MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

Pressure (P):
 If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with liquid, then
pressure exerted by liquid on this surface is: P  F / A
 Units : N / m 2 or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.)
[F] [ MLT 2 ]
 Dimension : [P ]   2
 [ML1 T  2 ]
[ A] [L ]

 Atmospheric pressure: Its value on the surface of the earth at sea level is nearly
1 .013  10 5 N / m 2 or Pascal in S.I. other practical units of pressure are atmosphere,
bar and torr (mm of Hg)
 1atm  1 . 01  10 5 Pa  1 .01 bar  760 torr
dF
 Fluid Pressure at a Point:  
dA
Density ( ρ ):
m dm
 In a fluid, at a point, density ρ is defined as:   lim 
V  0 V dV
 In case of homogenous isotropic substance, it has no directional properties, so is a
scalar.
 It has dimensions [ML3 ] and S.I. unit kg/m3 while C.G.S. unit g/cc with
1 g / cc  10 3 kg / m 3

 Density of body = Density of substance

Density of body
 Relative density or specific gravity which is defined as : RD 
Density of water

 If m 1 mass of liquid of density  1 and m 2 mass of density  2 are mixed, then as

m  m 1  m 2 and V  (m 1 /  1 )  (m 2 /  2 ) [As V  m /  ]
m m1  m 2  mi
  
V (m1 / 1 )  (m 2 /  2 ) (m i / pi )

2 1  2
If m1  m 2 ,    Harmonic mean
1   2
 If V1 volume of liquid of density  1 and V2 volume of liquid of density  2 are
mixed, then as: m  1 V1   2 V2 and V  V1  V2 [As   m / V ]
If V1  V2  V   (1   2 ) / 2 = Arithmetic Mean
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

 With rise in temperature due to thermal expansion of a given body, volume will
increase while mass will remain unchanged, so density will decrease, i.e.,
 (m / V ) V0 V0
   [As V  V0 (1   ) ]
0 (m / V0 ) V V0 (1   )
or
0 ~
 –  0 (1   )
(1   )

 With increase in pressure due to decrease in volume, density will increase, i.e.,
 (m / V ) V0 m
  [As   ]
 0 (m / V0 ) V V

p  p 
 By definition of bulk-modulus: B   V0 i.e., V  V0 1  
V  B
1
 p  ~  0  1  p 
   0 1  
 B   B 

Specific Weight ( w ):
 It is defined as the weight per unit volume.
Weight m.g
 Specific weight     .g
Volume Volume

Specific Gravity or Relative Density (s):

 It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to the specific weight of a standard fluid.
Standard fluid is water in case of liquid and H2 or air in case of gas.
  .g 
s  
 w  w. g  w
Where,  w  Specific weight of water, and  w  Density of water specific.

Specific Volume ( v ):
 Specific volume of liquid is defined as volume per unit mass. It is also defined as the
reciprocal of specific density.
V 1
 Specific volume  
m 
dp / dt v(dm / dt ) v Av 
Inertial force per unit area =  = = v2
A A A
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS
v
Viscous force per unit area: F/A 
r

Inertial force per unit area v2 v r

Reynold’s number: NR   
Viscous force per unit area v / r 

Pascal’s Law: px  p y  p z ; where, px , p y and pz are the pressure at point x,y,z respectively.

Hydrostatic Law:
p
  pg or dp  pg dz
z
p h
 o
dp  pg  dz
o

p
 p  pgh and h  ; where, h is known as pressure head.
pg

Pressure Energy Potential energy Kinetic energy

It is the energy possessed by a It is the energy possessed by It is the energy possessed by a
liquid by virtue of its pressure. It liquid by virtue of its height or liquid by virtue of its motion or
is the measure of work done in position above the surface of velocity.
pushing the liquid against earth or any reference level
pressure without imparting any taken as zero level.
velocity to it.
Pressure energy of the liquid PV Potential energy of the liquid Kinetic energy of the liquid
mgh mv2/2
Pressure energy per unit mass of Potential energy per unit mass of Kinetic energy per unit mass of
the liquid P/ ρ the liquid gh the liquid v2/2
Pressure energy per unit volume Potential energy per unit volume Kinetic energy per unit volume
of the liquid P of the liquid ρgh of the liquid ρ v2/2

Quantities that Satisfy a Balance Equation

Quantit mass x momentum y momentum z Energy Species
y momentum
 m mu mv mw E + mV2/2 m(K)
 1 u v w e + V2/2 W(K)
In this table, u, v, and w are the x, y and z velocity components, E is the total
thermodynamic internal energy, e is the thermodynamic internal energy per unit mass,
and m(K) is the mass of a chemical species, K, W(K) is the mass fraction of species K.
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

The other energy term, mV2/2, is the kinetic energy.

  (m )  ( xyz )  (  )
 Storage     xyz
t t t t
 Inflow   u  x y z   v  y x z   w z y x

 Outflow   u  x  x y z   v  y  y x z   w z  z y x

 Source  S x y z

  u    u  v y  y
  v  w   w
  x  x
  z  z
 S
x y z

t x y z
  u  v  w
     S*
t x y z
Lim
 S*  S
xyz  0

The Mass Balance Equations:

  u i
  0
t xi
  u  v  w
    0
t x y z
  u
  ui  i 0
t xi xi

  u v w    
      u v w 0
t  x y z  x y z
D     D  
  u v w or   ui
Dt t x y z Dt t xi

D  u v w  D u D
     0  i 0    0
Dt  x y z  Dt xi Dt

u v w ui
    0 or  0
x y z xi
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

    u i  
       ui  S
t  t xi  xi

 
    ui  S
t xi

Momentum Balance Equation:

 1 j  2 j  3 j  ij
 Net j  direction source term     B j   B j
x1 x 2 x3 xi
u j  u i u j  ij
    B j j  1, 3
t xi xi
 For a Newtonian fluid, the stress, σij, is given by the following equation:

  ui uj  2
 ij   P ij       (   ) ij
 x j xi  3

u j  u i u j    u uj  
    P ij    i    (  2  ) ij   B j j  1,3
t xi xi 
  x j xi  3 

u j  ui u j P     ui  u j    2 
       (  3  )  B j j  1,3
t xi x j xi   x j xi  x j  

 u  uu  vu wu
      Bx
t x y z

P    u      v  u      w  u    2 
  2                (   ) 
x x  x  y   x y   z   x z   x  3 

Energy Balance Equation:

T
 This directional heat flux is given the symbol qi: q i   k
x i

Net xDirection heat qx  qx x qx  qx

   xx yz   x  x x

Unit Volume xyz x

Limit Net xDirection heat source q
  x
x  0 Unit Volume x
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

q x q y q x q
 Heat Rate      i
x y x xi
 Body-force work rate = ρ(uBx + vBy + wBz) =ρuiBi

 The work term on each face is given by the following equation:

y-face surface force work = (uσyx + vσyy + wσyz)Δx Δz =uiσiy Δx Δz

(u yx  v yy  w yz ) ui yi
 Net yFace Surface Force Work  
y y
ui xi ui yi ui zi ui ji
 Net Surface Force Work    
x y z x j

 Energy balance equation:

 (e  V 2 / 2)  ui (e  V 2 / 2) q ui ji
  i   ui Bi
t xi xi x j

Substitutions for Stresses and Heat Flux:

Using only the Fourier Law heat transfer, the source term involving the heat flux in the energy
balance equation:

qi   T   T  T  T  T
     k   k  k  k  k
xi xi  xi  xi xi x x y y z z

e  u i e  T   u u j  
  (  2  ) ij  ui
   k   P ij    i 
t xi xi xi   x 
 j xi  3  x j
u i u j
  ij  
x j x j

e  u i e  T  u uj  u i 2
   k  P    i    (   )2
t xi xi xi  x  x
 j xi  j 3

Dissipation to avoid confusion with the general quantity in a balance equation:

 u u j  u i 2
 ΦD    i    (   )2
 x  x
 j xi  j 3
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

e  u i e  T
   k  P  ΦD
t xi xi xi
The temperature gradient in the Fourier law conduction term may also be written as a gradient
of enthalpy or internal energy:
T 1 e 1  T P  1 
     P 2
xi cv xi cv   T   xi
T 1 h 1  T P P
  
xi c p xi c p xi

e  u i e  k e  1  T P  1 
    P  ΦD    P 2
t xi xi cv xi xi cv   T   xi

h u i h  k h  1  T P  P DP
    ΦD    
t xi xi c p xi xi  c p  xi Dt

 T u i T   T DP
 cp    k  ΦD   P T
 t xi  xi xi Dt
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

General Balance Equations

(φ)
φ c Γ S(φ)
1 1 0 0
u = ux = u1 1 μ P  u  v  w   2 
         (   )   Bx
x x x y x z x x  3 
v = uy = u2 1 μ P  u  v  w   2 
        (   )   B y
y x y y y z y y  3 
w = uz = u3 1 μ P  u  v  w   2 
        (   )    Bz
z x z y z z z z  3 
e 1 k/cv  1  T P  1 
 P  ΦD    P 2
xi cv   T   xi
h 1 k/cP
 1  T P  P DP
ΦD    
xi  c p  xi Dt
T cP k DP
ΦD   P T
Dt
T cv k T P
ΦD  
T
W(K) 1 ρDK,Mix r(K)

Momentum equation:
u j  ui u j  u j P  u j
     S ( j)      S *( j )
t xi xi xi xi xi xi

General Momentum Equations

(φ)
φ c Γ S*(φ)
1 1 0 0
u = ux = u1 1 μ  u  v  w   2 
      (   )   Bx
x x y x z x x  3 
v = uy = u2 1 μ  u  v  w   2 
       (   )   B y
x y y y z y y  3 
w = uz = u3 1 μ  u  v  w   2 
      (   )   Bz
x z y z z z z  3 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

Bernoulli’s Equation:
This equation has four variables: velocity ( ), elevation ( ), pressure ( ), and density ( ). It also
has a constant ( ), which is the acceleration due to gravity. Here is Bernoulli’s equation:


1 2
 P  gh  v  constant
2

P v2 P
 h = constant; is called pressure head, h is called gravitational head and
g 2g g
v2
is called velocity head.
2g

Factors that influence head loss due to friction are:

 Length of the pipe ( )

 Effective diameter of the pipe ( )
 Velocity of the water in the pipe ( )
 Acceleration of gravity ( )
 Friction from the surface roughness of the pipe ( )
 The head loss due to the pipe is estimated by the following equation:

 To estimate the total head loss in a piping system, one adds the head loss from the fittings
and the pipe:

 Note that the summation symbol ( ) means to add up the losses from all the different
sources. A less compact-way to write this equation is:

Combining Bernoulli’s Equation With Head Loss:

 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

Relation between coefficient of viscosity and temperature:

A e C / T
Andrade formula  =
 1 / 3

Stoke's Law: F = 6rv

Terminal Velocity:
4 3
 Weight of the body (W) = mg = (volume × density) × g  r g
3
 Upward thrust (T) = weight of the fluid displaced
4 3
= (volume × density) of the fluid × g = r  g
3
 Viscous force (F) = 6rv
 When the body attains terminal velocity the net force acting on the body is zero.
 W–T–F =0 or F= W – T
4 4 4
 6rv   r 3  g   r 3  g  r 3 (    ) g
3 3 3
2 r 2 (   ) g
 Terminal velocity v 
9 

 Terminal velocity depend on the radius of the sphere so if radius is made n - fold,
terminal velocity will become n2 times.
 Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity
 Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.
 If  >  then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will attain
constant velocity in downward direction.
 If  <  then terminal velocity will be negative and hence the spherical body will attain
constant velocity in upward direction.
Poiseuille’s Formula:
P r4 KP r 4
 V or V 
l l

P r 4 
 V  ; where K  is the constant of proportionality.
8l 8

Buoyant Force:
 Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced by body
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

 Buoyant force on cylinder =Weight of fluid displaced by cylinder

 Vs  Value of immersed part of solid
in

 FB = pwater  g  Volume of fluid displaced

 FB= pwater  g  Volume of cylinder immersed inside the water
 FB  mg

 FB = pw g d2 ( w  mg  pVg )
4
 Vsin plg  Vs ps g
 
 pw g d 2 x  pcylinder g d 2h
4 4
 pw x  pcylinder h

Relation between B, G and M:

l
 GM   BG ; where l = Least moment of inertia of plane of body at water surface, G =
V
Centre of gravity, B = Centre of buoyancy, and M = Metacentre.
bd 3 bd 3
 l  min(lxx,l yy ), lxx  , l yy 
12 12
 V  bdx
Energy Equations:
 Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Fc + Ft ; where Gravity force Fg, Pressure force Fp, Viscous force Fv ,
Compressibility force Fc , and Turbulent force Ft.
 If fluid is incompressible, then Fc = 0
 Fnet  Fg  Fp  Fv  Ft ; This is known as Reynolds equation of motion.
 If fluid is incompressible and turbulence is negligible, then
Fc  0, Ft  0  Fnet  Fg  Fp  Fv ; This equation is called as Navier-Stokes equation.
 If fluid flow is considered ideal then, viscous effect will also be negligible. Then
Fnet  Fg  Fp ; This equation is known as Euler’s equation.
dp
 Euler’s equation can be written as:  gdz  vdv  0

 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS

Dimensional analysis:

Quantity Symbol Dimensions

Mass m M
Length l L
Time t T
Temperature T θ
Velocity u LT -1
Acceleration a LT -2
Momentum/Impulse mv MLT -1
Force F MLT -2
Energy - Work W ML 2T -2
Power P ML 2T -3
Moment of Force M ML 2T -2
Angular momentum - ML 2T -1
Angle η M 0L 0T 0
Angular Velocity ω T -1
Angular acceleration α T -2
Area A L2
Volume V L3
First Moment of Area Ar L3
Second Moment of Area I L4
Density ρ ML -3
Specific heat- Cp L 2 T -2 θ -1
Constant Pressure
Elastic Modulus E ML -1T -2
Flexural Rigidity EI ML 3T -2
Shear Modulus G ML -1T -2
Torsional rigidity GJ ML 3T -2
Stiffness k MT -2
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUID MECHANICS
Angular stiffness T/η ML 2T -2
Flexibiity 1/k M -1T 2
Vorticity - T -1
Circulation - L 2T -1
Viscosity μ ML -1T -1
Kinematic Viscosity τ L 2T -1
Diffusivity - L 2T -1
Friction coefficient f /μ M 0L 0T 0
Restitution coefficient M 0L 0T 0
Specific heat- Cv L 2 T -2 θ -1
Constant volume

Boundary layer:
v  x vx
 Reynolds number  (Re) x 
 v

 u
 Displacement Thickness (  *):  *   1   dy
0
U
 u  u 
 Momentum Thickness ():    1   dy
0 U  U 
 u2 
 u
 Energy Thickness (  **):  **   1  2  dy
0
 U U
 Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profile: Boundary conditions are as
du du
o (a) At y  0, u  0,  0 ; (b) At y   , u  U , 0
dy dy
Turbulent flow:
du du
 Shear stress in turbulent flow:    v   t   
dy dy
 Turbulent shear stress by Reynold:    u 'v '
2
 du 
 Shear stress in turbulent flow due to Prndtle :    l 2  
 dy 