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391-402, 1996
Copyright 8 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
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o95o-o618(Mpoo17-8
Pietro Pedeferri
Developments in cathodic protection for aerial concrete structures are described. The principles on
which the technique is based and the various protecting effects induced by the cathodic polariza-
tion of reinforcement are illustrated; the differences between the cathodic protection applied to
control corrosion rate of chloride contaminated constructions and that applied to improve the
corrosion resistance of the reinforcement of new structures expected to become contaminated are
underlined; and the negative consequences of the method and the way to control them are shown.
The operating conditions as far as potential and current are concerned and the problems regarding
throwing power, the possibility to reach a condition of protection without running the risk of hydro-
gen embrittlement in the case of prestressed structures are discussed. Examples of cathodic protec-
tion and cathodic prevention design, execution, operation and monitoring are given. Copyright Q
1996 Elsevier Science Ltd.
Cathodic protection (CP) of steel reinforcement in to underline how some of these points require expertise
concrete aerial structures, as schematically illustrated not only form corrosion and CP engineering but also
in Figure I, is obtained by applying a direct current from concrete repair technology and civil structural
through the concrete from an anode system usually laid engineering.
on the concrete surface and connected with the positive
terminal of a low voltage direct voltage source towards
reinforcement acting as cathode and connected with the Development of the technique
negative terminal. The technique has been developed in the last 20 years in
This paper illustrates the development of this tech- three phases. The first phase began in 1973 in North
nique, the principles on which it is based, the criteria for America (thanks to Stratfull), lasted approximately a
prevention and for protection and some aspects regard- decade and mainly concerned the protection of bridge
ing operating conditions, current distribution, hydrogen decks contaminated by chlorides. In these years, new
embrittlement risk, anodic system and monitoring. feeding and monitoring systems (anodes, overlays,
Many other important aspects (such as design of supply reference electrodes, etc.) were set up; furthermore
systems, preparation of the surface, installation proce- protection and design criteria completely different from
dure, testing for cathode continuity, execution of the those utilized in CP in soil and sea water were
repair works, energizing, commissioning, operation and
proposed; but, above all, it was proved that CP in
maintenance, etc.) are not taken in consideration. For
concrete could be a solution to reinforcement corrosion,
these points see references 1 and 2. It is here important
especially in presence of high chloride levels where other
traditional repair systems are inefficient or very expen-
Direct current
sive. At the end of this phase, in 1982, a USA Federal
_ anode source Highway Administration memorandum stated that ‘the
, !
I I
w I I
only rehabilitation technique that has proven to stop
corrosion in salt contaminated bridge decks regard-
less of chloride content of the concrete is cathodic
I
protection’3.
The 80s phase saw the introduction of the method
outside North America and the development of new
I reinforcement (cathode) \ concrete
meshed anodes based at first on conductive polymeric
materials and then on much more reliable mixed metal
Figure 1 Schematic illustration of cathodic protection of reinforce- oxide activated titanium and on carbon containing
ment of a concrete structure paints. Also, CP application was extended to the protec-
391
392 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri
tion of bridge slabs and piles, marine constructions, General considerations and definitions
industrial plants, garages and buildings affected by
chloride corrosion. In this phase CP developed a track Conditions of immunity, activity and passivity
record of success and reliability if properly designed and
The corrosion of any metal cannot take place if the
applied as well as showing significant capital cost
potential of the metal in the electrolyte in contact with
savings compared with the extensive removal of chlo-
its surface (E) is lower than the equilibrium potential
ride contaminated concrete and replacementireconstruc-
for the oxidation process (E,,). The condition in which
tion approach4. Namely, CP requires only the removal
the metal has no tendency to pass to the oxidized form
of spalled and delaminated concrete while sound but
(E I E,,) is called the ‘immunity’ condition.
contaminated concrete may be left in place.
Corrosion can occur if E > Ees. E depends on the
The 90s phase sees the application of CP not only to
nature of the metal and of the electrolyte but it also
control the corrosion rate of chloride contaminated
varies if the metal exchanges current with the electrolyte
constructions but also to improve the corrosion resis-
and, precisely, corrosion increases when the current
tance of the reinforcement in new structures expected flows from the metal to the electrolyte (i.e. anodically),
to become contaminated. This type of CP, named and diminishes when it flows from the electrolyte to the
‘cathodic prevention’, even if it utilizes the same hard- metal (i.e. cathodically). Fe4 is given by Nernst’s law.
ware as the traditional CP in concrete, has different In the majority of situations (e.g. steel in soil or in sea
aims, features, operating conditions, effects and side water but also in carbonated concrete) the corrosion
effects. In particular, it has different consequences as far rate (i,) increases with the potential presenting the so-
as hydrogen evolution is concerned and this makes it called ‘active’ behaviour (Figure 2~). In other cases (e.g.
even possible to apply it to prestressed structures steel in concrete and, more generally, in alkaline envi-
without risk of embrittlement. ronments but also stainless steels in neutral media), the
Indicatively until now cathodic protection has been behaviour, called ‘active-passive’, is more complex: i,
applied to about 500 000 m2 of corroding reinforced increases above Eeq in the first potential range (activity
concrete structure, and cathodic prevention to about zone), then decreases to very small values due to the
140 000 m2 of new and almost all prestressed structures formation on the metal surface of a protecting film
(mainly in Italy and in the period 1990-93). (passivity zone), and finally it increases again at high
The principles of CP in concrete are often erro- potentials if this film breaks down (Figure 2b).
neously considered as if they were just the same as those
of CP in soil. To understand how CP in concrete works
(both CP to reduce or to stop corrosion and CP to Hydrogen evolution
prevent it), before describing the general aspect of the
method it is convenient to give a few general considera- Hydrogen evolution, being a cathodic process, can take
tions and definitions on corrosion and protection of place when the potential of the metal (E) becomes lower
metals with particular attention to steel in concrete, and than the equilibrium potential of the hydrogen evolu-
to resume the effect produced by the circulation of a tion (Eeq,J: i.e. when E < Ees H. EeqH varies with pH
current between an anode and a cathode through an according to Nernst’s law. In aiy case, when the pH on
electrolyte. the surface of rebar is higher than 12.5 (condition in
4r b
log i, log ia
a b
Figure 2 ‘Active’ (4 and ‘active-passive’ (b) anodic behaviour of metals showing immunity, activity, passivity and hydrogen evolution
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 393
general fulfilled if the rebar is cathodically protected) or near to Ees to make L and thus the corrosion rate
E eg,Hc -950 mV (vs SCE). (i,) very small. In the first case immunity conditions
are reached, while in the second ‘quasi-immunity’ ones
Corrosion potential, driving force, reaction resistance are produced. The current immunity conditions (ii)
and corrosion rate requested are those yielded by the cathodic process at
Metals in aggressive environments assume a potential Ee,: ii = i,. Namely in the cathodically polarized struc-
(corrosion potential, E,,) higher than their equilibrium ture the relation between the impressed current
potential. The driving force (L) which pushes the anodic (i), the rate of the anodic process (i,) and of the
reaction is given by the difference between (E,,,) and cathodic process (i,) is: i, + i = i,. Consequently, being
(E,,): L = EC,, - + The oxidation reaction is at E_ i, = 0, ii = i, (Figure 3a).
contrasted by an anodlc resistance (R), generally indi- Steel structures in soil or in sea water, which are
cated as anodic overvoltages, which can be extremely protected by imposing potentials more negative than
high when protective films are formed on the metal -850 mV vs Cu/CuSO, or -950 mV in the presence of
surface. Thus corrosion rate (i,) can be formally sulphate reducing bacteria (respectively -800 and -900
expressed by the ratio of L to R: i, = LIR. mV vs Ag/AgC) operate in these conditions. In aerial
concrete structures cathodically protected the rebars do
not operate in immunity or ‘quasi-immunity’ conditions
Beneficial effects induced by CP unless overprotected.
The current circulation between an anodic and a The CP effects of kinetic nature are not directly
cathodic structure through an electrolyte produces connected to the reduction of the driving force L (which
protection effects mainly connected to the shift of the still occurs) but deal with the fact that such a reduction
potential of the the cathodic structure in the negative can set up a passivity condition or can maintain it in
direction (primary effect) and, in some cases, also to the a wider environmental aggressiveness range (e.g. at
alkalinity produced by the electrochemical reactions higher chloride content). Figure 4 illustrates this type
and to the reduction of chloride content at the cathodic of protection and indicates the potential (E,) and the
surface due to the migration of ionic species inside the current (i,) necessary to achieve it (ip = i, - i,).
electrolyte. Furthermore, Figure 4 shows how the reduction of
potential and the value of the current necessary to
Primary effects obtain passivity (respectively E,,, - Ep and i,) are much
The negative shift of the potential can give rise to bene- smaller than the ones necessary to reach immunity
ficial consequences in two ways: reducing the driving (respectively E,,, - Ees and ii).
force L for the anodic process (and the nature of this CP in concrete mainly utilizes effects of this type.
effect is thermodynamic) and increasing or maintaining
high the resistance of the anodic process R (and the Secondary effects
nature of this effect is kinetic). The cathodic processes (usually oxygen reduction but, if
CP effects are of thermodynamic nature when CP enough negative potential is reached, also hydrogen
brings the potential of the cathodic structure (E) to evolution) reduce oxygen content and produce alkalin-
values equal to or lower than equilibrium potential (E,,) ity on the reinforcement surface. These effects are bene-
so that the driving force (L) becomes zero or negative; ficial in stopping and preventing corrosion because they
E4
Figure 3 Schematic illustration of CP in the case of active (a) and active-passive (b) behaviour
394 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri
A
E
f
alkalinity production
I oxygen consumption
f &ion
chloride removal
>
b
log i,
a b
Figure 4 Schematic illustration of the variation of the anodic (a) and cathodic (b) behaviour due to pH increase, chloride removal and oxygen
cokumption at the cathodic surface
widen the passive region (Figure 4a) and depolarize the alkali-reactive aggregates. In short run experiments
cathodic process (Figure 46). In the case of not corrod- change of the solution composition near the steel
ing steel they hinder local acidification and also inter- cathode promoting expansive alkali-silica reaction
fere with pitting initiation (‘buffer effect’). (ASR) in concrete containing potentially reactive
On the other hand, inside concrete, the current is siliceous aggregates has been found only for current
transported by ions proportionally to their concentra- densities higher than those normally used for CP5. In
tion and mobility. Positive ions move in the same direc- long term run experiments the situation could be differ-
tion of the current, i.e. from the anode to the cathode, ent, at least in the case in which relatively high current
the negative ones in the opposite direction. Thus, in densities (> 10 mA m-2 of concrete surface) are reached.
chloride contaminated concrete, the current circulation Consequently, if the structure to be protected contains
produces a flux of chlorides from the cathodic to the aggregates which may be sensitive to alkali the risk of
anodic structure. In the usual electrolytes, the conse- ASR has to be considered and made negligible by
quences of this electrophoretic migration are minimized controlling the current density.
by diffusive and convective phenomena. In concrete
they are not negligible if CP operates at relatively high Adhesion loss
currents. In these cases current circulation results in a At very negative potentials (i.e. at high current densi-
reduction of the chloride content on the rebar surface or ties), loss of adhesion between rebar and concrete can
in a reduction of the ingress of chlorides into concrete occur. Many uncertainties remain about the phenome-
forming a sort of barrier of imperviousness increasing non but for long term polarization (like in the case of
with the current itself (‘chloride barrier effect’). CP) -1.1 V (vs SCE) is usually indicated as the lower
While the lowering of potential immediately produces limiting potential. In any case, this problem is mainly
its beneficial effects, which cease should the current be associated with non-ribbed bars.
interrupted, the changes of composition at the surface
produced by the cathodic reactions or by the migration Hydrogen embrittlement
of ionic species inside the concrete may not have so The most important side effect is the embrittlement of
immediate consequences but, on the other hand, may steel caused by atomic hydrogen. Some types of high
provide more persistent protection. (The techniques strength steels (+ > 700 MPa) utilized in prestressed
known as electrochemical realkalization and chloride constructions can be subjected to hydrogen embrittle-
removal are based on these last two effects.) ment if their potential is brought to values at which
hydrogen evolution can take place. Part of the devel-
Negative effects induced by CP oped hydrogen can enter these steels and make this
phenomenon possible. In alkaline environments (pH >
The negative effects induced by CP can affect the 12) and thus on cathodically protected reinforcement,
concrete, its adhesion to rebars and their hydrogen hydrogen evolution can occur only at potentials more
embrittlement. negative than about -950 mV (SCE). For these reasons,
even in the most critical conditions (steel more suscept-
Concrete degradation ible to the embrittlement, such as quenched and
Theoretically the increase of alkalinity around the rein- tempered, critical deformation rates, presence of sharp
forcement can cause damage if the concrete contains defects), embrittlement effects are not produced at
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 395
potentials more positive than -900 mV, while the same range 0.4-l% of cement weight. By lowering the poten-
effects on susceptible steels become evident at potentials tial, the critical content increases as shown in Figure 6
lower than -1 V. Therefore to avoid hydrogen em- (indicative of almost one order of magnitude for 100
brittlement risk of susceptible steel it is appropriate to mV decrease respect to the free corrosion potential).
fix a lower limiting potential of -900 mV (SCE). Cathodic prevention of steel reinforcement corrosion
Low strength ferritic steel (uR < 700 MPa) utilized for is based on the strong influence of the potential on the
reinforced concrete constructions is not susceptible to critical chloride content above illustrated. By imposing
hydrogen embrittlement. High strength steels (gR > 700 a cathodic polarization to the rebar from the beginning
MPa) utilized for prestressed constructions have to be and throughout the entire service life of the structure
considered susceptible unless contrary evidence is given. the critical chloride content is increased with respect to
This type of susceptibility depends on many metallurgi- non-polarized structures so that in practice it will never
cal and electrochemical variables and thus varies with be reached during the service life of the structure. Even
factors such as composition, heat and mechanical treat- low cathodic current densities in the range of 0.5-2 mA
ments, presence of notches or defects due to corrosion, m-* of concrete surface produce decreases of about
value of load and its variations giving low strain rate, 150-250 mV and consequently increases of the critical
environmental conditions, etc.) chloride content are higher than one order of magnitude
also with very low currents as indicated in Figure 7.
Criteria for prevention and protection
Propugation of corrosion und its control
It has already been said that CP can be applied to chlo- If, for a given chloride content, the rebar potential (E)
ride contaminated structures to control corrosion and becomes more positive than Ep, or, for a given poten-
to non-corroding ones to prevent corrosion otherwise tial, the chloride content is higher than the critical
expected during the service life. The criteria for obtain- value, the protective film can be locally broken down
ing prevention in the latter case and protection in the and consequently a localized attack can take place. The
former are different. zones where the film is destroyed behave as anodes,
those which remain passive as cathodes. The current,
I&i&ion of corrosion and its prevention which flows through the concrete from the anodic to the
The active-passive behaviour of steel in concrete is cathodic regions, transports chlorides inside the pits,
strongly influenced by the presence of chlorides. As is where the alkalinity is reduced by the hydrolysis of
shown in Figure 5, when the content of chloride corrosion products. Thus, the propagation of the attack
increases, the passivity range is reduced and the highest favours further propagation, bringing an increase of
potential, called the pitting potential, Epit, diminishes aggressiveness in the anodic zones (autocatalytic mech-
indicatively from +500 to -500 mV passing from non- anism).
contaminated to very heavily chloride contaminated Once the attack is initiated, it can also propagate at
concrete. The pitting potential depends also on tem- potentials more negative than Epit. To stop it, it is neces-
perature, pH, cement type and content, concrete poros- sary to reach a lower potential (E,,,,) below which steel
ity, etc. The highest chloride content compatible with repassivates. E,,, as Epi, varies with chloride content,
passive conditions for each potential is the critical chlo- pH on the corroding surface, temperature, etc.,
ride content at that potential. For the usual corrosion remaining in any case about 300 mV lower than Epit
potential (around 0 vs SCE) the critical content is the (Figure 6).
No Cl-
(mV vs SCE)
increasing
chloride
content
I
-I”“”
log ii
Figure 5 Schematic illustration of the anodic behaviour of steel in concrete in the presence of chlorides
396 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri
-800-1 8 p c Irrla, rl
0.01 0.1 1 10 N
Chloride Content w chloride content (weight % vs cement)
Figure 6 Ranges of values of pitting and protection potential (E,, Figure 8 Schematic illustration of steel behaviour in concrete for
and E ,,) measured on steel immersed in solutions of saturated different potentials and chloride contents
Ca(Ol& with different chloride content6 or buried in sand covered by
the same solutions
introduction of a new approach for the control of the application and fastening of the mesh by means of suit-
overprotection conditions based on the calculation of able plastic pins fitted into predrilled holes; spraying of
the maximum admissible feeding voltage as the sum of the concrete overlay.
the measured anode potential and an overprotection The monitoring system is based on fixed reference
parameter (typically -900 and -1100 mV respectively electrodes (silver/silver chloride and graphite) embedded
for post-tensioned or reinforced structures). This method, in concrete in the most critical areas of each of the eight
which relies on the higher uniformity of the potential of anodic zones in which the deck is divided. Protection
the anodic structure compared with the cathodic one, is conditions are automatically controlled with the ‘100
intrinsically safe as far as overprotection is concerned, mV’ decay criterion every seven days: if the depolariza-
because it guarantees that nowhere, on the protected tion exceeds 250 mV, current density is reduced, if it is
structure, can overprotection conditions existlo. lower than 100 mV is increased. Overprotection condi-
tions are checked with absolute potential readings twice
a day. A very conservative limit of -850 mV was
Example of cathodic protection
chosen. If a reference electrode reaches the overprotec-
A cathodic protection system was installed in 1987 on tion limit the control unit automatically switches off the
the Rio Veggio bridge deck (3700 m2) in the Apennine feeding system of the relevant zone.
section of the Al motorway between Bologna and Start up protection current was 10 mA mm2 of
Florence, after severe chloride induced corrosion had concrete surface (i.e. 10 mA me2 of rebars of the first
occurred and massive rehabilitation of steel was row surface of about 5 mA m-2 of the whole rebar
required. surface) with a feeding voltage of I .8-2.5 V. The protec-
The repair technique consisted of removal and tion condition was achieved after five months. In the
replacement of damaged concrete, setting up of new following year the protection current density decreased
reinforcement welded to the old one, checking of the by approximately 30-50X; since then it has been practi-
electrical continuity of new reinforcement bars between cally stable in the range 5-8 mA me2 of concrete surface.
themselves and to the old ones, welded links provided Regular changes with time of the feeding voltage have
where necessary before pouring, installation of electrical been observed on the protected span related to external
connections and monitoring equipment, pouring of temperature (Figure 13) due mainly to change of
concrete and curing. anodic overvoltage and, in part, ohmic drop.
The two lanes of the bridge were rehabilitated with After more than seven years, the system is working
the same concrete repair technique utilizing the same satisfactorily”.
activated titanium mesh with two different anodic
systems. The anode mesh was directly embedded into
Example of cathodic prevention
concrete, at a distance of 1.8-2 cm from reinforcement
(south lane) or fixed to the concrete surface and sprayed In northern Italy, since 1990, cathodic prevention has
with a concrete overlay material (north lane and curbs been applied on new highway bridge decks for a total
of both lanes). No significant difference on CP of two surface area of about 130 000 m2. In particular, CP has
lanes after seven years of service is evident. been applied to reinforcement and prestressed wires of
When the mesh anode installation was performed by 16 viaduct decks of the Frejus highway (for a total
means of concrete overlays the relevant procedure was area of 104 000 m2). These viaducts are all new post-
the following: preparation of the surface to make it tensioned structures and consist of a continuous beam
clean and rough enough to favour overlay anchorage; having a box section built by assembling precast rein-
4 I
3.5
’
2.5
1.5
Figure 13 Rio Veggio, north spans: voltage variation with time showing the effect of external temperature. (Courtesy of Cescor-Nuova Polmet)
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 401
2500 2.50
'=:
2000 2.00 {
%
s
E 1500 1.50 2
F a
zE 1000 1.00 E
=
z
500 0.50 3
u
0 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 13
Rectifier Number
-A-
800
5 600
g
1 400
&
200
g
-400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 11 12 I3
-B-
A B C B C A C A B C A B C
_t__t__’
4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13
-c-
Figure 14 Some operative conditions of the cathodic prevention of one post-tensioned Frejus highway viaduct during winter 93194. (Courtesy of
Cescor-Nuova Polmet)
402 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P, Pedeferri
forced segments by means of post-tensioned tendons. the range -200 to -350 mV (vs AgiAgCl). These working
The decision to install cathodic prevention was taken conditions ensure that the critical chloride content is
after considering the following aspects: the importance increased by at least one order of magnitude and that
of viaducts and their durability; the necessity to keep the protection requirements are fulfilled, being rebar
maintenance-free conditions and traffic interruptions or potential higher than 500 mV than the critical threshold
deviations as low as possible; severe rebar corrosion for hydrogen evolution.
experienced in the same highway on other similar For further information see Bazzoni et ul. 13.
viaducts after only a few years from opening.
Basic criteria for the design of the CP system were:
assure corrosion prevention of steel reinforcement of References
the deck up to a maximum depth of 40 mm, avoid over- 1 Cathodic Protection of Steel in Concrete - Part one:
protection of the high strength steel tendons; minimum Atmospherically Exposed Concrete CENTTC262/SC2/WG2, to be
published
interference with other construction activities; design
2 Cuthodic Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Atmo.vphericully
life of 50 years. Exposed Structures NACE Standard RP0290-90
Titanium activated with mixed metal oxide meshes 3 Memorundum on FHWA Position on Cuthodic Protection
and ribbons was selected as the anode material. Anode Syxtems, US Federal Highway Administration, April 23, 1982
4 Wyatt, B. Cutting corrosion costs of reinforced concrete highway
mesh application was carried out mainly in yard on structures. Constr. Repair. July 1993
individual precast segments and partially on the bridge 5 Page, CL. Interfacial effect on electrochemical protection
deck after the erection. The anode mesh was fixed on methods applied to steel in chloride containing concrete. In
Rehuhilitution of Concrete Structure.v, Proc. Int. Rilem Cotzf:,
concrete and embedded in a CP overlay. The surface
Melbourne, 1992, pp 1799187
to be protected was divided into zones individually 6 Cigna, R. Fumei Sulla protezione catodica dei ferri nel calces-
connected to the feeding system. truzzo. Ind. It. Cemento, 1981, 9
The monitoring system was designed with the I Bertolini, L., Bolzoni, F., Pastore, T. and Pedeferri, P. Cathodic
prevention of reinforced concrete structures. In Proc. IV
primary purpose to avoid any risk of overprotection of
Corrosion Symposium, Otunbul Technical University, Istunbul,
the steel tendons and, in the meantime, to verify the 25-26 October 1994
effectiveness of the CP system. Silver-silver chloride 8 Pedeferri, P. Cathodic protection of new concrete constructions.
and titanium activate reference electrodes were used. In Proc. Int. Conf: Structurul Improvement through Corrosion
Protection of Reinjkced Concrete, Institute of Corrosion.
The feeding current is automatically controlled by London, 1992
maintaining the 4 h polarization decay in the range 9 Pastore, T., Pedeferri, P., Bertolini, L. and Bolzoni, F. Current
loo-250 mV and overprotection conditions are distribution problems in the cathodic protection of reinforced
excluded through a monitoring approach based on concrete structures. In Rehubilitution of Concrete Structures,
Proc. Int. Rilem Conj:, Melhourne, 1992, pp 189-200
anode and feeding voltage measurement. 10 Bertolini, L., Bolzoni, F., Cigada, A., Pastore, T. and
The CP system was installed during the construction Pedeferri, P. Cathodic protection of new and old reinforced
and in part also during the prefabrication of the differ- concrete structures. Corros. Sci. 1993, 35, 1633-16, 39
11 Bazzoni, B. and Lazzari, L. A new approach for automatic
ent segments which constitute the bridge. The main
control and monitoring of cathodically protected reinforced
operating conditions during winter 1993 for one of structures. Muter. Perj: 1992, 31. 13
these bridge decks are illustrated in Figure 14. It can be 12 Bazzoni, B., Lazzari, L. and Grandi, M. Cathodic protection on
seen that: cathodic polarization is sufficient to maintain highway bridge decks. Five years of experience. UK Corrosion 92,
Munchester, October 12-16, 1992
the 4 h depolarization decay in the range loo-250 mV;
13 Bazzoni, B., Lazzari, L., Grandi, M. and Del Frate, A. CP of
current of about l-2 mA me2 respect to the steel surface new post-tensioned concrete structures. Monitoring and data
was imposed; the cathodic potentials are normally in start-up. NACE Corrosion 94, paper 283, 1994