Ee-Module 2 PDF

EE 17EC36 - MODULE - 2 RAVITEJ BALEKAI ASST.
PROFESSOR
ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS [17EC36]
B.E., III Semester, Electronics & Communication Engineering/
Telecommunication Engineering (VTU)
[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
Module-2
Gauss’s law and Divergence
I
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Gauss’s law, Divergence, Maxwell’s First equation (Electrostatics), Vector operator ) and
Divergence theorem
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Energy, Potential and Conductors
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Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field, The line integral, Definition of
potential difference and potential, The potential field of point charge, Current and Current density,
Continuity of current.
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Text Books:
1. W.H. Hayt and J.A. Buck, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, 7th Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 2009, ISBN-978-0-07-061223-5.
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Reference Books:
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1. Ian John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch, “ Electromagnetics with applications”, Mc Graw Hill.
2. N. Narayana Rao, “Fundamentals of Electromagnetics for Engineering”, Pearson.
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PREPARED BY:
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RAVITEJA BALEKAI
Asst Professor
ECE Dept, GMIT
Davangere 577006
Cell: +919739223504
Mail: ravitejj10@gmail.com , ravitejb@gmit.ac.in
Website: https://ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej
DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 1

EE 17EC36 - MODULE - 2 RAVITEJ BALEKAI ASST. PROFESSOR
Gauss’s Law
Statement: “The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by
that surface”.
Mathematical representation of Gauss’s law
Consider any object of irregular shape as shown in figure. The total charge enclosed by the irregular
closed surface is Q coulombs. It may be in any form of distribution. Consider a small differential surface
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dS at point P. The flux density at point P is D and its direction is such that it makes an angle θ with the
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normal direction at point P. The flux d passing through the surface dS is the product of the component of
D in the direction normal to the dS and d
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Mathematically this can be represented as
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d = Dn dS
where Dn = Component of D in the direction of normal to the surface dS.

BA
dS Closed irregular surface
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ɵ
Q
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Fig.1 Flux through irregular shaped closed surface

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Dn = cos θ
d = cos θ dS
From the definition of dot product,
= cos θAB
d =

This is the flux passing through incremental surface area dS. Hence the total flux passing through the entire
closed surface is expressed as
= =
Now irrespective of the shape of the surface and charge distribution, total flux passing through the surface
is the total charge enclosed by the surface.
= =Q
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A
Problems
1. Given the electric flux density, D = 0.3r2 ar nC/m2 in free space
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a) Find E at point P(r =2 , θ=25° , ϕ=90°).
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b) Find the total charge within the sphere r=3.
c) Find the total electric flux leaving the sphere r=4.
D = 0.3r2 ar nC/m2
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a) D = E εo
E= = ar =135.5 ar V/m
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b) = r=3
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Q=D = 305.40 C
c) =
V
= r2 sinθ dθ dφ
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= 965.22 nC

Point Charge
ϕ r =a Ds
Q
ɵ
I
A
K
Fig.2 Application of Gauss’s law to the field of a point charge Q on spherical closed surface of radius ‘a’.
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The electric flux density D is everywhere normal to the spherical surface and has a constant
magnitude at every point on it.
BA
The electric field intensity of the point charge has been found to be
E= - - - - - - - - - (1)
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Since D= E we have D = - - - - - - - - - (2)
At the surface of the sphere, Ds=

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The differential element of area on a spherical surface is in spherical coordinates

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dsr = r dθ r sin θ dφ ar = a dθ a sin θ dφ ar = a2 sin θ dθ dφ ar
Ds . dS = a2 sin θ dθ dφ ar (
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Leading to the closed surface integral
sinθ dθ dφ = Q
= - - - - - - - - - (3)

This proves the Gauss’s law that Q coulombs of flux crosses the surface if Q coulombs of charge is
enclosed by that surface.
Infinite Line Charge
I
A
L dS
K
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x -z
BA
Fig. 3 Infinite line charge
Consider an infinite line charge of density C/m lying along z-axis from - ꚙ to ꚙ. Consider the Gaussian
surface as the right circular cylinder with z-axis as its axis and radius ‘r’ as shown in the figure. Length of
the cylinder is ‘L’ mtr. The flux density at any point on the surface is directed radially outwards i.e in the
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direction according to cylindrical coordinate system.
As the line charge is along z-axis, there cannot be any component of in z direction . So has only
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radial component.
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Now, Q= - - - - - - - - - (1)
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Q= + + = - - - - - - - - - (2)
= =0
Q= = . r dϕ dz = . r dϕ dz
Q = 2 r Dr L - - - - - - - - - (3)

Dr =
But =
Dr = (Due to infinite line charge)
E= V/m - - - - - - - - - (4)
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A
Coaxial Cable
K
a b
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BA
L
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Fig. 4 Coaxial cable
Consider a coaxial cable as shown in figure. The radius of inner conductor is ‘a’ while the radius of the
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outer conductor is ‘b’. The length of the cable is ‘L’. The charge distribution on the outer surface of the
inner conductor is having density C/m2. The total surface area of the inner conductor is 2 aL.
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Hence can be expressed interms of

RA
= =
=2 a - - - - - - - - - (1)
Thus line charge density of inner conductor is C/m.
Consider the right circular cylinder of length L as the Gaussian surface. Due to the symmetry, has only
radial component.

Q = 2 r Dr L (From infinite Line charge) where a < r < b - - - - - - - - - (2)
Total charge on the inner conductor is to be obtained by evaluating the surface integral of the surface
charge distribution.
Q= dS = r dϕ dz
Q= . a dϕ dz = 2 a L - - - - - - - - - (3)
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Equating (2) and (3)
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2 r Dr L = 2 a L
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Dr = - - - - - - - - - (4)
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From eqn (1) = BA
D=
E= (a < r < b ) V/m - - - - - - - - - (5)

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This is same as obtained for infinite line charge. Every flux line starting from the positive charge on the
inner cylinder must terminate on the negative charge on the inner surface of the outer cylinder. Hence the
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total charge on the inner surface of the outer cylinder is
Qouter cylinder = - 2 a L
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But Qouter cylinder = 2 b L

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2 bL =-2 aL
=- - - - - - - - - - (6)

Gauss’s law applied to Differential volume element
D = Do = Dxo ax + Dyo ay +Dzo az
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Fig. 5 Differential volume element
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Consider a closed Gaussian differential surface in the form of rectangular box, which is a
differential volume element. The sides of this element are ∆x ,
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and . Let us consider a point P
located in a rectangular coordinate system as shown in figure. The value of D at the point P may be
expressed in rectangular components,
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Do = Dxo ax + Dyo ay +Dzo az - - - - - - - - - (1)
The components of Dxo ,Dyo and Dzo vary with distance in the respective directions.
According to Gauss’s law,

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Q= - - - - - - - - - (2)
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={ - - - - - - - - - (3)
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Consider the front surface of the differential element. Though is varying with distance for small
surface like front surface it can be assumed constant.
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And =
= Front .( ) - - - - - - - - - (4)
= Dx Front .( ) - - - - - - - - - (5)
Dx Front = Dx0 + [ Rate of change of Dx with x ] x [Distance of surface from P ]

Dx Front = Dx0 + - - - - - - - - - (6)
The point P is at the centre so distance of surface in x direction from P is ]
= Dx0 + ] - - - - - - - - - (7)
Consider the integral over back surface
= .( - - - - - - - - - (8)
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Back
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= Dx Back .( - - - - - - - - - (9)
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[ The flux is entering from back side and leaving from front in positive x direction hence is used
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positive Back . While the surface is considered from point P is in negative x direction hence - is used
for expressing ]
Dx Back = Dx0 - [ Rate of change of Dx with x ] x [Distance of surface from P ]

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Dx Back = Dx0 - - - - - - - - - - (10)
= - Dx0 + ] - - - - - - - - - (11)
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Combining (7) and (11)

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+ = - - - - - - - - - (12)
Similarly we can write,

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+ = - - - - - - - - - (13)
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+ = - - - - - - - - - (14)
From eqn (3)
= - - - - - - - - - (15)

= - - - - - - - - - (16)
Problems
1. In free space, let D = 8xyz4ax+4x2z4ay+16x2yz3az pC/m2. (a) Find the total electric flux passing
through the rectangular surface z = 2, 0 < x < 2, 1 < y < 3, in the a z direction. (b) Find E at
P (2,−1, 3). (c) Find an approximate value for the total charge contained in an incremental sphere
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located at P (2,−1, 3) and having a volume of 10−12 m3.
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D = 8xyz4ax+4x2z4ay+16x2yz3az pC/m2
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a) Q= Along z direction
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Q=
Q=
Q = 1365 x C
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b) E = =
E at P (2, −1, 3)
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E= = (-146.4 ax+146.4ay-195.2az) v/m

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c) Q= =
V
Q at P (2, −1, 3) = 10−12 m3

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= = 8yz = - 648 x 10−12 = =0
= = = -1728 x 10−12
Q= = = - 2376 C

Divergence
Applying Gauss’s law to the differential volume element, we have obtained the relation,
Q= ΔV - - - - - - - - - (1)
This is the charge enclosed in the volume ΔV.
But by Gauss’s law - - - - - - - - - (2)
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To apply Gauss’s law, we have assumed a differential volume element as the Gaussian surface, over which
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D is constant. Hence equations (1) and (2) can be equated in limiting case as ΔV →0.
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= ΔV
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= = - - - - - - - - - (3)
This in general if is any vector then,

BA
=
This mathematical operation on is called a divergence and is given by

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div = = - - - - - - - - - (4)
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Divergence in different coordinate systems

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. = div = (Cartesian)
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. = div = (Cylindrical)
. = div = θ θ (Spherical)
θ θ θ

Problems
1. In each of the following parts, find a numerical value for div D at the point specified
a) D= (2xyz-y2)ax + (x2z-2xy)ay+x2yaz c/m2 at P(2, 3, -1).

b) D=2rz2sin2Φ ar + rz2 sin2ΦaΦ +2r2zsin2Φaz c/m2 at P(2, 1100, -1).
c) D=2r sinθ cosΦ ar + r cosθ cosΦ aθ - rsinΦaΦ c/m2 at P(1, 300, 500).
a) D= (2xyz-y2) ax + (x2z-2xy) ay+x2y az c/m2
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A
div =
K
= = 2yz = = -2x = =0
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div = = 2yz-2x At P(2,3,-1)
= 2 (3) (-1) – 2 (2) = -10 C/m3

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b) D=2rz2sin2Φ ar + rz2 sin2Φ aΦ +2r2zsin2Φ az c/m2
div =
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= = 4 z2 sin2Φ
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= =
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= =
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div =
= 4 z2 sin2Φ + + At P (2,1100,-1)
= 3.53 - 1.532 + 7.064 = 9.062 C/m3

2
c) D=2r sinθ cosΦ ar + r cosθ cosΦ aθ - rsinΦ aΦ c/m
div = θ θ
θ θ θ
= =6
θ θ = θ =
θ θ θ θ θ
= =
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θ θ θ
A
div = θ θ
θ θ θ
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=6 + - At P (1,300,500)
θ θ
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= 1.93 + 0.643 – 1.29 = 1.283 C/m3
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Maxwell’s First Equation
The divergence of electric flux density is given by,

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div = - - - - - - - - - (1)
According to Gauss’s law, it is known that

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= - - - - - - - - -(2)
Expressing Gauss’s law per unit volume

V
=
RA
Taking lim ΔV →0 i.e volume shrinks to zero,
= - - - - - - - - - (3)
But = at that point - - - - - - - - - (4)
The equation (4) gives the volume charge density at the point where divergence is obtained.

Equating (1) and (4),
div
.D= - - - - - - - (5)
This is volume charge density around a point. The equation (5) is called Maxwell’s first equation applied to
electrostatics. This is also called the Gauss’s law in point form or Gauss’s law in differential form.
Statement
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“The divergence of electric flux density in a medium at a point (differential volume shrinking to zero), is
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equal to the volume charge density (charge per unit volume) at the same point ”.
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Divergence Theorem
From the Gauss’s law we can write, BA
Q= - - - - - - (1)
While the charge enclosed in a volume is given by,
Q= - - - - - - (2)
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But according to Gauss’s law in the point form,

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.D=
Q= - - - - - - (3)
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Equating (1) and (3),
= - - - - - - (4)
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The equation (4) is called divergence theorem.
Statement
“The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the integral of
the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by that closed surface ”.

Problems
1. Given that the field D = C/m2 . Find
a) Volume charge density b) The total electric flux leaving the surface of the spherical volume
of radius 2 m.
a) .D=
=0
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= θ
A
.D θ
θ θ θ
θ Φ θ Φ
= C/m3
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=
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b) Ψ= =
θ Φ
= inθ dr dθ dϕ
Ψ=0C
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2. Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the field D = 2xyax + x2ay C/m2 and the
rectangular parellelepiped formed by the planes x = 0 and 1, y = 0 and 2, and z = 0 and 3.
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The divergence theorem states that
=
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Evaluating the surface integral first, we note that D is parallel to the surfaces at z = 0 and z = 3, so
D . dS = 0 there. For the remaining four surfaces,we have
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= . (- dy dz ax ) + . (dy dz ax)
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x=0 x=1
+ y=0 . (- dx dz ay ) + y=2 . ( dx dz ay )
= x=0 . (- dy dz ax ) + x=1 . (dy dz ax)
+ y=0 . (- dx dz ay ) + y=2 . ( dx dz ay )
= 12

= = + = 2y
= dx dy dz = 12
3. Given the field D = 6r sin ar + 1.5r cos aϕ C/m2, evaluate both sides of the divergence
theorem for the region bounded by r = 2, ϕ = 0, ϕ = π, z = 0, and z = 5.

I
=
A
K
= r=0 . (-r dϕ dz ar ) + r=2 . (r dϕ dz ar )
+ ϕ=0 . (- dr dz aϕ ) + ϕ= . ( dr dz aϕ )
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= r=0 (-r dϕ dz ar )
+ r=2 (r dϕ dz ar )
BA
+ ϕ=0 (- dr dz aϕ )
+ ϕ= ( dr dz aϕ )
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= 225
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= + +0
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= 12 sin - 0.75 sin
= dr dϕ dz
= 225

-r 2
4. Given D=30e ar - 2zaz c/m in cylindrical coordinates. Evaluate both sides of the divergence
theorem for volume enclosed by r=2, z=0, z=5.
+ +
Consider dS normal to ar direction which is for the side surface.
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= r=2 . (r dϕ dz ar ) = 255.1
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= z=5 . (r dr d az ) = -40 π
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= z=0 . (r dr d az ) = 0
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+ + = 129.43
=
BA
= + + =- + –2
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= – dr dϕ dz
= 129.43
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RA

Energy, Potential and Conductor
Work Done:
The electric field intensity is defined as the force on a unit test charge at that point at which we
want to find the value of E. Consider an electric field due to a positive charge Q. If a unit test positive
charge Qt is placed at any point in this field, it experiences a repulsive force and tends to move in the
direction of the force. But if a positive test charge Qt is to be moved towards the positive base charge Q
then it is required to be moved against the electric field of the charge Q. i.e against the repulsive force
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A
exerted by charge Q on the test charge Qt. While doing so, an external source has to do work to move the
test charge Qt against the electric field. This movement of charge requires to expand the energy. This work
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done becomes the potential energy of the test charge Qt, at the point at which it is moved.
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Consider a positive charge Q and its electric field E. If a positive test charge Qt is placed in this
field, it will move due to the force of repulsion. Let the movement of the charge Qt is dl. The direction in
which the movement has taken place is denoted by unit vector , in the direction of dl. This is shown in
figure.
BA
+ Qt
dL
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+Q
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Fig. 6
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According to Coulomb’s law the force exerted by the field E is given by,
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F = Qt E
But the component of this force exerted by the field in the direction of dl, is responsible to move the charge
Qt , through the distance dl. w.k.t the component of a vector in the direction of the unit vector is the dot
product of the vector with that unit vector. Thus the component of F in the direction of unit vector is
given by,
Fl = F. = Qt E . N

This is the force responsible to move the charge Qt through the distance dl, in the direction of the field.
To keep the charge in equilibrium, it is necessary to apply the force which is equal and opposite to the force
exerted by the field in the direction dl.
Fapplied = - Fl = - Qt E . N
In this case, the work is said to be done.
Thus there is expenditure of energy which is given by the product of force and the distance.
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A
Hence mathematically the differential work done by an external source in moving the charge Q t
through a distance dl, against the direction of field E is given by,
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dW = Fapplied x dl = - Qt E . dl
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dW = - Qt . Joules
Thus if a charge Q is moved from initial position to the final position, against the direction of electric field
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E then the total work done is obtained by integrating the differential work done over the distance from
initial position to the final position.
W=
EJ
W= Joules
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The Line Integral
Consider that the charge is moved from initial position B to the final position A, against the electric field E
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then the work done is given by,

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W=
This is called the line integral, where gives the components of E along the direction .
Mathematical procedure involved in such a line integral is,
1. Choose any arbitrary path B to A.

2. Break up the path into number of very small segments, which are called differential lengths.
3. Find the component of E along each segments.

4. Adding all such components and multiplying by charge, the required work done can be obtained.
Thus line integral is basically a summation and accurate result is obtained when the number of segments
becomes infinite.
Consider an uniform electric field E. The charge is moved from B to A along the path shown in figure. The
path B to A is divided into number of small segments. The line integral from B to A can be expressed as
the summation of dot products.
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W=-Q[ + + + ….._ ]
A
But the electric field is uniform and is equal in all directions,
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= = = =
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W=-QE.[ + + + …..+ ]
BA
E2 E3
dL2 dL3 E4 A
E1 dL4 E5 dL5
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dL1
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Fig. 7
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The sum of all such vectors is the vector joining initial point to final point.
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W=-QE.
Key Point: The work done depends on Q, and does not depend on the path joining B to A.
This is true for nonuniform electric field as well.
The work done in moving a charge from one location B to another A, in a static, uniform or
nonuniform electric field E is independent of the path selected.

Differential length vector
Cartesian
= dx ax + dy ay + dz az
Cylindrical
= dr ar + r dφ a φ + dz az
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Spherical
A
= dr ar + r dθ aθ + r sinθ dφ aφ
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Problems
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1. Find the work done in moving a charge of 2 C from (2, 0, 0) m to (0, 2, 0) m along the straight
line path joining two points, if the electric field is E= 12xax-4yay v/m.
BA W=
=
EJ
= = 64 J
2. Given the electric field E= (8xyzax + 4x2zay - 4x2yaz) v/m , find the differential amount of
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work done in moving a 6nc charge a distance of 2μm, starting at P(2, -2, 3) and proceeding in
the direction aL a) - ax+ ay+ az b) ax - ay - az c) ax + ay

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a) dW = - Qt E . dl
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= - 6 x 10-9 (8xyzax + 4x2zay - 4x2yaz) . ( - ax+ ay + az ) (2 x 10-6)
Use Dot product operation
= - 12 x 10-15 ( - + - az )
At P (1, -2, 3)
dW = -149.34 x 10-15 J

b) dW = - Qt E . dl
= - 6 x 10-9 (8xyzax + 4x2zay - 4x2yaz) . ( ax - ay - az ) (2 x 10-6)

At P (1, -2, 3)
dW = 149.34 x 10-15 J
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c) dW = - Qt E . dl
A
= - 6 x 10-9 (8xyzax + 4x2zay - 4x2yaz) . ( ax+ ay) (2 x 10-6)
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= - 12 x 10-15 ( + )
At P (1, -2, 3)
BA dW = 0
3. Calculate the work done in moving a 4 C charge from B (1, 0 ,0) to A (0, 2, 0) along the path
y = 2 – 2x, z = 0 in the field E a) 5 ax v/m b) 5 x ax v/m c) 5 x ax + 5 y ay v/m
a)
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W=
W=
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= -20 = 20 J
b)
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W=
W=
RA
= -20 = 10 J
c)
W=
W=
= -4 [ = - 30 J

Potential difference
The workdone in moving a point charge Q from point B to A in the electric field E is given by,
W=-Q - - - - - - (1)
If the charge Q is selected as unit test charge then from the above equation we get the workdone in moving
unit charge from B to A in the field E.
Thus “Workdone per unit charge in moving unit charge from B to A in the field E is called potential
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A
difference between the points B to A”.
Potential difference = V = - - - - - - - (2)
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NOTE: If B is the initial point and A is the final point then the potential difference is denoted as VAB
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which indicates the potential difference between the points A and B and unit charge is moved from B to A.
VAB = - - - - - - - (3)
BA
Potential due to point charge
Consider a point charge, located at the origin of a spherical coordinate system, producing E radially
in all the directions as shown in the figure.
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IT
Q rA A B
V
rB
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Fig. 8 Potential due to point charge Q
Assuming free space, the field E due to a point charge Q at a point having radial distance r from
origin is given by
E= - - - - - - (1)

Consider a unit charge which is placed at a point B which is at a radial distance of rB from the
origin. It is moved against the direction of E from point B to point A. The point A is at a radial distance of
rA from the origin.
The differential length in spherical system is,
dL = dr ar + r dθ aθ + r sinθ dφ aφ - - - - - - (2)
Hence the potential difference VAB between points A and B is given by,
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A
VAB = -
K
VAB = - =- (dr ar + r dθ aθ + r sinθ dφ aφ )
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=
VAB = volts
BA
Concept of Absolute Potential
Instead of potential difference, it is more convenient to express absolute potentials of various points in
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the field. Such absolute potentials are measured with respect to a specified reference position. Such a
reference position is assumed to be at zero potential.
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Most widely used reference which is used to develop the concept of absolute potential is infinity. The
potential at infinity is treated to be zero and all the potentials at various points in the field are defined with
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reference to infinity.
Consider potential difference VAB due to movement of unit charge from B to A in a field of a point
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charge Q. It is given by
VAB =
Now let the charge is moved from infinity to the point A i.e rB = , hence
VA = = - - - - - - (1)

Equation (1) is called potential of point A denoted as VA. This is also called Absolute potential of point A.
Similarly absolute potential of point B can be defined as
VB = - - - - - - (2)
This is the workdone in moving unit charge from infinity at point B.
Hence the potential difference can be expressed as the difference between the absolute potentials of the two
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points.
A
VAB = VA - VB - - - - - - (3)
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Thus absolute potential can be defined as,
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“The workdone in moving a unit test charge from the infinity (or reference point at which potential is zero)
to the point, against the direction of the field”.
Thus, the absolute potential at any point which is at a distance r from the origin of a spherical system,
BA
where point charge Q is located, is given by
V= - - - - - - (4)
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Potential due to several Point Charges

Consider the various point charges Q1, Q2, Q3 …… Qn located at the distances r1, r2, r3 …… rn from the
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origin as shown in the figure. The potential due to all these point charges, at point P is to be determined.
Use superposition principle.
V
RA
Q1 r1
Q2 r2 P
Q3 r3
rn
Qn
Fig. 9 Potential due to several point charges

Consider the point charge Q1, the potential VP1 due to Q1 is given by,
VP1 =
The potential VP2 due to Q2 is given by,
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VP2 =
A
The potential VPn due to Qn is given by,
K
VPn =
LE
As the potential is scalar, the net potential at point P is the algebraic sum of the potentials at P due to
individual point charges,
BA
VP = VP1 + VP2 + …….. VPn
= + + …….
EJ
VP = volts
IT
Problems
1. A point charge Q= 0.4nC is located at the origin. Obtain the absolute potential of A (2, 2, 3).
V
A (2, 2, 3)
RA
V= Q= 0.4 nC(0, 0, 0)
= =
V= = 0.8719 volts

2. If Q = 0.4 nC is located at (2, 3, 3) then obtain the absolute potential of point A (2, 2, 3).
A (2, 2, 3)
VA = Q=0.4 nC (2, 3, 3)
= =1
VA = =3.595 volts
I
A
3. If the point B is at (-2, 3, 3) in the above example. Obtain the potential difference between the
points A and B.
K
VAB = VA - VB
Where VA and VB are the absolute potentials of A and B
LE
Now VA =3.595 volts
BA A (2, 2, 3)
VB = Q=0.4 nC(2, 3, 3)
rB = Distance between point B and Q B (-2, 3, 3)
= =4
EJ
VB = = = 0.8987 volts
IT
VAB = VA - VB = 2.6962 volts
4. If three charges 3μC, -4μC and 5μC are located at (0,0,0), (2,-1,3) and (0,4,-2) respectively. Find
V
the potential at (1,0,1) assuming zero potential at infinity.

RA
Q1 (0,0,0) r1
Q2 (2,-1,3) r2 P(1,0,1)
Q3 (0,4,-2) r3
VP = V1 + V2 + V3

= + +
= = = =
= + + = 13.2 x 103 V
5. An electric field is expressed in rectangular coordinates by E = 6x2 ax + 6y ay + 4 az V/m.

Find a) VMN if points M and N are specified by M (2,6,-1) and N (-3,-3,2)
I
b) VM if V=0 at Q (4,-2,-35) c) VN if V=2 at P (1,2,-4)
A
2
a) E = 6x ax + 6y ay + 4 az M (2,6,-1) and N (-3,-3,2)
K
VMN = - =-
LE
=- - - = -139 V
b) VM if V=0 at Q (4,-2,-35) M (2,6,-1)

BA
VMQ = - =-
=- - - = -120 V
EJ
c) VN if V=2 at P (1,2,-4) (To calculate V at N , consider reference at point Q because V=0 at Q)
VN = VNQ = - =-
IT
=- - - = 19 V
V
Potential calculation when reference other than infinity

RA
The expressions derived uptill now are under the assumption that the reference position of zero
potential is at infinity.
If any other point than infinity is selected as the reference than the potential at a point A due to point charge
Q at the origin becomes,
VA = +C
Where C = constant to be determined at chosen reference point where v=0.

Problem
1. A point charge of 6nC is located at the origin in free space, find potential of point P if P is located
at (0.2, -0.4, 0.4) and a) V= 0 at infinity b) V=0 at (1, 0, 0) c) V= 20V at (-0.5, 1, -1)
a) The reference is at infinity
VP = Q RP P
I
= = 0.6
A
VP = = 89.87 V
K
LE
b) V=0 at (1, 0, 0) , Thus the reference is not at infinity. In such case potential at P is
P(0.2,-0.4,0.4)
RP
BA
VP = Q (0,0,0) RR R(1,0,0)
Now VR at (1,0,0) is zero

EJ
VR =
= =1
IT
0= +C C = -53.92
V
VP = = 89.87 – 53.92 = 35.95 V

RA

c) Now V = 20V at (-0.5, 1, -1) Let this is M (-0.5, 1,-1). The reference is not given as infinity.
VM = Rp P(0.2,-0.4,0.4)
= = 1.5 Q (0,0,0) RM
20 = +C C = -15.95 M(-0.5,1,-1)
I
VP = = 89.87 – 15.95 = 73.92V
A
K
Potential Gradient
LE
Consider an electric field E due to a positive charge placed at the origin of a sphere
V=- =
BA
The potential decrease as distance of point from the charge increases. It is known that the line integral of E
between the two points gives a potential difference between the two points. For an elementary length ΔL
we can write
EJ
VAB = ΔV = -
The rate of change of potential with respect to the distance is called the potential gradient.
IT
= = Potential gradient
V
Relation between and V

RA
Consider due to a particular charge distribution in space. The electric field and potential V is changing
from point to point in space. Consider a vector incremental making an angle θ with respect to the
direction of , as shown in figure.
To find incremental potential we use,
ΔV = -

=E = ΔL
Where = unit vector in the direction of ΔL
ΔL
P θ
I
A
K
Fig. 10 Incremental length at an angle θ
LE
ΔV = - cos θ (using Dot product operation)
= = Potential gradient
BA
= - cos θ
is maximum only when cos θ = -1 (θ = 180°) . This indicates that

EJ
must be in the direction opposite
to .
IT
The maximum value of rate of change of potential with distance (dV / dL) is called gradient of V.
= - (grad V)
V
=- V
RA
The gradient V in different coordinate systems
V= (Cartesian)
V= (Cylindrical)
V= θ (Spherical)
θ θ

Problem
1. Given the potential field in cylindrical coordinates V = r cos V, and point P at r=3m ,
=60° , z= 2m, find values at P for a) V b) E c) Magnitude of E d)
e) aN f) in free space
a) V = r cos at P ( r=3m , ϕ =60° , z= 2m)
V = 30 V
I
A
b) =- V
K
V= r cos r cos r cos
LE
=-{ cos - - r z cos }
At P ( r=3m , ϕ =60° , z= 2m)

BA
= - 10 + 17.3 + 24 V/m
c) = = 31.23 V/m
EJ
d) = | max = E = 31.23 V/m

IT
e) E = -
V
= = = 0.32 - 0.55 -0.77

RA
f) =?
D=E
= 8.854 x 10-12 { cos + + r z cos }

D= cos + + r z cos
. = div = =
I
r z cos
A
K
=
LE
+ r cos
BA
=
At P ( r=3m , ϕ =60° , z= 2m)
- 234 pC/m3
EJ
=
IT
V
RA

Current and Current Density
The current is defined as the rate of flow of charge and it is measured in amperes.
I=
The current is considered to be the motion of the positive charges. The conventional current is due
to the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged. Hence the direction of conventional current is
I
assumed to be opposite to the direction of flow of the electrons.
A
The current which exists in the conductors, due to the drifting of electrons, under the influence of
the applied voltage is called drift current. While in dielectrics, there can be flow of charges, under the
K
influence of electric field intensity. Such a current is called the displacement current or convection current.
LE
The analysis of such currents, in the field theory is based on defining a current density at a point in
the field. The current density is a vector quantity associated with the current and denoted as J.
BA
The current density is defined as the current passing through the unit surface area, when the surface
is held normal to the direction of the current. The current density is measured in amperes per square meters
(A/ m2).
Relation between I and J

EJ
Consider a surface S and I is the current passing through the surface. The direction of current is
normal to the surface S and hence direction of J is also normal to the surface S.
IT
V
RA
dS
Fig. 11 J and dS are normal
I=

Continuity Equation
The continuity equation of the current is based on the principle of conservation of charge.
The principle states that, The charges can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Consider a closed surface S with a current density J, then the total current I crossing the surface S is
given by,
I= - - - - - - - - - (1)
I
The current flows outwards from the closed surface. It has been mentioned earlier that the current
A
means the flow of positive charges. Hence the current I is constituted due to outward flow of positive
charges from closed surface S. According to principle of conservation of charge, there must be decrease of
K
an equal amount of positive charge inside the closed surface. Hence the outward rate of flow of positive
LE
charge gets balanced by the rate of decrease of charge inside the closed surface.
Let Qi = Charge within the closed surface

BA
= Rate of decrease of charge inside the closed surface.
The negative sign indicates decrease in charge.
Due to principle of conservation of charge, this rate of decrease is same as rate of outward flow of charge,
EJ
which is a current.
I= = - - - - - - - - - (2)
IT
This is the integral form of continuity equation of the current.

V
Using the divergence theorem, convert the surface integral in integral form to the volume integral.
RA
= - - - - - - - - - (3)
= - - - - - - - - - (4)
But Qi =
= - - - - - - - - - (5)
For a constant surface, the derivative becomes the partial derivative.

= - - - - - - - - - (6)
If the relation is true for any volume, it must be true even for incremental volume ΔV.
=-
=- - - - - - - - - - (7)
This is the point form or differential form of the continuity equation of the current.
I
A
Problem
K
1. Given the vector current density J = 10 z – 4r ϕ mA/m2
(a) Find the current density at P (r = 3, ϕ = 30◦, z = 2)
LE
(b) Determine the total current flowing outward through the circular band r = 3, 0 < ϕ < 2π,
2 < z < 2.8.
a) J = (10 z – 4r ϕ )x
BA
At P (r = 3, ϕ = 30◦, z = 2)
J = (180 –9 )x A/ m2
EJ
b) I= =
IT
.J=
V
–
=
RA
. J = ( 30 r z + 8 sin ϕ cos ϕ ) x
I=
= ϕ
ϕ ϕ dr dϕ dz
I = 3.245 A

ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: GAUSS'S LAW AND DIVERGENCE
1. State and prove and Gauss's law.

2. Show that s outer = (-a/b) s inner.
3. Calculate D in rectangular coordinates at point P(2,-3,6) produced by
I
a) a point charge Q= 55mc at Q(-2,3,-6). b) a uniform line charge L=20mc/m on the x-axis.
A
c) a uniform surface charge density s=120μC /m2 on the plane z= -5m
K
4. Given the electric flux density, D= 0.3r2ar nc/m2 in free space. a) Find E at point P(2,250,900)
b) Find the total charge within the sphere r=3.
LE
c) Find the total electric flux leaving the sphere r=4.
5. In each of the following parts, find a numerical value for div D at the point specified
BA
a) D= (2xyz-y2)ax + (x2z-2xy)ay+x2yaz c/m2 at P(2,3,-1).
b) D=2rz2sin2Φ ar + rz2 sin2ΦaΦ +2r2zsin2Φaz c/m2 at P(2,1100,-1).
c) D=2r sinθ cosΦ ar + r cosθ cosΦ aθ - rsinΦaΦ c/m2 at P(1,300,500).
6. State Gauss's law in point form.
EJ
7. Determine an expression for the volume charge density associated with each D field following
a) D= 5sinθ aθ + 5sinΦ aΦ c/m2 at P(0.5, /4, /4).
IT
b) D= (4xy/z) ax + (2x2/z) ay +- (2x2y/z2) az.

c) D= z sinΦar + cosθ sinΦ aθ + rsinΦaz .
V
8. State and prove divergence theorem.

9. Given D=5r ar c/m2, prove divergence theorem for a shell region enclosed by spherical surface
RA
at r=a and r=b (b>a) and centered at the origin.

10. Given D=30e-rar - 2zaz c/m2 in cylindrical coordinates. Evaluate both sides of the divergence
theorem for volume enclosed by r=2, z=0, z=5.

TOPIC: ENERGY, POTENTIAL AND CONDUCTOR
1. Find the work done in moving a charge of 2 C from (2,0,0)m to (0,2,0) m along the straight line
path joining two points, if the electric field is E= 12xax-4yay v/m.
2. Given the electric field E= (6xyzax + 2x2zay-4x2yaz)v/m , find the differential amount of work
done in moving a 3nc charge a distance of 5μm,starting at P(1,-2,3) and proceeding in the
direction aL a) -6/7 ax+2/7 ay+5/7az b) 6/7 ax- 4/7ay-5/7 az
3. Find V, E and D in free space a) V= Eoe-xsin( y/4) in cartesian at P(0,0,1) .
I
b) V= 100rcosΦ /(z2+1) at Q(4,500,3). c) V= 60sinθ/r2 at R(3,600,250)
A
4. Derive the potential due to point charge.
K
5. Derive the potential due to several point charges.
6. A point charge of 6nc is located at origin in free space, find potential of point P if P is located at
LE
(0.2,-0.4,0.4) and a) V=0 at infinity b) V=0 at (1,0,0) c) V=20V at (-0.5,1,-1).
7. Derive an expression for J, v and velocity of the charge element.

BA
8. With usual notations derive the expressions ᴧ.J= -∂ v /∂ t.
9. Find the current

a) J= 2x2ax 2xy3ay + 2xyaz A/m2 in outward direction of a cube of 1m, with one corner at the
origin and edges parallel to the coordinate axes.
EJ
b) J= 10e-100 r A/m2 0.01≤ r ≤ 0.02 ,0 ≤ z ≤1m.
A/m2 r = 3m, 0 < θ < /6, 0 < Φ < 2 .

IT
c) J= 1
V
RA

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EE 17EC36 - MODULE - 2 RAVITEJ BALEKAI ASST.

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 1

Mathematical representation of Gauss’s law

where Dn = Component of D in the direction of normal to the surface dS.

Fig.1 Flux through irregular shaped closed surface

From the definition of dot product,

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 2

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 3

Since D= E we have D = - - - - - - - - - (2)

At the surface of the sphere, Ds=

The differential element of area on a spherical surface is in spherical coordinates

dsr = r dθ r sin θ dφ ar = a dθ a sin θ dφ ar = a2 sin θ dθ dφ ar

Leading to the closed surface integral

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 4

Infinite Line Charge

direction according to cylindrical coordinate system.

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 5

Dr = (Due to infinite line charge)

Fig. 4 Coaxial cable

Hence can be expressed interms of

Thus line charge density of inner conductor is C/m.

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 6

E= (a < r < b ) V/m - - - - - - - - - (5)

total charge on the inner surface of the outer cylinder is

But Qouter cylinder = 2 b L

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 7

D = Do = Dxo ax + Dyo ay +Dzo az

According to Gauss’s law,

Dx Front = Dx0 + [ Rate of change of Dx with x ] x [Distance of surface from P ]

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 8

Dx Front = Dx0 + - - - - - - - - - (6)

The point P is at the centre so distance of surface in x direction from P is ]

Consider the integral over back surface

Dx Back = Dx0 - [ Rate of change of Dx with x ] x [Distance of surface from P ]

Combining (7) and (11)

Similarly we can write,

From eqn (3)

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 9

E= = (-146.4 ax+146.4ay-195.2az) v/m

Q at P (2, −1, 3) = 10−12 m3

= = 8yz = - 648 x 10−12 = =0

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 10

This is the charge enclosed in the volume ΔV.

But by Gauss’s law - - - - - - - - - (2)

This in general if is any vector then,

This mathematical operation on is called a divergence and is given by

Divergence in different coordinate systems

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 11

a) D= (2xyz-y2)ax + (x2z-2xy)ay+x2yaz c/m2 at P(2, 3, -1).

a) D= (2xyz-y2) ax + (x2z-2xy) ay+x2y az c/m2

= 2 (3) (-1) – 2 (2) = -10 C/m3

= 3.53 - 1.532 + 7.064 = 9.062 C/m3

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 12

The divergence of electric flux density is given by,

According to Gauss’s law, it is known that

Expressing Gauss’s law per unit volume

Taking lim ΔV →0 i.e volume shrinks to zero,

But = at that point - - - - - - - - - (4)

DEPT. OF E&CE, GMIT ravitejb.wixsite.com/ravitej Page No - 13

While the charge enclosed in a volume is given by,

But according to Gauss’s law in the point form,

Equating (1) and (3),

The equation (4) is called divergence theorem.