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Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp.

391-402, 1996
Copyright 8 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0950-&18/96 $15.00+0.00

o95o-o618(Mpoo17-8

Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention

Pietro Pedeferri

Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica Applicata - Politecnico di Milano, Via Mancinelli 7,


20137 Milano, Italy

Received 6 February 1995

Developments in cathodic protection for aerial concrete structures are described. The principles on
which the technique is based and the various protecting effects induced by the cathodic polariza-
tion of reinforcement are illustrated; the differences between the cathodic protection applied to
control corrosion rate of chloride contaminated constructions and that applied to improve the
corrosion resistance of the reinforcement of new structures expected to become contaminated are
underlined; and the negative consequences of the method and the way to control them are shown.
The operating conditions as far as potential and current are concerned and the problems regarding
throwing power, the possibility to reach a condition of protection without running the risk of hydro-
gen embrittlement in the case of prestressed structures are discussed. Examples of cathodic protec-
tion and cathodic prevention design, execution, operation and monitoring are given. Copyright Q
1996 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Keywords: cathodic protection, cathodic prevention, concrete

Cathodic protection (CP) of steel reinforcement in to underline how some of these points require expertise
concrete aerial structures, as schematically illustrated not only form corrosion and CP engineering but also
in Figure I, is obtained by applying a direct current from concrete repair technology and civil structural
through the concrete from an anode system usually laid engineering.
on the concrete surface and connected with the positive
terminal of a low voltage direct voltage source towards
reinforcement acting as cathode and connected with the Development of the technique
negative terminal. The technique has been developed in the last 20 years in
This paper illustrates the development of this tech- three phases. The first phase began in 1973 in North
nique, the principles on which it is based, the criteria for America (thanks to Stratfull), lasted approximately a
prevention and for protection and some aspects regard- decade and mainly concerned the protection of bridge
ing operating conditions, current distribution, hydrogen decks contaminated by chlorides. In these years, new
embrittlement risk, anodic system and monitoring. feeding and monitoring systems (anodes, overlays,
Many other important aspects (such as design of supply reference electrodes, etc.) were set up; furthermore
systems, preparation of the surface, installation proce- protection and design criteria completely different from
dure, testing for cathode continuity, execution of the those utilized in CP in soil and sea water were
repair works, energizing, commissioning, operation and
proposed; but, above all, it was proved that CP in
maintenance, etc.) are not taken in consideration. For
concrete could be a solution to reinforcement corrosion,
these points see references 1 and 2. It is here important
especially in presence of high chloride levels where other
traditional repair systems are inefficient or very expen-
Direct current
sive. At the end of this phase, in 1982, a USA Federal
_ anode source Highway Administration memorandum stated that ‘the

, !
I I
w I I
only rehabilitation technique that has proven to stop
corrosion in salt contaminated bridge decks regard-
less of chloride content of the concrete is cathodic
I
protection’3.
The 80s phase saw the introduction of the method
outside North America and the development of new
I reinforcement (cathode) \ concrete
meshed anodes based at first on conductive polymeric
materials and then on much more reliable mixed metal
Figure 1 Schematic illustration of cathodic protection of reinforce- oxide activated titanium and on carbon containing
ment of a concrete structure paints. Also, CP application was extended to the protec-

391
392 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri

tion of bridge slabs and piles, marine constructions, General considerations and definitions
industrial plants, garages and buildings affected by
chloride corrosion. In this phase CP developed a track Conditions of immunity, activity and passivity
record of success and reliability if properly designed and
The corrosion of any metal cannot take place if the
applied as well as showing significant capital cost
potential of the metal in the electrolyte in contact with
savings compared with the extensive removal of chlo-
its surface (E) is lower than the equilibrium potential
ride contaminated concrete and replacementireconstruc-
for the oxidation process (E,,). The condition in which
tion approach4. Namely, CP requires only the removal
the metal has no tendency to pass to the oxidized form
of spalled and delaminated concrete while sound but
(E I E,,) is called the ‘immunity’ condition.
contaminated concrete may be left in place.
Corrosion can occur if E > Ees. E depends on the
The 90s phase sees the application of CP not only to
nature of the metal and of the electrolyte but it also
control the corrosion rate of chloride contaminated
varies if the metal exchanges current with the electrolyte
constructions but also to improve the corrosion resis-
and, precisely, corrosion increases when the current
tance of the reinforcement in new structures expected flows from the metal to the electrolyte (i.e. anodically),
to become contaminated. This type of CP, named and diminishes when it flows from the electrolyte to the
‘cathodic prevention’, even if it utilizes the same hard- metal (i.e. cathodically). Fe4 is given by Nernst’s law.
ware as the traditional CP in concrete, has different In the majority of situations (e.g. steel in soil or in sea
aims, features, operating conditions, effects and side water but also in carbonated concrete) the corrosion
effects. In particular, it has different consequences as far rate (i,) increases with the potential presenting the so-
as hydrogen evolution is concerned and this makes it called ‘active’ behaviour (Figure 2~). In other cases (e.g.
even possible to apply it to prestressed structures steel in concrete and, more generally, in alkaline envi-
without risk of embrittlement. ronments but also stainless steels in neutral media), the
Indicatively until now cathodic protection has been behaviour, called ‘active-passive’, is more complex: i,
applied to about 500 000 m2 of corroding reinforced increases above Eeq in the first potential range (activity
concrete structure, and cathodic prevention to about zone), then decreases to very small values due to the
140 000 m2 of new and almost all prestressed structures formation on the metal surface of a protecting film
(mainly in Italy and in the period 1990-93). (passivity zone), and finally it increases again at high
The principles of CP in concrete are often erro- potentials if this film breaks down (Figure 2b).
neously considered as if they were just the same as those
of CP in soil. To understand how CP in concrete works
(both CP to reduce or to stop corrosion and CP to Hydrogen evolution
prevent it), before describing the general aspect of the
method it is convenient to give a few general considera- Hydrogen evolution, being a cathodic process, can take
tions and definitions on corrosion and protection of place when the potential of the metal (E) becomes lower
metals with particular attention to steel in concrete, and than the equilibrium potential of the hydrogen evolu-
to resume the effect produced by the circulation of a tion (Eeq,J: i.e. when E < Ees H. EeqH varies with pH
current between an anode and a cathode through an according to Nernst’s law. In aiy case, when the pH on
electrolyte. the surface of rebar is higher than 12.5 (condition in

4r b
log i, log ia
a b

Figure 2 ‘Active’ (4 and ‘active-passive’ (b) anodic behaviour of metals showing immunity, activity, passivity and hydrogen evolution
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 393

general fulfilled if the rebar is cathodically protected) or near to Ees to make L and thus the corrosion rate
E eg,Hc -950 mV (vs SCE). (i,) very small. In the first case immunity conditions
are reached, while in the second ‘quasi-immunity’ ones
Corrosion potential, driving force, reaction resistance are produced. The current immunity conditions (ii)
and corrosion rate requested are those yielded by the cathodic process at
Metals in aggressive environments assume a potential Ee,: ii = i,. Namely in the cathodically polarized struc-
(corrosion potential, E,,) higher than their equilibrium ture the relation between the impressed current
potential. The driving force (L) which pushes the anodic (i), the rate of the anodic process (i,) and of the
reaction is given by the difference between (E,,,) and cathodic process (i,) is: i, + i = i,. Consequently, being
(E,,): L = EC,, - + The oxidation reaction is at E_ i, = 0, ii = i, (Figure 3a).
contrasted by an anodlc resistance (R), generally indi- Steel structures in soil or in sea water, which are
cated as anodic overvoltages, which can be extremely protected by imposing potentials more negative than
high when protective films are formed on the metal -850 mV vs Cu/CuSO, or -950 mV in the presence of
surface. Thus corrosion rate (i,) can be formally sulphate reducing bacteria (respectively -800 and -900
expressed by the ratio of L to R: i, = LIR. mV vs Ag/AgC) operate in these conditions. In aerial
concrete structures cathodically protected the rebars do
not operate in immunity or ‘quasi-immunity’ conditions
Beneficial effects induced by CP unless overprotected.
The current circulation between an anodic and a The CP effects of kinetic nature are not directly
cathodic structure through an electrolyte produces connected to the reduction of the driving force L (which
protection effects mainly connected to the shift of the still occurs) but deal with the fact that such a reduction
potential of the the cathodic structure in the negative can set up a passivity condition or can maintain it in
direction (primary effect) and, in some cases, also to the a wider environmental aggressiveness range (e.g. at
alkalinity produced by the electrochemical reactions higher chloride content). Figure 4 illustrates this type
and to the reduction of chloride content at the cathodic of protection and indicates the potential (E,) and the
surface due to the migration of ionic species inside the current (i,) necessary to achieve it (ip = i, - i,).
electrolyte. Furthermore, Figure 4 shows how the reduction of
potential and the value of the current necessary to
Primary effects obtain passivity (respectively E,,, - Ep and i,) are much
The negative shift of the potential can give rise to bene- smaller than the ones necessary to reach immunity
ficial consequences in two ways: reducing the driving (respectively E,,, - Ees and ii).
force L for the anodic process (and the nature of this CP in concrete mainly utilizes effects of this type.
effect is thermodynamic) and increasing or maintaining
high the resistance of the anodic process R (and the Secondary effects
nature of this effect is kinetic). The cathodic processes (usually oxygen reduction but, if
CP effects are of thermodynamic nature when CP enough negative potential is reached, also hydrogen
brings the potential of the cathodic structure (E) to evolution) reduce oxygen content and produce alkalin-
values equal to or lower than equilibrium potential (E,,) ity on the reinforcement surface. These effects are bene-
so that the driving force (L) becomes zero or negative; ficial in stopping and preventing corrosion because they

E4

Figure 3 Schematic illustration of CP in the case of active (a) and active-passive (b) behaviour
394 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri

A
E
f
alkalinity production
I oxygen consumption

f &ion
chloride removal

>

b
log i,
a b
Figure 4 Schematic illustration of the variation of the anodic (a) and cathodic (b) behaviour due to pH increase, chloride removal and oxygen
cokumption at the cathodic surface

widen the passive region (Figure 4a) and depolarize the alkali-reactive aggregates. In short run experiments
cathodic process (Figure 46). In the case of not corrod- change of the solution composition near the steel
ing steel they hinder local acidification and also inter- cathode promoting expansive alkali-silica reaction
fere with pitting initiation (‘buffer effect’). (ASR) in concrete containing potentially reactive
On the other hand, inside concrete, the current is siliceous aggregates has been found only for current
transported by ions proportionally to their concentra- densities higher than those normally used for CP5. In
tion and mobility. Positive ions move in the same direc- long term run experiments the situation could be differ-
tion of the current, i.e. from the anode to the cathode, ent, at least in the case in which relatively high current
the negative ones in the opposite direction. Thus, in densities (> 10 mA m-2 of concrete surface) are reached.
chloride contaminated concrete, the current circulation Consequently, if the structure to be protected contains
produces a flux of chlorides from the cathodic to the aggregates which may be sensitive to alkali the risk of
anodic structure. In the usual electrolytes, the conse- ASR has to be considered and made negligible by
quences of this electrophoretic migration are minimized controlling the current density.
by diffusive and convective phenomena. In concrete
they are not negligible if CP operates at relatively high Adhesion loss
currents. In these cases current circulation results in a At very negative potentials (i.e. at high current densi-
reduction of the chloride content on the rebar surface or ties), loss of adhesion between rebar and concrete can
in a reduction of the ingress of chlorides into concrete occur. Many uncertainties remain about the phenome-
forming a sort of barrier of imperviousness increasing non but for long term polarization (like in the case of
with the current itself (‘chloride barrier effect’). CP) -1.1 V (vs SCE) is usually indicated as the lower
While the lowering of potential immediately produces limiting potential. In any case, this problem is mainly
its beneficial effects, which cease should the current be associated with non-ribbed bars.
interrupted, the changes of composition at the surface
produced by the cathodic reactions or by the migration Hydrogen embrittlement
of ionic species inside the concrete may not have so The most important side effect is the embrittlement of
immediate consequences but, on the other hand, may steel caused by atomic hydrogen. Some types of high
provide more persistent protection. (The techniques strength steels (+ > 700 MPa) utilized in prestressed
known as electrochemical realkalization and chloride constructions can be subjected to hydrogen embrittle-
removal are based on these last two effects.) ment if their potential is brought to values at which
hydrogen evolution can take place. Part of the devel-
Negative effects induced by CP oped hydrogen can enter these steels and make this
phenomenon possible. In alkaline environments (pH >
The negative effects induced by CP can affect the 12) and thus on cathodically protected reinforcement,
concrete, its adhesion to rebars and their hydrogen hydrogen evolution can occur only at potentials more
embrittlement. negative than about -950 mV (SCE). For these reasons,
even in the most critical conditions (steel more suscept-
Concrete degradation ible to the embrittlement, such as quenched and
Theoretically the increase of alkalinity around the rein- tempered, critical deformation rates, presence of sharp
forcement can cause damage if the concrete contains defects), embrittlement effects are not produced at
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 395

potentials more positive than -900 mV, while the same range 0.4-l% of cement weight. By lowering the poten-
effects on susceptible steels become evident at potentials tial, the critical content increases as shown in Figure 6
lower than -1 V. Therefore to avoid hydrogen em- (indicative of almost one order of magnitude for 100
brittlement risk of susceptible steel it is appropriate to mV decrease respect to the free corrosion potential).
fix a lower limiting potential of -900 mV (SCE). Cathodic prevention of steel reinforcement corrosion
Low strength ferritic steel (uR < 700 MPa) utilized for is based on the strong influence of the potential on the
reinforced concrete constructions is not susceptible to critical chloride content above illustrated. By imposing
hydrogen embrittlement. High strength steels (gR > 700 a cathodic polarization to the rebar from the beginning
MPa) utilized for prestressed constructions have to be and throughout the entire service life of the structure
considered susceptible unless contrary evidence is given. the critical chloride content is increased with respect to
This type of susceptibility depends on many metallurgi- non-polarized structures so that in practice it will never
cal and electrochemical variables and thus varies with be reached during the service life of the structure. Even
factors such as composition, heat and mechanical treat- low cathodic current densities in the range of 0.5-2 mA
ments, presence of notches or defects due to corrosion, m-* of concrete surface produce decreases of about
value of load and its variations giving low strain rate, 150-250 mV and consequently increases of the critical
environmental conditions, etc.) chloride content are higher than one order of magnitude
also with very low currents as indicated in Figure 7.
Criteria for prevention and protection
Propugation of corrosion und its control
It has already been said that CP can be applied to chlo- If, for a given chloride content, the rebar potential (E)
ride contaminated structures to control corrosion and becomes more positive than Ep, or, for a given poten-
to non-corroding ones to prevent corrosion otherwise tial, the chloride content is higher than the critical
expected during the service life. The criteria for obtain- value, the protective film can be locally broken down
ing prevention in the latter case and protection in the and consequently a localized attack can take place. The
former are different. zones where the film is destroyed behave as anodes,
those which remain passive as cathodes. The current,
I&i&ion of corrosion and its prevention which flows through the concrete from the anodic to the
The active-passive behaviour of steel in concrete is cathodic regions, transports chlorides inside the pits,
strongly influenced by the presence of chlorides. As is where the alkalinity is reduced by the hydrolysis of
shown in Figure 5, when the content of chloride corrosion products. Thus, the propagation of the attack
increases, the passivity range is reduced and the highest favours further propagation, bringing an increase of
potential, called the pitting potential, Epit, diminishes aggressiveness in the anodic zones (autocatalytic mech-
indicatively from +500 to -500 mV passing from non- anism).
contaminated to very heavily chloride contaminated Once the attack is initiated, it can also propagate at
concrete. The pitting potential depends also on tem- potentials more negative than Epit. To stop it, it is neces-
perature, pH, cement type and content, concrete poros- sary to reach a lower potential (E,,,,) below which steel
ity, etc. The highest chloride content compatible with repassivates. E,,, as Epi, varies with chloride content,
passive conditions for each potential is the critical chlo- pH on the corroding surface, temperature, etc.,
ride content at that potential. For the usual corrosion remaining in any case about 300 mV lower than Epit
potential (around 0 vs SCE) the critical content is the (Figure 6).

No Cl-
(mV vs SCE)

increasing
chloride
content
I

-I”“”

log ii
Figure 5 Schematic illustration of the anodic behaviour of steel in concrete in the presence of chlorides
396 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri

itling does not initia

-800-1 8 p c Irrla, rl
0.01 0.1 1 10 N
Chloride Content w chloride content (weight % vs cement)
Figure 6 Ranges of values of pitting and protection potential (E,, Figure 8 Schematic illustration of steel behaviour in concrete for
and E ,,) measured on steel immersed in solutions of saturated different potentials and chloride contents
Ca(Ol& with different chloride content6 or buried in sand covered by
the same solutions

Operating conditions on the cathodic side


0 -
E50r
Potential
-100 ” In Figure 8 it is schematically illustrated how steel
behaves for different potentials and chloride contents at
5 -200 - a temperature of about 20°C.
VI Different zones can be specified: A (corrosion zone)
E -300 - where corrosion can initiate and propagate; B (imper-
S
e fect passivity zone) where corrosion does not initiate
w -100 -
but can propagate at a lower rate as the potential moves
from Epit to E,,,; lower part of zone B (imperfect passiv-
-500 - \
ity zone) where the corrosion rate of active zones
-600 -
becomes greatly reduced; C (perfect passivity zone)
01 I 10 100 where corrosion does not initiate or propagate; D and
E (hydrogen evolution zone) where hydrogen embrittle-
Current density (mA/m’)
ment of the reinforcement in the presence of high
Figure 7 Instant off potential vs current density (mA m-z of rebar strength steel can take place; E zone where loss of ad-
surface) after 1000 h of cathodic polarization measured on seven slabs hesion between concrete and the reinforcement can occur.
polarized at different current densities (18°C)’
The 100 mV depolarization criterion, the most
utilized CP monitoring criterion (see below), is verified
(on aerial structures) when rebar potentials are taken
With potentials in the range (,I&-I&,) corrosion will
both in zone C and in the lower part of zone B.
not initiate but, if initiated, it can propagate.
Both low and high strength steels cannot operate in
Nevertheless when the potential of corroding steel is
zone E. The high strength ones also cannot operate in
taken in this range, the potential differences between
zone D. Therefore CP to stop corrosion (i.e. repassivat-
cathodic and anodic areas are reduced and thus the
ing the rebars) has to operate in zone C in the presence
extension of the cathodic regions and the current
of high strength steel and also in zone D with normal
exchanged between them and the active zones are
steels, CP to reduce considerably the corrosion rate
reduced. Consequently, the corrosion rate of the active
(without repassivating the rebars) can also operate in
zones (which is mainly connected with the functioning
the lower part of zone B; CP to prevent corrosion, i.e.
of these active-passive couples) is reduced. Obviously
cathodic prevention, has to operate in zones B and C in
these reductions become bigger as the potential
the presence of high strength steels, and also in zone D
decreases and when the potential approaches E,,,, the
in the other cases.
current exchanged by these active-passive couples can
Three important observations (whose consequences
result in many situations low enough to make the corro-
will be discussed later) are the following: the range of
sion rate acceptable.
potentials in which high strength steels can safely
Pourbaix, who has the merit to have clarified these
operate is smaller than for low strength steels; the range
concept since the 7Os, named the conditions character-
of potentials in which CP can operate to prevent corro-
ized by potentials in the range (Epit--I&) ‘imperfect
sion is wider than that in which CP can operate to
passivity’ to distinguish them from those of ‘perfect
control it; the prevention potentials are farther from
passivity’ characterized by potentials more negative
hydrogen evolution potentials than the protection ones.
than E,,,.
In Figure 9 typical evolution paths (expressed in terms
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 397

pining does non initiate

risk of loss of adherence steel-concrele


-1200~0 0,5 1 1.5 2

chloride content (weight 9’0vs cement)


’ M
i (mA/m2)
Figure 9 Schematic illustration of evolution paths of potential and
chloride content on rebar surface of an aerial construction during its Figure 10 Schematic cathodic polarization curves of steel in concrete
service life for: cathodic prevention (1+2+3+); cathodic protection in aerial conditions ((a) in non-contaminated concrete, (b) in chloride
restoring passivity (l-14+5+); cathodic protection reducing corro- contaminated concrete) and in immersed conditions (c)*
sion rate (l-A-+6+). Cathodic prevention is applied from the begin-
ning, cathodic protection only after corrosion has initiated
(the requested current density increases with the chlo-
ride content).
of potential and chloride content) of CP to prevent The situation is different in conditions where the
corrosion and of CP to control it once initiated are oxygen transport to the embedded rebars is restricted as
shown. In the first case, the CP is applied from the in water saturated concrete (for instance for compo-
beginning (2). In the second case, the corrosive attack is nents operating under water) and thus the oxygen trans-
stopped or controlled taking the potential in the perfect port limiting currents are very low (indicatively in the
passivity zone (5) or in the zone of reduced activity (6). range 0.2-2 mA mm2of rebar area for immersed struc-
Lower potentials compared to those indicated in tures). In these cases potential is usually very low. The
Figure 9 are usually reached in immersed structures or cathodic curve depends mainly on the value of the
in any other case in which the diffusion of oxygen to the oxygen diffusion limiting current density (as schemati-
rebar is restricted (see ahead). cally illustrated in Figure 10(c) and the application of
currents higher than the limiting ones, though still very
Current low, causes hydrogen evolution and consequently brings
Typical cathodic curves determined on steel reinforce- the potential to very negative values.
ment of constructions exposed to the atmosphere and
immersed in water are shown in Figure IO. In the case Deep concrete prevention and protection without
of aerial constructions oxygen availability at the steel causing overprotection
surface is not restricted and thus diffusion limiting
currents are normally not reached in the range of poten- The success of CP primarily depends on the achieve-
tial in which CP works. In these conditions the cathodic ment of an adequate current distribution in reinforced
curves depend on the overvoltages connected with the concrete structures. In aerial concrete structures, the
processes that take place on steel surfaces and thus on high electrical resistivity of concrete, the intricate geo-
the fact that it is passive or corroding (and in this latter metry of rebars and the small distances that can be
case on the ratio between active and passive areas which realized between anode and reinforcement can make
varies with chloride content and potential), on pH, on it difficult to obtain. The use of distributed anodes
temperature, etc. In particular in the range of current contributes to solving the problem of current distribu-
densities normally utilized by CP, the polarizability tion on the first row of steel reinforcements in many
decreases with the chloride content. Typical cathodic situations but not on reinforcements positioned at
curves determined on steel reinforcement of construc- different distances from the anode both in chloride
tions exposed to the atmosphere are shown in Figures contaminated and in non-contaminated structures
10~ and lob. (Figure 11). For instance, on slabs having two or more
The current densities needed to prevent, reduce or rows of rebars most of the current (up to 90%) is taken
stop corrosion in aerial constructions can be indica- by the row closest to the anode. The current distribu-
tively: between 0.5 and 2 mA me2 (with respect to rein- tion changes only slightly passing from corroding to
forcement area) to get prevention conditions (i.e. to passive rebars.
increase the critical chloride content by at least of one This is different in the case of the distribution of
order of magnitude, up to 15 mA me2 to reduce the potential. The polarizability of passive surfaces (i.e. the
corrosion rate so that the 100 mV criterion is verified slope of the cathodic curve), especially at low current
(the highest values for high chloride contents); up to 20 densities, is much higher than the polarizability of
mA m-2 or even more to repassivate a corroding rebars corroding ones (Figure 12). For this reason it is possible
398 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri

strength steels, it is possible to give the following indi-


Titanium net cations. (We emphasize that the figures here reported
come mainly from laboratory experience with simple
geometry, small scale, uniform humidity condition, etc.
IO-400 mA/mZ currem density
and thus have to be considered by way of example
(referred IO concrete surface) only).
804’8% R.H. In corroding reinforced concrete structures it is not
O-376 CI-
possible to obtain protection, i.e. to operate in zone C
or respectively in the lower part of zone B (where the
100 mV criterion is fulfilIed), on rebars which are
farther apart than about 20 or respectively 25 cm from
the most superficial rebar, unless bringing its potential
in the dangerous zone E. In non corroding reinforced
concrete structures it is possible to obtain prevention,
i.e. to operate in zone B, also on bars which are far
distance from the net (cm) apart from the anode by up to 80 cm without bringing
Figure 11 Current distribution obtained on the rebars placed at the superficial rebar in the dangerous zone E. In corrod-
different depths in concrete in 100X20x20 cm slabs. Tests performed ing prestressed structures (i.e. with high strength steel) it
with current output ranging between 10 and 400 mA m-* (referred to is not possible to operate in zone C or respectively in
the concrete surface)9
the lower part of zone B on rebars which are farther
apart than about 15 and respectively 25 cm from the
most superficial rebar, unless bringing their potential
into the forbidden zone D. In non-corroding prestressed
concrete structures it is possible to obtain prevention
(i.e. to operate in zone B) on bars which are far apart
from the anode by up to 60 cm without taking the
superficial rebar into the forbidden zone E.

The anode system


The anode system, which consists of the anode material
plus its overlay, must supply the requested current for
the anticipated service life and distribute it to the rein-
80-S% R.H. forcement which needs to be protected. On the anode
surface oxygen or chloride evolution can take place.
-loo04 I I I I I I I 1 * I
0 SO 100 Both reactions produce acidity. The pH of concrete in
distance from the net (cm) contact with the steel decreases as the current density
+ 0%Cl- 0 1% Cl- * 2% Cl- A 3% Cl-
increases and this may lead to conditions which produce
Figure 12 Rebar polarization at different depths, determined impos- the destruction of the concrete and/or of the anodic
ing -900 mV (Ag/AgCl) to the rebar close to the anode. Tests material. For this reason the anodic current densities
performed on 100~20~20 cm slabs9
have to be limited.
The general requirements of an anode system can be
summarized as follows: it has to adhere to the concrete
to obtain considerable polarization on the passive surface; it should be applied to any kind of concrete
surfaces even far apart from the rebars nearest to the surface (top, bottom, horizontal, vertical, flat, curved)
anode where small currents are exchanged. and exhibit mechanical properties suitable for installa-
To understand how deep inside concrete construc- tion and fixing, long duration combined with low in-
tions CP can be obtained without producing over- stallation cost; it should produce acceptable weight
protection conditions on the superficial rebar, we have addition and change in structure appearances and
to take into consideration not only the throwing power dimensions.
of polarization (higher with passive than with active The overlay should exhibit maximum bond to the
steel as we have just seen) but also the points already substrate concrete, mechanical strength and characteris-
covered concerning the range of potential in which CP tics equal to those of base concrete, good ionic conduc-
can operate (wider to prevent corrosion than to control tivity, possibly slightly influenced by environmental
it) and the range of potential in which steels can safely humidity variations.
operate (smaller for high strength than for low strength The anode can be: a mesh shaped to fit the structure’s
steelsJo). surface to which it is fixed and subsequently covered
Depending on the different throwing power and the with a cementitious overlay which acts as an electrolyte;
different range in which CP has to operate to prevent or a conductive and electroactive layer applied directly to
to stop corrosion, in the presence or absence of high completely cover the concrete surface; wire or strip
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 399

placed in holes or slots and backfilled with either Monitoring system


cementitious or electroactive material or conductive
In order to ensure that protection or prevention condi-
tiles placed on the concrete surface.
tions are reached and overprotection ones are avoided,
Titanium expanded mesh activated with mix metal
and more generally to determine the performance of
oxides (iridium, ruthenium, cobalt, etc.) is the most
the CP systems, permanent monitoring systems have to
widely used and successful type of anode. It has good
be installed. These systems are based mainly on poten-
mechanical properties and can be easily fixed also to
tial measurements of the reinforced steel with respect
vertical surfaces, can be cut and shaped to provide
to reference electrodes. In some cases also measure-
tailoring of requested output and distribution of
ments of current picked up by probes or exchanged in
current. It normally requires an overlaq but it can also
macrocells are performed. Reference electrodes and
be incorporated in the concrete (as in new construc-
pick-up current probes have to be buried in concrete
tions). Laboratory tests as well as experience from other
and located in the most critical areas or where the con-
fields make it possible to foresee a very long service life
trol of the potential is of most importance. The princi-
for this type of anode (in the range of 20 to in excess
pal reference electrodes for permanent embedment are:
of 100 years), provided the quality and strength of
AglAgClIKCl-0.5M; Mn/MnO,/KOH/O.SM; and acti-
concrete are adequate. The advantages presented by
vated titanium with or without cementitious backfill.
mesh anodes are connected to the possibility to achieve
Being based on kinetic effects, CP in concrete does
a uniform current distribution combined with the reduc-
not have a fixed protection or prevention potential as
tion of installation costs and to utilize them for the
in the case of CP in soil or in sea water or any other
protection of most complex structures. Meshes of differ-
environment where it is needed to reach immunity or
ent diamond size type are available providing typical
quasi-immunity conditions. For steel in concrete, the
concrete surface area current densities of 15, 20 and 30
protection potential depends on chloride content, pH,
mA rne2. To cope with non-uniform current density
demand, it is also possible to overlap two meshes. This cement type and content etc. and cannot be predicted
with theoretical considerations, e.g. based on the equi-
type of anode has a long-term maximum current density
librium potential. Consequently, the criteria utilized to
of 100 mA m-* and short term one of hundreds of
indicate practical conditions which lead to stopping or
mA mm2without deterioration of the anode coating or
preventing corrosion are empirical.
of the concrete.
The most widely used criteria are based on potential
Conductive organic coatings contain a carbon
variation, such as the so called 100 mV decay criterion:
conductor and a series of conductors (able to resist
‘protection or prevention conditions are reached when a
anodic reaction). They are fixed to the concrete surface
or integrated into the concrete. The adhesion is potential decay of at least 100 mV over a period
subjected to an appropriate surface preparation and to between 4 and 24 hours from instant of potential is
measured”,?. In some cases, for example in splash or in
a suitable application technique. The most significant
advantages of this type of anode are that it does not submerged zones, criteria based on absolute potential
require any overlay, can be applied to complex shapes measurements can be more convenient: e.g. ‘protection
in any orientation and does not present problems of or prevention conditions are reached when potential is
weight or dimensional limitations. Furthermore the more negative than -720 mV with respect to Ag/AgCl”.
installation costs are half the alternative distributed To avoid overprotection conditions the potential
anode system which requires overlays. This type must not be more negative than -1100 mV with respect
of anode has a short term current density limit of 35 to AgiAgCl for plain reinforcing steels or -900 mV for
mA m-l and a long term one generally of 20 mA m-‘. pre-stressing ones’.
On dry structures a realistic expectation life is Unfortunately, if attenuation is also not present in
5-15 years, but the presence of moisture in or on the rebars (as happens in soil, but attenuation can be
concrete or of strong and localized chloride con- present in the anode), the potential of rebar changes
centration gradients can result in early local deteriora- very much by changing the distance from the anode or
tion. the local concrete resistivity. Thus, potential measure-
Conductive asphalt overlays have a long, successful ments based on values taken from fixed reference elec-
track record in North America where they have trodes in some supposed representative points’ cannot
been used since the 70s for bridge decks or car park be representative of the potential of the whole rebar
decks. They are not appropriate for application surface. Thus the conditions for monitoring to avoid
to soffits or vertical surfaces and their application overprotection are not intrinsically safe because poten-
can also be limited by weight and dimensional implica- tials cannot give values representative of the whole high
tions. strength steel surface. Consequently, the safety of the
A variety of other types of anodes (such as overlays system has also to be based on the control of the design
containing either granular carbon and carbon fibre with of the prevention system and of its operating conditions
a metallic coating, conductive ceramics. thermally (e.g. minimum distance from the anode and the high
sprayed zinc coating, etc.) are suitable for use in strength steel, maximum feeding voltage, maximum
cathodic protection in concrete, but have few long term admissible attenuation in the anode, etc.). A big
applications. improvement on this point has been achieved with the
400 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri

introduction of a new approach for the control of the application and fastening of the mesh by means of suit-
overprotection conditions based on the calculation of able plastic pins fitted into predrilled holes; spraying of
the maximum admissible feeding voltage as the sum of the concrete overlay.
the measured anode potential and an overprotection The monitoring system is based on fixed reference
parameter (typically -900 and -1100 mV respectively electrodes (silver/silver chloride and graphite) embedded
for post-tensioned or reinforced structures). This method, in concrete in the most critical areas of each of the eight
which relies on the higher uniformity of the potential of anodic zones in which the deck is divided. Protection
the anodic structure compared with the cathodic one, is conditions are automatically controlled with the ‘100
intrinsically safe as far as overprotection is concerned, mV’ decay criterion every seven days: if the depolariza-
because it guarantees that nowhere, on the protected tion exceeds 250 mV, current density is reduced, if it is
structure, can overprotection conditions existlo. lower than 100 mV is increased. Overprotection condi-
tions are checked with absolute potential readings twice
a day. A very conservative limit of -850 mV was
Example of cathodic protection
chosen. If a reference electrode reaches the overprotec-
A cathodic protection system was installed in 1987 on tion limit the control unit automatically switches off the
the Rio Veggio bridge deck (3700 m2) in the Apennine feeding system of the relevant zone.
section of the Al motorway between Bologna and Start up protection current was 10 mA mm2 of
Florence, after severe chloride induced corrosion had concrete surface (i.e. 10 mA me2 of rebars of the first
occurred and massive rehabilitation of steel was row surface of about 5 mA m-2 of the whole rebar
required. surface) with a feeding voltage of I .8-2.5 V. The protec-
The repair technique consisted of removal and tion condition was achieved after five months. In the
replacement of damaged concrete, setting up of new following year the protection current density decreased
reinforcement welded to the old one, checking of the by approximately 30-50X; since then it has been practi-
electrical continuity of new reinforcement bars between cally stable in the range 5-8 mA me2 of concrete surface.
themselves and to the old ones, welded links provided Regular changes with time of the feeding voltage have
where necessary before pouring, installation of electrical been observed on the protected span related to external
connections and monitoring equipment, pouring of temperature (Figure 13) due mainly to change of
concrete and curing. anodic overvoltage and, in part, ohmic drop.
The two lanes of the bridge were rehabilitated with After more than seven years, the system is working
the same concrete repair technique utilizing the same satisfactorily”.
activated titanium mesh with two different anodic
systems. The anode mesh was directly embedded into
Example of cathodic prevention
concrete, at a distance of 1.8-2 cm from reinforcement
(south lane) or fixed to the concrete surface and sprayed In northern Italy, since 1990, cathodic prevention has
with a concrete overlay material (north lane and curbs been applied on new highway bridge decks for a total
of both lanes). No significant difference on CP of two surface area of about 130 000 m2. In particular, CP has
lanes after seven years of service is evident. been applied to reinforcement and prestressed wires of
When the mesh anode installation was performed by 16 viaduct decks of the Frejus highway (for a total
means of concrete overlays the relevant procedure was area of 104 000 m2). These viaducts are all new post-
the following: preparation of the surface to make it tensioned structures and consist of a continuous beam
clean and rough enough to favour overlay anchorage; having a box section built by assembling precast rein-

4 I

3.5

2.5

1.5

Figure 13 Rio Veggio, north spans: voltage variation with time showing the effect of external temperature. (Courtesy of Cescor-Nuova Polmet)
Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P. Pedeferri 401

2500 2.50
'=:
2000 2.00 {

%
s
E 1500 1.50 2
F a
zE 1000 1.00 E
=
z
500 0.50 3
u
0 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 13

Rectifier Number

Hl,on,mean qV,on,mean A R,on,mean o i,on

-A-

800

5 600
g
1 400
&
200
g

-400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 11 12 I3

Monitored points along the viaduct n Ea ioff,mean q EC ioff,mean

-B-

A B C B C A C A B C A B C
_t__t__’

_.._~ q Mean 4h d.t. Cl Dev.St. dep.test - Max dep.test - Min dep.test _. -1


T

4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13

Monitored points along the viaduct

-c-

Figure 14 Some operative conditions of the cathodic prevention of one post-tensioned Frejus highway viaduct during winter 93194. (Courtesy of
Cescor-Nuova Polmet)
402 Cathodic protection and cathodic prevention: P, Pedeferri

forced segments by means of post-tensioned tendons. the range -200 to -350 mV (vs AgiAgCl). These working
The decision to install cathodic prevention was taken conditions ensure that the critical chloride content is
after considering the following aspects: the importance increased by at least one order of magnitude and that
of viaducts and their durability; the necessity to keep the protection requirements are fulfilled, being rebar
maintenance-free conditions and traffic interruptions or potential higher than 500 mV than the critical threshold
deviations as low as possible; severe rebar corrosion for hydrogen evolution.
experienced in the same highway on other similar For further information see Bazzoni et ul. 13.
viaducts after only a few years from opening.
Basic criteria for the design of the CP system were:
assure corrosion prevention of steel reinforcement of References
the deck up to a maximum depth of 40 mm, avoid over- 1 Cathodic Protection of Steel in Concrete - Part one:
protection of the high strength steel tendons; minimum Atmospherically Exposed Concrete CENTTC262/SC2/WG2, to be
published
interference with other construction activities; design
2 Cuthodic Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Atmo.vphericully
life of 50 years. Exposed Structures NACE Standard RP0290-90
Titanium activated with mixed metal oxide meshes 3 Memorundum on FHWA Position on Cuthodic Protection
and ribbons was selected as the anode material. Anode Syxtems, US Federal Highway Administration, April 23, 1982
4 Wyatt, B. Cutting corrosion costs of reinforced concrete highway
mesh application was carried out mainly in yard on structures. Constr. Repair. July 1993
individual precast segments and partially on the bridge 5 Page, CL. Interfacial effect on electrochemical protection
deck after the erection. The anode mesh was fixed on methods applied to steel in chloride containing concrete. In
Rehuhilitution of Concrete Structure.v, Proc. Int. Rilem Cotzf:,
concrete and embedded in a CP overlay. The surface
Melbourne, 1992, pp 1799187
to be protected was divided into zones individually 6 Cigna, R. Fumei Sulla protezione catodica dei ferri nel calces-
connected to the feeding system. truzzo. Ind. It. Cemento, 1981, 9
The monitoring system was designed with the I Bertolini, L., Bolzoni, F., Pastore, T. and Pedeferri, P. Cathodic
prevention of reinforced concrete structures. In Proc. IV
primary purpose to avoid any risk of overprotection of
Corrosion Symposium, Otunbul Technical University, Istunbul,
the steel tendons and, in the meantime, to verify the 25-26 October 1994
effectiveness of the CP system. Silver-silver chloride 8 Pedeferri, P. Cathodic protection of new concrete constructions.
and titanium activate reference electrodes were used. In Proc. Int. Conf: Structurul Improvement through Corrosion
Protection of Reinjkced Concrete, Institute of Corrosion.
The feeding current is automatically controlled by London, 1992
maintaining the 4 h polarization decay in the range 9 Pastore, T., Pedeferri, P., Bertolini, L. and Bolzoni, F. Current
loo-250 mV and overprotection conditions are distribution problems in the cathodic protection of reinforced
excluded through a monitoring approach based on concrete structures. In Rehubilitution of Concrete Structures,
Proc. Int. Rilem Conj:, Melhourne, 1992, pp 189-200
anode and feeding voltage measurement. 10 Bertolini, L., Bolzoni, F., Cigada, A., Pastore, T. and
The CP system was installed during the construction Pedeferri, P. Cathodic protection of new and old reinforced
and in part also during the prefabrication of the differ- concrete structures. Corros. Sci. 1993, 35, 1633-16, 39
11 Bazzoni, B. and Lazzari, L. A new approach for automatic
ent segments which constitute the bridge. The main
control and monitoring of cathodically protected reinforced
operating conditions during winter 1993 for one of structures. Muter. Perj: 1992, 31. 13
these bridge decks are illustrated in Figure 14. It can be 12 Bazzoni, B., Lazzari, L. and Grandi, M. Cathodic protection on
seen that: cathodic polarization is sufficient to maintain highway bridge decks. Five years of experience. UK Corrosion 92,
Munchester, October 12-16, 1992
the 4 h depolarization decay in the range loo-250 mV;
13 Bazzoni, B., Lazzari, L., Grandi, M. and Del Frate, A. CP of
current of about l-2 mA me2 respect to the steel surface new post-tensioned concrete structures. Monitoring and data
was imposed; the cathodic potentials are normally in start-up. NACE Corrosion 94, paper 283, 1994

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