Plant & Animals: Morphology and Physiology

Lecture 1 - Plant Form and Function

Plant Growth and Development
Growth is the irreversible increase in the size of a plant. Plants have indeterminate growth which means they have the
capacity to grow from the apical meristem indefinitely. Growth generally occurs in cycles eg. Seasonally (summer-
winter) or daily (day-night).

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

All information required to build and operate a plant is carried in the chromosomes of each cell nucleus. During the life
of the plant, these genetic programmes or blueprints are used to direct increases in growth and development.

The genetic program that cells follow is determined by their response to various factors:
1. Signals from the environment
2. Hormonal signals
3. Nutritional factors

For instance, a leaf mesophyll cell, root cell and a tomato cell all have information in the nucleus necessary to make
chlorophyll. Yet it is the leaf cell which forms chloroplasts if exposed to light. Tomatoes do make chlorophyll early in
their development, but this disappears as the fruit matures. Thus the ability to form chlorophyll is determined initially by
the chromosomes, but the actual formation is stimulated by hormonal and environmental factors.

The development of a typical plant is the result of interaction between internal factors (genes, hormones) and external
(environment). Overriding these factors is the nutritional status of the plant. A plant without access to sufficient
nutrients will grow poorly, if at all, even if all other factors are suitable.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

Gravity - The force of gravity acting upon plant cells gives them directional information. Root tissue responds to gravity
by growing downward into the soil (positive response). In response to the same stimulus the shoot is programmed to
grow upward (negative response), the most likely location of light. This growth response to gravity is called Geotropism.

In the growing regions in roots and shoots there are growth hormones. If you put a plant on its side, the force of gravity
will concentrate the hormone (auxin) on the lower side, causing greater growth on this side. This unequal growth on the
lower side will force the tip upward.

In the root tip hormones are concentrated in the tip directing a downward growth pattern.

Light - Light striking one side of a stem causes less growth hormone on that side and a concentration on the darker side.
This results in increased growth on the darker side, curving the tip toward the light. This response is called
Phototropism.

Light regulates the elongation process in stems so that the stem can develop the necessary strength to support itself
above the ground. A stem kept in darkness will not have this control and will elongate rapidly and become very spindly
in the dark. This is called Etiolation.

Light filtered through the leaves of other plants, for example in a dense forest, is of lower intensity than that above the
tree canopy and this darkness appears to cause elongation of stems which has the effect of raising them nearer the light.
Plants native to a specific area and climate are able to time their activities (flowering, seed formation and dormancy) in
relation to the seasons. The seasonal change in day length is a reliable cue and plants have evolved systems for
“measuring” the relative lengths of night and day. This response is called Photoperiodism.

The lengthening of days of late spring is an indication of approaching summer, just as the shorter days of late summer
predict oncoming winter.

Short Day Plants Long Day Plants

Must have less than 14 hour’s daylight to flower. Must have greater than 14 hour’s daylight to flower

Day Neutral Plants

Flowering is not affected by day length.

Water – response of plant cell varies depending on the amount of water present on its surrounding. Hypertonic, Isotonic
and Hypotonic.

INTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

HORMONES are chemical substances produced in small amounts in one tissue and transported to another tissue where
they have an effect.

They are chemical messengers which regulate growth. There are five important hormones which are found in nearly all
seed plants and these coordinate the growth of the plant as a whole. Many of the effects of the external environment
on development are mediated by the distribution of these hormones within the plant. They are:

Auxin - manufactured in shoot tips, embryos, fruit and young leaves. It also promotes the elongation of shoot tissue
cells. Also it is the hormone involved in geotropic responses (curvature) of shoot tips to gravity. In many plants the
presence of auxin in the growing tip of the stem inhibits the growth of lateral buds below the apex. This phenomenon is
called Apical Dominance.

Removal of the growing tip, and thus the auxin, removes the inhibiting influence and the lower buds may sprout. That is
why ‘pinching out’ the apical bud stimulates bushier growth in many ornamentals. Application of artificial hormones
containing auxin to cuttings will stimulate production of roots. Development of fruit is stimulated by treatment of the
flower with auxin. Treatment prior to pollination of the flower will produce seedless fruit.

Cytokinins - The presence of cytokinin will stimulate the differentiation of vascular tissue (eg xylem). Cytokinin
stimulates cell division. Buds which are inhibited by apical dominance may be ‘released’ by cytokinin. Cytokinin delays
the ageing process and senescence, in leaves.

Gibberellins - an important hormone in stem elongation. Many dwarf plants are the result of diminished gibberellin in
the stem. Gibberellin also promotes bolting, rapid elongation of the stem. This occurs naturally in many plants which
grow in a rosette form and produce a long flowering stalk. It also promotes flowering in some long day plants, and also
promotes pollen development.

Abscisic Acid - stimulates the closure of leaf stomata. When a plant is under water stress and begins to wilt, abscisic acid
is produced in the leaves and closure of the stomata occurs quite rapidly in response. Abscisic acid regulates leaf
abscission.

Ethylene - gas made in small quantities in plant tissue which triggers the fruit ripening process. It is used to bring about
the uniform ripening of bananas. A rotten apple produces ethylene gas which causes nearby apples to rot. CO2 storage
of apples prevents the ripening effect of ethylene.
Transport System in Plants