self, itself.
irrideo, 2, ~rJsI, -risWll, tr.
and intr., laugh, laugh at, mock,
jeer.
is, ea, id, that; pronoun, he,
she, it; eius, his,' eorum, their.
ita, adv., thus, so; ita uti,
just as.
Italia, -ae, t., Italy; also
Caesar's province of Cisalpine
Gaul, now north Italy.
itaque, adv., and so, accor-
dingly.
item, adv., likewise, also.
iter, itioeris, n., journey,
 VOCABULARY
march; iter facio, march; ex
itinere, straight from the march,'
magnum iter, jorced march.
lubeo, 2, iussl, iussurn, tr.,
order, command.
iiidico, I, tr., judge, consider,
decide.
iugum, -i, n., ridge, height,
hill.
iiis, iuris, n., right, law; code
of laws.
iiistitia, ~ae, j., justice.
iuvo, I, idvl, iUtum, tr., help,
assist.
iuxti, adv., nearby; prep.
with ace., near.
L liixuria, -ae, I., luxury, soft
L., Lucius, a Roman prae-
nomen (first name, II),
Labienus, -I, m., Titus Atius
Labienus, Caesar's Chief of
Staff (see page 28).
lapis, lapidis, m., stmze.
lassitiido, -tudinis,j., weari-
ness, exhaustion.
lateo, 2, latul, intr" lie hid,
be concealed.
lititiido, -tUdinis,!., breadth,
width; in latitiidinem, in
breadth, sideways, laterally.
latus, -3, -urn, broad, wide.
latus, lateris, n., side, flank;
ab utroque latere, on each side
(8).
laxo, I, tr., open out, extend,
deploy.
legiitio, -onis,f., embassy.
legatus, -I, m., legate, (i) am-
bassador, envoYj (ii) staff officer,
lieutenant-general.
legio, -onis, j., legion (6,000
menj see page 28).
legionariu5, -a, -urn, legion-
ary, of the legiol1s.
leniter, ad'll., gently, gradu-
ally.
12.6
levis, -is, light.
levitis, -atis, I., fickleness.
lex, legis, f., law.
liberiiliter, adv., courteously,
kindly.
liberi, -orurn, m.pl., children.
litterae, -arum, j. pl., des-
patches.
locus,. -i, m.; pl. loca, n.,
place, ground, district, region.
longe, adv., by far; comp.,
longius, fartherj too far (20);
superl.,longissime,jarthest.
longus, -3., -urn, long.
loquor, loquf, lociltus, dep.
tr., speak.
liix, lucis, t., light; prima
liice, at dawn.
living.
LX, quadrliginta, indecl. pl.,
forty.
M deserts.
michiniitio, -onis,f., mach-
ine, contrivance, engiue.
magis, compo adv., more,
rather.
magistratus, -Us, m., magis-
trate; magistracy.
magnitiido, -tudinis, J.,
greatness; arumi magnitiido,
great courage (27).
magnus, -8, -urn, great,
large; adv. magnopere, greatly.
maior, maius, compo of
magnus, greater; maiores natu,
'he older people.
maleficium, -I, n., harm, in-
jury.
mando, I, tr., give orders,
order (5); entrust .. . to; fugae
me mando, take to flight.
manipulus, -1, m., maniple,
a double century in a Roman
legion; manipulos taxo, open
out, deploy, the ranks.
VOCABULARY
miinsuetiido, -to,dinis, j.,
clemency., kindness.
manus, -us, I., haudj band,'
pl., jorcesj in manibus nostrIs,
at close quarters with us (19).
maritimus, -a, -urn, on the
sea-coast.
matiiro, I, tr. and incr.,
hurry, hasten.
maxime, superl., adv. of
magnus, uery greatly, most.
medius, -3, -urn, middle (of).
memoria, -ae, I., remem-
brance, memory; memoriam re-
tinee, with gen., remember.
Menapii, -erum, m. pl., the
Menapii, a Belgic tribe living
between the ScaIdis (ScheIdt)
and the Mosa (Meuse) in Bel-
gium.
mercator, -oris, m., mer-
challt, trader.
meritum, -I, n., servt'ces,
miles, militis, m., soldier.
militaris, -e, military; res
mllitaris, warfare.
mille, indecl. adj., a thou-
sand; pl., mIlia, with gen. j
mIlle passils, a mile (1620
yards); mIlia passuum, mUes.
minus, compar. adv., less,
less than,' si minus, if not;
superl., minime, least.
miser, misera, mise rum,
wretched.
misericordia, -ae, f., pity,
mercy.
mitto, 3, mlsi, missum, tr.,
send.
mobilitis, -tatis, j., t'nstab-
jlity, inconstancy.
modo, adv., only,· non modo
. . . sed etiam, not only . . . but
also.
modus, -i, m., 'lvay, manner;
ad hunc modum, in this way, as
follows.
12.7
moenia, -ium, n. pl., walls,
fortifications.
moleste, adv., with fera,
ferre, be indignant at, resent.
monea, 2, tr., warn, advise;
command (26).
mora, Rae, f.) delay.
Morini, orurn, m. pl., the
Morim', a Belgic tribe living
between the ScaIdis (ScheIdt)
and the sea in N.E. France and
Belgium.
moror, I, dep. tr., hinder,
delay; intr., delay.
mos, moris, m., custom, man-
ner; suo more, in their usual
custom (13); pl., mores, charac-
ter ('5).
moveo, 2, movi, metum, tr.,
move,' castra moveo, strike
camp.
mulier, mulieris,f., woman.
multitiido, -tiidinis,j., mul-
titude, great number, amount.
multus, -a, -urn, much; adv. t
multumj pl., many.
miinimentum, i, 11., fortifi-
cation, defence.
miinio, 4, tr.,!ortz!y, defend.
munitia, -onis, j., fortifica-
tioll.
miirus, ~i, m., tvall.
N
Dam, conj.,for.
nascor, 3, natus, dep. incr.,
be born; rise (of a hill).
natio, -onis} t., tribe, people.
natii, used only in abl.~ by
birch; maiores natu, the older
people.
natiira, -ae, f., nacure, natu-
ral position; abl. as adv., natu-
rally.
niivo, I, tr., do vigorously;
operam navo, do one's best.
 VOCABULARY
ne, conj. with 8ubj., that • ..
not, in a purpose clause; not to,
in an indirect command; that,
after a verb of fearing; adfJ., ne
. . . quidem, not even, with
indie.
necessiriu8, -a, -urn, neces-
sary.
necessitis, -atis, J., compul-
sion; temporis necessitas, the
urgency of the occasion (22).
negotium, -J, n., task;
trouble (X7); negotium do, give
instructions., assign the task (of).
nemo, nullius, dat. nemint,
no one, nobody.
neque, conj., and . • . not,
neither, nor; neque ... neque,
neither . .. nor.
nequiquam, adv., in vain;
without good reason (27).
Nervii, -orum, m. pl., the
N eroji, a Belgic tribe living
between the Scaldis (Scheidt)
and the Sabis (Sambre), noted
for their courage.
nen or neve, conj. with subj.,
used in the second part of a ne
clause, and • .. not.
neuter, -trB, -trum, neither
of two; pl., neither side.
nihil, indecl. n., nothing; fol-
lowed by partitive gen., nihil
vini, no wine (IS); used ad-
verbially, in no way (20).
nisi, conj., if ... not, unless;
used adverbially with abi. abs.,
except (20, 32).
nobilitiis, -atis,j., noble birth,
rank.
noctu, adv., by night.
nolO, nolle, nOlui, intr., be
unwilling.
Domen, nominis, n., name
(perhaps power in 28).
nominatim, adv., by name.
nomino, I, tr., name, men-
tion.
128
non, adv., not.
nondum, adv., not yet.
non nulU, -ae, -a, pl., some,
several.
nonus, -a, -urn, ninth.
nos, nostrl or nostrum, pl. of
ego, we, i.e. the Romans (9).
noster, -tra, -trUm, OUT; pl.,
nostrl, our men, i.e. the Romans.
novem, indecl. pl., nine.
Novlodiinum, -I, n., NOfJio-
dunem, the chief town of the
Suessiones, probably Pom-
miers.
novus, -a, -um, mw, strange;
nova imperia, a change 0/ gOfJ-
ernment (I); novissimum ag-
men, the rear-guard, reaT of an
army (n); novissimI, the rear-
most (25).
BOX, noetis, j., night.
nuda, I, tr., strip, cleaT ... 0/,
expose to attack.
nullus, .. a, .. um, adj., fW,' as
noun, nobody; non nulU, pl.,
some.
numerus, -I, m., number,
numbers, quantity.
Numidae, -arum, m. pl.,
Numidians, from north Africa,
serving as light infantry and
archers in Caesar's army.
nunc, adv., now.
nuntia, I, tr., TepoTt, an-
nounce.
niintius, -1, m., messenger.
o tr., it behoves, i.e., it is necessary.
ob, prep. with ace., on ac-
count of.
obduco, 3, tr., dig (a trench,
8).
obitus, -us, m., destruction,
death.
obses, -sidis, c., hostage.
obtineo, 2, -tinul, -tentum,
tr., hold, possess.
VOCABULARY
obtuli, from offero.
obvenio, 4, -veni, -ventum,
intr. with dat., face, encounter,
oppose.
occasus, -fis, m., setting (of
the sun).
occido, 3, -cldl, elsurn, tr.,
kill.
occultus, -a, -um, secret,
hidden; in occulto, in hiding
(p.p.p. of occuio, hide).
occupo, I, tr., seize, hold,
COfJer~' p.p.p., occupatus, em-
ployed, engaged.
oc:curro, 3, -curri, -cursum,
incr. with dat., meet, encounter,
jace, go to meet.
Oceanus, -I, m., the Atlantic
Ocean.
octavus, -a, -urn, eighth.
octo, indecl. pl., eight.
oifero, offerre, obtuli, obHi-
tum, tT., bring forwaTd, bring,
carry.
omitto, 3, omlsi, omissum,
tr., neglect, ignore, leave untried.
omnis, -e, ali, every, the
whole 0/.
onus, oneris, n., weight, bur-
den.
opem, no nom., opis,j., help;
pl., opes, resources.
opera, -ae, I. J caTe, pains,
service; operam navo, do one's
best (25).
opinio, -orus, I., expectation
(3); reputation (8, 24); report.
oportet, 2, oportuit, impers.
oppidiini, -Drum, m. pl.,
townsfolk, citizens.
oppidum, -I, n., town.
opportiinus, -a, -urn, con-
'Denient.
oppugnatio, -onis,f., method
0/ attack.
oppugno, I, tr., attack (by
storm).
129
optimus, -8, -urn, superl. of
bonus, best.
opus, operis, n., work,jortifi-
cation; pl., siege-works; quanto
opere, how greatly (5); opus est,
there is med, with infin.; quid
opus esset, what was needed (22).
oriitio, -onis, j., speech.
ordo, ordinis, m., order, Tank;
method (22).
orior, 4, ortus, dep. intr.,
arise; be descended from (4).
Osismi, -orum, m. pl., the
Osismi, a Gallic tribe living in
north-west Brittany.
p
P., Publius, a Roman prae-
nomen (first name, 25, 34).
piibulum, -I, n.,/odder (food
for horses and mules).
paco, I, tr., subdue.
Paemsni, -orum, m. pl., the
Paemani, a Belgie tribe of Ger-
man origin, living between the
Rhine and the.Mosa (Meuse).
paene, adv., almost, nearly.
palus, palndis, f., marsh,.
swamp.
pando, 3, pandl, passum, tr.~
stretch out; p.p.p., passus, out-
stretched (13).
par, paris, the same, similar.
paratus, -a, -urn, ready, pTe-
pared (p.p.p. of para, prepare).
pars, partis, f., part, direc-
tion; side (of a river, 5), sectiol'r
(of an army, 23); tertia pars,.
one third (32).
partim, adv., partly.
parvulus, -a, -urn, veTY
small,' parvula proelia, skir-
mishes (30).
passus, -us, m., pace, a
double pace of five feet; mille
passus, a mile (1620 yards);
milia passuum, miles.
 VOCABULARY
passus, p.p.p. of pando.
patefacio, 3, -feci, -factum,
tr., open.
pateo, 2, -ui, intr., lie open,
extend.
pater, patris, m.,/ather.
p.atior, 3, passus, dep. tT., al-
low, suffer.
patrius, -3, -urn, of one's
fathers, hereditary, ancestral,
pauci, -ae, -3, pl., few.
pauUitim, adv., gradually.
paulisper, adv., for a short
time.
paululum, adv., a little, only
a little.
paulum, adv., a little,' paulO,
used with comparatives, (by) a
liule.
pax, pacis,j., peace.
pedes, peditis, m., foot-sol-
dier; pl., infantry,
pedester, -tris, -tre,/oot, in-
fantry (as adj.).
Pedius, -I, m., QUilltliS Ped-
ius, nephew of Caesar and one
of his legati (2, I I).
pellis, -is, j., skin, hide.
pella, 3, pepulI, pulsum, tr.)
repulse, rout.
per, prep. with ace., through,
over, along,'by means of.
perfero, ~ferre, -tulf, latum,
tr., suffer, endure; convey,
spread.
periclitor, I, dep. tr., rest,
try.
periculum, -i, n., danger.
permitto, 3, -mIsl, -missum,
tr., entrust, hand over, surrender.
permoveo, 2, -movl, -mo-
tum, tr., disturb, alarm.
perspiclo, 3, -spexl, -spec-
tum, tr., see through,· realise,
find out; note (17).
persuadeo, 2, -suasi, -sua-
sum, intr. with dat., persuade,
induce.
13 0
perterreo, 2, tr., frighten;
p.p.p., panic-stricken.
pertineo, 2, -tinw, -tentum,
intr., stretch; be conducive to,
tend to (with ad).
perturbo, I, tr., throw into
confusion, disturb.
pervenio, 4, -venl, -ventum,
imr., arrive; with ad or in,
reach.
pes, pedis, m.,foot.
peto, 3, -ivi, -ltum, tr., ask
for, make for, try to obtain,
request,. attack.
pilum, -I, n. _. javelin.
planities, -ici,f., plain, level
ground.
plerique, -aeque, -aque, pl.,
very many, most; ad'll., plerum-
que, generally, for the most part.
pliirimus, -a, -urn, superl. of
multus, most, very much,' pl.,
very many,- ad'll., pliirimurn,
very much, most.
polliceor, 2, dep. tr.,promise.
pondus, -eris, n., weight.
pono, 3, posul, posirum, tr.,
place, put, station, set; pitch
(camp).
pons, pontis, m., bridge.
populor, I, dep. tr., ravage,
lay waste.
populus, -I, m., people.
porrigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum,
tr., stretch out,. p. p. p. porrectus,
stretching (19).
porta, -ae, f., gate.
porto, I, tr., carry, bring.
posco, 3, poposci, tr., de-
mand.
possideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum,
tr., occupy, possess, hold.
possum, posse, potul, intr.,
be able, be powerful.
post, prep. with ace., after,
behind; adv., afterwards, after.
postea, ad'll., afterwards,
after.
VOCABULARY
postquam,conj.,flJhen,ajter.
postridie, adv., t)n the 1I8Xt
I day; with Sius diel, on the day
I after that.
postulo, J, tr., demand.
potena, potentis, powerful.
potestia, -atis, I., power;
possibility; opportunity.
potior, 4, dep. intr. with abl.,
get possession of, capture.
potlus, compo adfJ~J rather.
prae, prep. with abl., in com-
parison with.
praeacutus, -a, -urn, shar-
pened,poinred.
praebeo, 2, tr' J provide.
praeceps, -cipitis, headlong.
praedor, I, dep. intr.,pillage,
get plunder.
praefero, -ferre, -tuU, -Hi-
tum, !T. with reflexive pronoun
and dat., show oneself superior to,
outdo.
praeficio, 3, -fed, -fecrum,
tr. with ace. and dat.,put ... in
command of.
praemitto, 3, -mist, -mis-
sum, tr., send forward.
praescribo, 3, -scrlpsl,
-scriptum, £T. with acc. and dat.,
order, dictate.
praesertim, ad'll., especially.
praelidium, -i, n., protec-
tion, garrison, guard, outpost;
hope of-safety.
praesto, I, -stitl, -stitum, tr.,
show, reveal; illlr., be superior,·
impers., it is better.
praesum, -esse, -ful, intr.
with dat., be in command of.
premo, 3, pressl, pressum,
tr., press hard upon, harass.
primipilus, -i, m., Senior
Centurion (see page 30).
primus, -a, -um,first; front;
pl., leaders,' ad'll., primo and
prlmum, atfirst,/irstly.
princeps, -cipis, m., leading
c. G. W., II 131
man, chief; pl. with gen., ring-
leaders in.
prior, prius, compo adj.,/or-
mer; pl., those in front.
pristinus, -a, -wn, former.
prius quam, conj., be/ore.
pro, prep. with abl., before, in
front oj; on behalf of; in aceor-
dance with (31).
procedii, 3, -cessl, -cessum,
intr., advance, go forward.
procul, adv., at a distance,
far off.
procumbo, 3, -cubuI, -cubi-
tum, intr.,/all,/all down.
proelior, I, dep. intr.,fight.
·proelium, -I, n., battle,fight,
engagement.
profectio, -onis, f., setting
out, departure.
proficiscor, 3" -fectus, dep.
intr., set out, start.
profligo, I, tr., rout, put to
flight.
prorugio, 3, -fugl, intr.,jlee.
prognitus, -8, -urn, sprung
from, descended from.
progredior, 3, -gressus, dep.
intr., advance.
prohibeo, 2, tr., prevent
(with infin.); cut . .. off from
(9); restrain (28).
proicio, 3, -iecJ, -iectum, tr.,
cast aside.
promoveo, 2, -movi, -mo-
tum, tr., move forward.
prope, prep. with acc., near,'
adv., nearly, almost.
propero, I, intT., hurry,
hasten.
propinquitis, -atis,!., near-
·ness; pl., ties of relatiomhip.
propinquus, -8, -urn, neigh-
bouring.
propono, 3, -posui, -posi-
tum, tr., display.
propter, prep. with ace., on
account 0/.
10*
 /
VOCABULARY
propterei, adv:;used with
quod, on account of the/act that;
quaero, 3, quaesIvl, -sltum,
tr., ask, look for.
because. quam, adv., than; with
propugno, I, intr., make a superl., as ... as possible.
sally. quantus, -a, -um, how great,
prosequor, 3, -serutus, dep. how powerful; as much as; as
tr., pursue; honour (5). great' as; quanta opere, how
prospectus, -fis, m., 'View, much, how greatly (5) j tantum
line of sight. ... quantum, as far as.
prodnu5, ad'll., immediately. quirtus, -a, -urn, fourth.
proturbo, I, tr., throw into quattuor, indecl. pl., four.
confusion. -que, enclitic particle, a"d,
provideo, 2, -vldi, -visum, attached to a word but to be
tr., foresee.
provincia, -ae, f., province; taken before that word.
especially " the Province" of qui, quae, quod, rei. pron.,
Transalpine (Narbonese) Gaul, who, which; at beginning of a
still called Provence, of which sentence, this,' he.
Caesar was governor. qui, quae, quod, interrog.
provolo, I, intr., rush for- adj., which, what.
ward. qui, quae, quod, indel. adj.
proximus, -a, -urn, superl. with si, ne, any.
adj. from prope, nearest, 1lext; quidam, quaedam, quod-
adv., proxime, most recemly (8, dam, a certain, some, o,~e.
19). quidem, adv., indeed,' ne ...
priidentia, -ae, f., prudence, quidem, nat even.
wisdom. quin, clmj. with sub;. after
piiblicus, -a, -urn, pubh'c, negative verbs of doubting (2)
national. and preventing (3), but that;
Piiblius, -I, m., Publius, a from.
Roman praenomen (first name, quinam, quaenam, quod-
25, 34). nam, emphatic interrog. adj.,
puer, pueri, m., boy; pl., what indeed.
children. quindecim, indecl. pl., fif-
pugna, -se, f., .battle, fight. teen.
pugno, I, intr.,jight; impers. quingenti, -ae, -a, jive hun-
pass., pugnatum est, a battle was dred.
fought. quinquagintB, indecl. pl.,
fifty.
quinque, indecl. pl., jive.
Q Quintus, -I, m., Quintus, a
.Q., Quintus, a Roman prae- Roman praenomen (first name,
nomen (first name, 3). 3)·
qui, adv., where. quis, quid, interrog. pron.,
quadriginti, indecl. pl., who, what.
fOTIY. quisquam, quaequam, quic-
quadringenti, ae, -a, pl., quam, indel. pron. used with a
four hundred. negative, anyone, anything,' with
132
VOCABULARY
gen., quicquam negoti, aro'
trouble (17).
quisque, quaeque, quidque,
each, each man.
quisquis, quicquid, w/we'fJer,
whatever.
quivis, quaevls, quidvls
(quodvl.), anyone, allY (31).
quo, ado., whither, where to,'
indef., 51 quo, if ... to any place
(8).
quo, conj., in purpose clauses
containing a compo adj. or adv.,
in order that.
quod, conj., b(!cause.
quoque, adv., also.,
R rage, IS).
rimus, -i, m., branch.
ratio, -onis,I., reason, cause;
plan, method, arrangement, con-
struction, tactics.
recipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum,
rr., take back, receive, admitjwith
reflex. pron., reCOfJer (12); with-
draw (19).
redda, 3, -didt, -ditum, tr. J
give back; make (5).
redeo, -Ire, -ii, -itum, intr.,
go back, return.
redigo, 3, -egI, -actum, tr.,
reduce; make (27).
redintegro, I, tr., renew.
RedoDes, -urn, m. pl., the
Redones, a Gallic tribe living in
Brittany near Rennes.
rediico, 3, tr., lead back,
withdraw.
refero, -ferre, rettulI, re-
Hitum, tr., bring back; report .
refringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum,
tr., break down.
regio, -onis, f., distn'ct,
region.
regnum, -i, n., royal power,
kingship (al.o pl.).
133
reicio, 3, -ied, -iectum, tr.,
drive back.
relangunco,3,-languI,;ntr.,
become enervated, gr<YW feebl•.
relinquo, 3, -lIqul, -lictum,
!T., leave, leave behind, abandon.
reliquul, -a, -um, other, tM
other, remaining; nihil reliqul
facio, leave nothing undone.
remBDeO, 2, -mansi, -miin~
sum, intr., remain.
Rimi,-orum,m.pl.,theRenn·,
a Belgic tribe living between the
Axona (Ai.ne) and the Matrona
(Marne), always friendly to
Caesar; sing., Remus, a Reman
(6).
remitta, 3, -mIsl, -missum,
tr., throw back,· diminish (cou-
reniindo, I, tr., bring back
news, report.
repello, 3, reppulJ, repul-
sum, tr., drive back.
repentin~, adv., suddenly.
reperio, 4, repperl, reper-
tum, tr., jind out.
res, rei, f., thing" matter,
affair; object (1); information
(17); position, situation (25, 27);
res friimentaria, corn supply;
res pilblica, the state; res mili-
tans, warfare, war.
resisto, 3, -stitl, -stitum,
intr. with dat., resist, withstand.
respicio, 3, -spexI, -spectum,
inrr., look back.
respondeD, 2, -spondl,
-sponsurn, tr., answer.
retineo, 2, -tinw, -tentum,
tr., hold back, keep, retain,.
memoriam retineo, with gen.,
remember.
revertor, 3, dep. intr., with
act. perf., revertl, go back,
return.
revoco, I, tr., recall, call
back.
 VOCABULARY
rex, regis, m., king. sententia, -ae, t., opinion;
Rhinus, -i, m., the Rhi,ze. decision.
rips, ~ae,f., bank (of a river). sentis, -is, m., thorn, briar.
Romonoa, -3, -urn, Roman,' septem, indecl. pl., seven.
m. pl., the Romans. septimus, -3, -urn, seventh.
rubus, -I, bramble, thorn- sequor, ), seciitus, dep. tr.,
bush. follow; in[r,"follow, result.
rumor, -oris, m., report, servitus~"-iitis, f., slavery.
TUmour. servo, I, tr., keep, save,
riipes, -is, j., rock, cliff, guard.
riirsus, adv., again. sescenti, -ae, -a, pl., six hun-
dred.
sese, another form of se.
S sex, indecl. pl., six.
Sabinus, -I, m., Quintus sexaginti, indecl. pl., sixty.
Titurius Sabinus, one of Caesar's Sextius, -I, m., Publius Sex-
legati, killed in 54 B.C. (5, 9, ro). tius Baculus, a senior centurion,
Sabis, -is, m., the Sabis, the seriously wounded in the battle
river Sambre. against the Nervii (25).
saepes, -is, j., hedge, fence. si, conj., if,' sl minus, if not.
sagittarius, -I, m., archer. sic, adv., thus, so, as follows,'
salus, salutis, j .., safety, sic ut, in such a way that (32).
sarcina, -ae,/., soldr'u's pack signifer, -iferi, m., standard-
(see page 34). bearer.
saxum, -i, n., rock, stone. significado, -onis, f., sign,
scientia, -ae, j., knowledge, s~gnal, alarm-SIgnal.
skill. significo, I, tr., show, iRdi-
scribo, 3, scrIpsl, scriptum, cate.
tr., write. signum, -I, n., Signal,' stan-
sciitum, -I, n., shield. dard (usually pl.); signa inferre,
se or sese, sui, reflex. pron., advance, attack; signa conver-
hr'msel/, themselves. tere, wheel round; signa con-
sectio, -onis,j., plunder to be ferre, mass together.
sold at auction. silva, -ae,f., wood.
secundum, prep. with acc., silvestri!, -e, ,wooded.
along. simul, adv., at the same time;
secundus, -a, -um, second; conj., simul ae or atque, as soon
successful; favourable (9). as.
sed, conj., but. sine, prep. with abl., without.
senator, -oris, m., senator, singularis, -e, remarkable.
councillor. singuli, -ae, -a, pl., one each;
senatus, -Us, m., senate, individual.
council of elders. sinister, -tra, -trum, left, on
Senones, -urn, m. pl., the the left.
Senones, a Gallic tribe, whose sol, solis, m., sun.
capital was Agedincurn (Sens), sollicito, I, cr., stir up, rouse.
living south of the Sequana solus, -a, -urn, alone, only;
(Seine). adv. smurn, alQne, only.
134
VOCABULARY
spatium, -I, n., space, dis-
tance, interval, length.
species, -icl,J., sight, appear-
ance, spectacle.
speculAtor, -oris, m., scout,
spy.
spes, spel, /., h9pe; spem
infero, inspire hope.
spiritus, -us, m., breath; pl.,
arrogance.
statim, adv., immediately, at
once.
statio, -onis, f., post, outpost,
picket.
atatuo, 3, -ul, -utum, tr.,
resolve, determine.
statura, -ae, f., height, stat-
ure.
strepitus, -its, m., noise, din.
studeo, 2, -ul, with dat., pay
attention to.
atudium, -i, n., eagerness for,
with gen.
sub, prep. with ace., towards
(of time); with abl., under.
subito, adv., suddenly,' hur-
riedly (33).
submitto, 3, -misi, -missum,
lr., senti, send up.
8ubruo, 3, -rul, rutum, tr.,
undermine.
subsequor, 3, -secfitus, dep.
tr.,follow closely.
subsidium, -I, n., help, sup-
port; pl., reinforcements; sub-
sidiO (dat.), as a help to, to help.
succendo, 3, -cendi, -censum,
lr., setflre to, sec on fire.
successus, -us, m., advance,
approach.
Suessiones, -urn, m. pl., the
Suessiones, a Gallic tribe living
between the Matrona (Marne)
and the Axona (Aisne).
sum, esse, fui, intT., be.
summa, -ae,f., supreme com-
mand (with and without imperl,
4, 23)·
135
summus, -8, -urn, superl. of
superus, highest, very high,great-
est; n., top, summit.
sumo, 3, stlmpsl, sQmptum,
tr., take; with sibi, assume (4).
superior, -ius, compo of
superus, higher; preceding, ear-
lier, former.
supero, I, tr., ooercome.
supersedeo, 2, -scdl, -ses-
sum, with abl., refrainjrom.
supersum, ...esse, -ful, intr.,
survive.
supplex, -plicis, m., sup-
pliant.
supplicatio, -onis, /., pub-
lic· thanksgiving to the gods for a
successful campaign.
supra, ad"., above, previ-
ously.
sU8tento, I, tr., endure, sus-
tain,' impers. pass., the defence
was maintained.
8ustineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum,
tr.J' withstand, endure; with re-
flex. pron., stand up (25); intr.,
hold out (6).
8UUS, sua, suum, his, their;
m. pl., his men.
T
T., Titus, a Roman prae-
nomen (first name, II).
tam, ad'll., so.
tamen, adv., however, never-
theless.
tantulus, -a, -urn, so small.
tantus, -a, -urn, so great, as
much, such; adv., tantum, so
much, so greatly.
tardo, I, tr., check, delay.
tardus, -a, -urn, slow, tired.
tegimentum, -i, n., covering
(for a shield).
telum, -I, n., missile, weapon,
spear.
tempus;temporis, n., time.