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A novel scheme, based on an iterative decambering approach, is presented for the prediction of poststall charac-
teristics of wings using known section data as inputs. The scheme is suitable for implementation in lifting-line and
vortex-lattice methods. The new scheme differs from earlier ones in the details of how the residual for the Newton
iteration is computed. With earlier schemes, multiple solutions for wings at poststall conditions were identified
only by observing that the final converged solution depended on the initial solution used for the iteration. With
the current scheme, multiple solutions at poststall conditions are brought to light right during the computation
of the residuals for the Newton iteration. In general, the new scheme is found to be more robust at achieving
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convergence. Validation is provided by comparison with experimental data in the literature and by showing the
capability to predict well-known trends in stall behavior. The current method is also shown to have significant po-
tential for providing valuable information for prediction of aircraft stability and control characteristics at poststall
conditions.
Nomenclature w = wing
a0 = airfoil lift-curve slope in potential flow 1 = scheme 1
CL = wing lift coefficient 2 = scheme 2
Cl = airfoil lift coefficient
Introduction
Cm = airfoil pitching-moment coefficient about the
c =
quarter-chord
chord T HE ability of linear aerodynamic methods such as lifting-line
theory (LLT), Weissinger’s method, and vortex-lattice methods
(VLM) to successfully predict the lift and induced drag behavior of
D = damping factor
F = residual vector medium- to high-aspect-ratio wings is well established. In these
f = element of residual vector methods, a linear lift curve with a slope of approximately 2π per
i, j = index of wing section radian is typically assumed for the airfoil sections that form the
J = Jacobian matrix wings. For several decades, researchers have sought to extend these
N = number of wing sections linear prediction methods to handle the aerodynamic analysis of
p = perturbation to δ1 or δ2 wings in which nonlinear airfoil lift curves are taken into consid-
x2 = chordwise start location of the second decambering eration. The motivation behind these efforts was provided by the
function desire to predict stall and poststall aerodynamic characteristics of
α = angle of attack wings using experimental or computational section aerodynamic
β = angle of yaw data for poststall conditions. It is recognized that the flow over a
= strength of bound vortex wing at poststall conditions is highly three dimensional, and the use
δx = vector containing the corrections to the Newton variables of a quasi-two-dimensional approach represents a significant ap-
δ1 (x) = first decambering function proximation. The impetus for such a prediction method, however,
δ2 (x) = second decambering function is provided by the need for rapid aerodynamic prediction capabil-
θ2 = angular coordinate corresponding to x2 ities for such high-alpha conditions for aircraft stability, control
and simulation purposes and in the early phases of vehicle design.
Subscripts Furthermore, even high-order computational-fluid-dynamics (CFD)
eff = effective techniques are only now approaching the stage where they can be
max = maximum reliably used for high-alpha aerodynamic prediction. These CFD
p = perturbed value (for a given step of the iteration) high-alpha analyses, however, require massive computing resources
s = starting value (for a given step of the iteration) and significant time even for the analysis at a single angle of attack.
t = target value (for a given step of the iteration); also tail Thus the search for rapid, albeit approximate, approaches for stall
visc = represents value from two-dimensional viscous and poststall prediction of wings using known section data continues
experimental or computational data to be of interest.
The approaches for extending linear aerodynamic prediction
Received 23 December 2004; revision received 18 August 2005; accepted methods to handle nonlinear and poststall airfoil lift curves can
for publication 22 August 2005. Copyright c 2005 by Rinku Mukherjee and be broadly classified into two kinds: the iterative -distribution ap-
Ashok Gopalarathnam. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics proach and the α-correction approach. In the first approach, a lift dis-
and Astronautics, Inc., with permission. Copies of this paper may be made for tribution is first assumed on the wing and is then iteratively corrected
personal or internal use, on condition that the copier pay the $10.00 per-copy by determining the effective-α distribution using the nonlinear air-
fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, foil lift curve. In the second approach, the deviation of the airfoil
MA 01923; include the code 0021-8669/06 $10.00 in correspondence with nonlinear lift curve from the potential-flow linear lift curve is used to
the CCC.
∗ Graduate Research Assistant, Box 7910, Department of Mechanical and apply a correction to the local α at each section of the wing. The fol-
Aerospace Engineering; currently Staff Scientist, MV Systems, Inc., 17301 lowing paragraphs provide brief descriptions of the two approaches.
W. Colfax, Avenue Suite 305, Golden, CO 80401; mvun75@yahoo.com.
Member AIAA. Iterative Γ-Distribution Approach
† Associate Professor, Box 7910, Department of Mechanical and Tani,1 in 1934, is believed to have developed the first success-
Aerospace Engineering; ashok g@ncsu.edu. Senior Member AIAA. ful technique for handling nonlinear section lift curves in the LLT
660
MUKHERJEE AND GOPALARATHNAM 661
formulation. In his technique, a spanwise bound vorticity dis- ness of using the α-correction approach for wing C L max prediction
tribution is first assumed; this distribution is used to compute the with two-dimensional aerodynamic characteristics obtained using
distribution of induced velocities and hence induced angles αi and CFD computations with a Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes code.
effective angles of attack αeff along the lifting line. The distribu- Additionally, the results of Ref. 10 also demonstrate how the α-
tion of αeff is then used to look up the operating Cl of the local correction approach is successful in estimating the C L max of wings
section using the known nonlinear Cl -α data for the airfoil. A new with part-span flaps, particularly when the start of the trailing-vortex
distribution is then computed from the spanwise Cl distribution. wake over the flapped portion is displaced vertically to account for
The iteration is carried out until the distribution converges. This the downward location of the flap trailing edge.
method worked well up to the onset of stall and was made popular In the current research, a decambering approach has been devel-
by the 1947 NACA report of Sivells and Neely2 that provided a oped for predicting poststall aerodynamic characteristics of wings
detailed description of the method and implemented a tabular pro- using known section data. In this approach, the chordwise cam-
cedure for hand calculation of the method for unswept wings with ber distribution at each section of the wing is reduced to account
arbitrary planform and airfoil lift-curve slopes. This method was for the viscous effects at high angles of attack. This approach is
applied for analysis of wings up to the onset of stall, that is, until similar in concept to the α-correction approach9,10 and can be in-
a wing angle of attack at which some section on the wing has Cl corporated in LLT, Weissinger’s method, and VLM. It differs from
equal to the local section Cl max . At higher angles of attack where the α-correction approach in its capability to use both the Cl and Cm
some sections on the wing might have a negative lift-curve slope, data for the section and in the use of a two-variable function for the
this successive-approximation approach appears to have failed. decambering. Also, unlike all of the earlier methods, the current ap-
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Extensions of the approach to poststall angles of attack have been proach uses a multidimensional Newton iteration that accounts for
investigated in several subsequent research efforts. Based on a sug- the cross-coupling effects between the sections in predicting the de-
gestion by von Kármán, Schairer3 and Sears4 investigated the pos- cambering for each step in the iteration. In addition, a novel scheme
sibility of nonunique solutions for poststall angles of attack. Their has been developed for computing the residuals for the iteration
research showed that multiple solutions are possible for poststall an- that brings to light multiple solutions at poststall conditions right
gles of attack and include asymmetric lift distributions even when during the iteration process itself rather than as a consequence of
the flight condition and geometry are perfectly symmetrical. Sub- using multiple starting solutions. The following section illustrates
sequently, Piszkin and Levinsky5 and Levinsky6 developed a non- the concept of decambering using an example two-dimensional flow
linear lifting-line method based in part on the iterative approach past an airfoil. The iterative approach for three-dimensional wings
originally conceived by Tani.1 In addition to confirming the possi- is discussed next. Results for single and multiple wings are then
bility of multiple solutions at poststall angles of attack, Piszkin and presented.
Levinsky also found that some of the converged solutions from their
method exhibited sawtooth-type oscillations in the spanwise lift dis- Illustration of the Decambering Concept
tributions. Because they were restricted to the use of 10 panels per This section provides an illustration of the decambering approach
side of the wing in their computer program, however, Piszkin and and demonstrates the concept by using a simple example of a two-
Levinsky were unable to determine whether or not the oscillations dimensional flow past an NACA 0012 airfoil. It is illustrative to
were a consequence of the coarse panel distribution. They presented examine this approach for the two-dimensional situation first be-
the occurrence of lift hysteresis for increasing and decreasing α and cause the approach as applied to the flow past a three-dimensional
the occurrence of zero-β rolling moments at poststall conditions. finite wing will be described in the following section.
Their results confirmed that for a poststall angle of attack the final With increasing angle of attack, the boundary layer on the upper
solution often depends on the starting solution for the initial lift surface of an airfoil thickens and finally separates. It is this flow
distribution. In other words, multiple solutions are possible for the separation that causes the viscous Cl and Cm to deviate from the
converged lift distribution for a poststall condition. potential-flow theory predictions. These deviations can be related
Anderson et al.7 published a nonlinear lifting-line theory in to the effective change in the chordwise camber distribution because
1980 that they applied to drooped leading-edge wings below and of the boundary-layer displacement thickness and separation. If the
above stall. They presented results for wing C L -α curves that ex- effective decambering is taken into account, then a potential-flow
tended to very high poststall angles of attack close to 50 deg. A prediction for the decambered airfoil will closely match the viscous
similar approach was independently developed and presented by Cl and Cm for the high-α flow past the original airfoil shape. This
McCormick,8 in which the nonlinear lifting-line theory was used decambering idea served as the basis for the formulation of the
to examine the loss in roll damping for a wing near stall. In both current approach for the three-dimensional flow problem.
Refs. 7 and 8, it is reported that no asymmetric lift distributions Although the camber reduction caused by the boundary layer on
for symmetric flight conditions were observed even when the iter- an airfoil can be determined from computational analyses, no such
ations were started with asymmetric initial lift distributions. These detailed information is available from wind-tunnel results. Wind-
observations are different from those of Sears and Levinsky. tunnel results for airfoils typically consist of only the Cl -α and Cm -
α curves. This section discusses the approach for determining an
α-Correction Approach “equivalent” camber reduction from the Cl -α and Cm -α data for an
An entirely different approach to the use of nonlinear section data airfoil. More specifically, the effective decambering for a particular
was developed by Tseng and Lan9 in 1988. Although their primary α is computed using the deviations of the viscous Cl and Cm from
focus was on vortex-dominated flows on low-aspect-ratio fighter- the potential-flow predictions for that airfoil. These deviations in Cl
type wings at high α, they incorporated the effect of boundary-layer and Cm are denoted by Cl and Cm , respectively.
separation by iteratively reducing the angle of attack at each section In the current method, the effective decambering of an airfoil
of the wing. In their method, the α reduction at any given wing is approximated using a function of two variables δ1 and δ2 , as
section is determined by the difference between the potential-flow shown in Fig. 1. These two linear functions are added to obtain the
Cl and the viscous Cl , with the latter being obtained from the non- final decambering function. The reason for using two variables is
linear section Cl -α curve. In contrast to the iterative -distribution that the decambering is determined from two pieces of information:
approach, which can be used only in LLT-based methods because the Cl and the Cm for the α under consideration. Of course, this
of the explicit use of the induced and effective angles of attack in approximation will not match the actual viscous decambering, but
the iteration, the α-reduction approach can be incorporated in LLT, the objective here is only to find an equivalent camber reduction in
Weissinger’s method, and VLM. As a result, it can be used on swept, order to match the viscous Cl and Cm for the α under consideration.
low-aspect-ratio wings, and multiple-wing configurations. More re- The incremental effects of δ1 and δ2 on the changes to Cl and
cently, the α-correction approach was used by van Dam et al.10 for Cm for a given α can be computed reasonably well using thin air-
rapid estimation of C L max and other high-lift characteristics for air- foil theory and a three-term Fourier series approximation for a flat
plane configurations. In their work,10 the authors show the effective- plate with a flap deflection.11 For any given α, Cl and Cm are
662 MUKHERJEE AND GOPALARATHNAM
Methodology
The objective of the research was to incorporate the two-variable
decambering function in a three-dimensional analysis method such
as a VLM in an iterative fashion. In a typical VLM, the lifting surface
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J · δx = −F (6)
In the current work, x2 is arbitrarily assumed to be 0.8, although For each step of the iteration, F and J are determined, and δx
typically any value from 0.5 to 0.9 works well. is computed using Eq. (6). The corrections are then applied to the
Thus, if the potential-flow and viscous-flow Cl -α and Cm -α data values of δ1 and δ2 for all of the sections in an effort to bring the resid-
for an airfoil are available, the decambering function defined by uals closer to zero. Using this overall methodology, two schemes
δ1 and δ2 at each α can be determined. The effectiveness of the have been formulated for determining the poststall solution of a fi-
decambering approach is shown in Fig. 2 for an NACA 0012 air- nite wing. The two schemes differ in the details of how the residuals
MUKHERJEE AND GOPALARATHNAM 663
1 denotes scheme 1), as shown in Fig. 3a. Similarly, (Cm t,1 ) j , the
target Cm for section j, is the Cm on the airfoil Cm -α curve corre-
sponding to (αs ) j . Hence, compute the residuals for scheme 1 as
Cl,1 = (Cl s ) j − (Cl t,1 ) j and Cm,1 = (Cm s ) j − (Cm t,1 ) j .
5) Perturb δ1 at section j by adding a small perturbation p.
6) Compute the wing aerodynamic characteristics with the per-
turbed decambering using VLM3D; the resulting Cl and Cm for sec-
tion j are denoted by (Cl p ) j and (Cm p ) j . (Cl p ) j is shown in Fig. 3a.
Hence, compute the jth column of Jl1 and Jm1 using Eqs. (8) and (9).
7) Residuals for Scheme 2: Compute the effective angle of attack
of each section for the perturbed decambering, denoted in Fig. 3a by
α p ; for example, the effective angle of attack of section j is obtained
by setting (Clsec ) = (Cl p ) j in Eq. (12). This effective angle of attack
a) is denoted by (α p ) j for section j. The line joining the points [αs , Cl s ]
and [α p , Cl p ] for any section is called the “trajectory line” for that
section, as it determines the linearized trajectory of how a point on
the Cl -α curve defined by the section αeff and section Cl moves with
changes to δ1 on that section. This trajectory line is illustrated in
Fig. 3a. Therefore, in scheme 2, the target Cl , (Cl t,2 ) j , of section j
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Results
The iterative decambering approach has been implemented for
the analysis of multiple-lifting-surface configurations in VLM3D,
a custom VLM code. In this section, poststall results from VLM3D
are presented for two airfoil lift curves, different planform shapes,
and a wing-tail configuration. The computation of the residuals has
been implemented using the two schemes, and the effectiveness of
the two schemes is compared. The examples presented in this section
are as follows:
1) In the first example, the results from the current method are
compared with experimental results from the wind-tunnel tests by
Ostowari and Naik.15 In their work,15 experimental Cl -α data for the
NACA 4415 airfoil at a Reynolds number of 0.5 × 106 is presented
along with experimental C L -α data for constant-chord finite wings of
several aspect ratios with the same airfoil and at the same Reynolds
number. The airfoil and finite-wing data in Ref. 15 were obtained in
the same wind tunnel. In this example, the two-dimensional experi- Fig. 6 Spanwise Cl distribution predicted for a rectangular wing of
aspect ratio 12 using scheme 1.
mental data have been used as input to the method, and the predicted
finite-wing lift curves have been compared with the corresponding
experimental data. This example has been used to compare the ef- Fig. 4, is used as input to the VLM3D code to generate poststall
fectiveness of the two schemes and to illustrate how the converged results for an unswept rectangular wing of aspect ratio 12. The
solutions at poststall angles of attack are dependent on the starting computational results for the wing of aspect ratio 12 are then com-
solution used for the iteration. pared with the corresponding experimental C L -α curve from Ref. 15.
2) The second example is used to study the effect of wing taper Figure 5 shows the wing C L -α curves from VLM3D using schemes
ratio on the stall characteristics of a wing and, in particular, how the 1 and 2. In the same figure, the airfoil Cl -α curve and the wing
stall progresses along the span with increasing angle of attack. C L -α curve from experiment15 are also shown for comparison. In
3) The third example, a wing-tail configuration is analyzed to both schemes, the starting values of δ1 and δ2 for each α were taken
demonstrate the capability of the current method to handle multiple- from the converged values for the previous α. For the first α of the
lifting-surface configurations. The effect of the wing stall on the sequence, δ1 was set to −40 deg and δ2 was set to 0 deg for both
aircraft pitching moment is shown to illustrate how the method can schemes.
be used for providing information for the study of stability and As seen from Fig. 5, the predictions for the values of wing C L
control characteristics. at prestall angles of attack from the two schemes are identical. For
poststall conditions, the results of scheme 2 are closer than those
Example 1: Experimental Validation of scheme 1 to the experimental results. Figures 6 and 7 show the
In this example, experimental two-dimensional data15 for an spanwise Cl distributions from the current method for angles of at-
NACA 4415 airfoil at a Reynolds number of 0.5 × 106 , shown in tack 18, 21, 32, and 36 deg from schemes 1 and 2, respectively.
MUKHERJEE AND GOPALARATHNAM 665
a)
a) a)
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b)
Fig. 10 Aerodynamic properties predicted for a rectangular wing of
aspect ratio 12 for different starting values of δ1 (the δ values shown were
used to start the iteration at each alpha): a) wing CL -α and b) spanwise
section Cl . b)
Fig. 11 Wing CL -α for rectangular wings of aspect ratios 12, 9, and
6: a) predicted using the VLM3D code and b) from the wind-tunnel
after the first iteration. On the other hand, when δ1 = −40 deg is used experiments of Ostowari and Naik.15
as the starting condition the starting solution corresponds to a com-
pletely unstalled wing even for a high angle of attack. As a result,
the lpoststall gets tagged as unstalled after the first iteration. Thus
the two different C L -α curves for the two different starting values of
δ1 , in effect, produce the hysteresis behavior that is similar to those
often seen in experimental (see Refs. 6 and 7) and computational6−8
results for increasing-α and decreasing-α sweeps. These results con-
firm the possibility of multiple solutions at poststall angles of attack
pointed out by other researchers3−8 and the sensitivity of poststall
solutions not only to the initial conditions but also to the schemes
used for the Newton iteration.
Fig. 13 Wing CL -α curves for the rectangular and tapered wings used Fig. 16 Lift curves for the airfoil, the wing-tail configuration, and the
in example 2, predicted using VLM3D (scheme 2). individual contributions of the wing and the tail.
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increase in the nose-down pitching-moment coefficient (negative the current approach, like many of the earlier ones, is not always
C M cg ) is seen at the onset of stall at α of 17 deg. guaranteed to converge to physically realizable poststall solutions
To examine the cause of this nose-down pitching moment at stall for every geometry and airfoil combination. Nevertheless, the cur-
onset, it is instructive to study the individual contributions of the rent approach has significant potential in providing information for
wing and the tail to the configuration lift curve as shown in Fig. 16. the analysis of aircraft longitudinal stability and control character-
It can be seen that there is a noticeable increase in the tail C L ,t istics at poststall conditions.
at the onset of wing stall at α of 17 deg. This increase in C L ,t at
stall onset contributes significantly to the increase in the nose-down Acknowledgments
pitching moment at stall. The origin of the sudden increase in C L ,t This research effort is supported under Grant NAG-1-01119 from
at stall can in turn be traced to the shape of the wing spanwise lift the NASA Langley Research Center. This support and helpful dis-
distribution at the onset of stall. As seen earlier in Fig. 17, the wing cussions with the technical monitor, SungWan Kim, are gratefully
stall occurs at the root for α of 17 deg for this example. This loss in acknowledged.
lift over the inboard portion of the wing results in a reduction in the
downwash at the tail. In addition, it also results in a pair of trailing References
vortices originating from the outboard ends of the stalled portion 1 Tani, I., “A Simple Method of Calculating the Induced Velocity of a
of the wing [at y/(b/2) of approximately ±0.25]. These trailing Monoplane Wing,” Aero. Res. Inst., Tokyo Imperial Univ., Rept. 111 (Vol. 9,
vortices cause an upwash at the tail. As a consequence of these two 3), Japan, Aug. 1934.
factors, there is a distinct increase in the C L ,t and a resulting increase 2 Sivells, J. C., and Neely, R. H., “Method for Calculating Wing Charac-
Downloaded by WASHINGTON UNIV IN ST LOUIS on June 19, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.15149
in the nose-down pitching moment at the onset of stall. teristics by Lifting-Line Theory Using Nonlinear Section Lift Data,” NACA
Thus, as illustrated by this simple example, a method that can TN 1269, April 1947.
3 Schairer, R. S., “Unsymmetrical Lift Distributions on a Stalled Mono-
predict the poststall characteristics of wing-tail configurations can
provide important information for the study of aircraft longitudinal plane Wing,” Ph.D. Dissertation, California Inst. of Technology, Pasadena,
behavior at poststall conditions. These results can be further im- CA, Jan. 1939.
4 Sears, W. R., “Some Recent Developments in Airfoil Theory,” Journal
proved by the addition of models for taking into consideration the of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 23, May 1956, pp. 490–499.
wake deformation and the dynamic-pressure loss in the wing wake. 5 Piszkin, S. T., and Levinsky, E. S., “Nonlinear Lifting Line Theory
for Predicting Stalling Instabilities on Wings of Moderate Aspect Ratio,”
Conclusions General Dynamics Convair Report CASD-NSC-76-001, San Diego, June
A novel iteration scheme has been developed to implement a 1976.
6 Levinsky, E. S., “Prediction of Aerodynamic Loading,” AGARD Con-
decambering approach that accounts for the boundary-layer sep-
aration effects on each section of the wings of a multiple-lifting- ference Proceedings No. 204, Sept. 1976.
7 Anderson, J. D., Corda, S., and VanWie, D. M., “Numerical Lifting Line
surface configuration. This numerical approach, when incorporated Theory Applied to Drooped Leading-Edge Wings Below and Above Stall,”
in an analysis method such as a vortex-lattice code, allows for the Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 17, No. 12, 1980, pp. 898–904.
computation of poststall aerodynamic characteristics of wings us- 8 McCormick, B. W., “An Iterative Non-Linear Lifting Line Model for
ing known section data. Although it is recognized that the surface Wings with Unsymmetrical Stall,” SAE Transactions, 1989, pp. 91–98.
streamlines are no longer two dimensional at poststall conditions, 9 Tseng, J. B., and Lan, C. E., “Calculation of Aerodynamic Characteristics
the current approach aims to provide rapid but approximate solu- of Airplane Configurations at High Angles of Attack,” NASA CR 4182,
tions for such conditions for use in poststall flight dynamics and Oct. 1988.
10 van Dam, C. P., Kam, J. C. V., and Paris, J. K., “Design-Oriented High-
simulation studies and in the early stages of configuration design.
A novel feature of the current iteration scheme is in the computa- Lift Methodology for General Aviation and Civil Transport Aircraft,” Jour-
nal of Aircraft, Vol. 38, No. 6, 2001, pp. 1076–1084.
tion of the residual, which brings to light the existence of multiple 11 Katz, J., and Plotkin, A., Low-Speed Aerodynamics, 2nd ed., Cambridge
solutions at poststall conditions right during the iteration process. Aerospace Series, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, UK, 2001.
In contrast, earlier approaches were able to identify the existence of 12 Dula, M., “XFOIL: An Analysis and Design System for Low Reynolds
multiple solutions only as a result of obtaining multiple converged Number Airfoils,” Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics, edited by T. J.
solutions with different initial conditions in the iteration procedure. Mueller, Lecture Notes in Engineering, Vol. 54, Springer-Verlag, New York,
The current scheme, therefore, brings new insight to the iterative 1989, pp. 1–12.
13 Press, W. H., Teukolsky, S. A., Vetterling, W. T., and Flannery, B. P.,
solution of wing flows using known airfoil characteristics.
The results from the new scheme compare fairly well with wind- Numerical Recipes in Fortran—The Art of Scientific Computing, 2nd ed.,
tunnel poststall data for wings. The results from the current method Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1992, pp. 372–375.
14 Mukherjee, R., Gopalarathnam, A., and Kim, S., “An Iterative Decam-
also agree well with well-known trends in stall patterns. Although bering Approach for Post-Stall Prediction of Wing Characteristics Using
the new iteration scheme is significantly more robust than traditional Known Section Data,” AIAA Paper 2003-1097, Jan. 2003.
formulations, there are a few angles of attack at which either conver- 15 Ostowari, C., and Naik, D., “Post Stall Studies of Untwisted Varying
gence is not achieved or nonphysical sawtooth oscillations in the Cl Aspect Ratio Blades with an NACA 4415 Airfoil Section—Part 1,” Wind
distributions are observed in the stalled regions of the wing. Thus, Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1984, pp. 176–194.