Learning Outline

Learning Outline
™Symmetrical Components Theory
Symmetrical Components Theory
™Sequence Impedance: Load, Line, Generator, 
T
Transformer
f
™Fault Analysis: Line‐Ground, Line‐Line, Line‐
Line‐Ground.
™Examples
p and Class Exercises

1
Fault Analysis
y ____________________
• Fault types:
– balanced faults (<5%)
• three‐phase to ground
• Three‐phase
– unbalanced faults
• single‐line to ground (60%‐75%)

• double‐line to ground (15%‐25%)
d bl li t d (15% 25%)

• line
line‐to‐line
to line faults (5%
faults (5%‐15%)
15%)

2
Example impact of fault
Example impact of fault
The second largest blackout in the history of TEPCO
(The Tokyo Electric Power Company,
Company Inc.)
Inc ) hit central
Tokyo area at about 7:38 a.m. on August 14, 2006. It
was caused by a floating crane on a barge going
upstream on a river on the eastern edge of the city.

The workers on the boat did not realize that the 33

meter crane was raised too high, so it hit TEPCO's
275 kV double circuit transmission lines that run
across the river.
river

As a result of the accident the transmission 
lines were short‐circuited and the wires 
damaged. The relay protection operated and 
tripped both lines

3
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
• Three phase voltage or current is in a balance condition if it has 
the following characteristic:
the following characteristic:
– Magnitude of phase a,b, and c is all the same
– The system has sequence of a,b,c
The system has sequence of a,b,c
– The angle between phase is displace by 120 degree 
• If one of the above is character is not satisfied, unbalanced 
occur.  Example:

4
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
• For unbalanced system, power system analysis cannot be 
analyzed using per phase as in Load Flow analysis or
analyzed using per phase as in Load Flow analysis or 
Symmetrical fault ‐>Symmetrical components need to be used.

• Symmetrical component allow unbalanced phase quantities 
such as current and voltages to be replaced by three separate 
balanced symmetrical components
balanced symmetrical components. 

5
Symmetrical Components
y p __________

6
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
By convention, the direction of rotation of the phasors is taken 
to be counterclock wise
to be counterclock‐wise.

Positive sequence:
I a1 = I a1∠0° = I a1
(10.1)
I b1 = I a1∠240° = a 2 I a1

I c1 = I a1∠120° = aII a1

Where we defined an operator a that causes a counterclockwise rotation of 120 

degree such that:
degree, such that:
a = 1∠120 ° = cos 120 ° + j sin 120 ° = −0.5 + j 0.866 (10.2)
a 2 = (1∠120°) × (1∠120°) = 1∠240° = −0.5 − j 0.866 1 + a + a2 = 0
a 3 = 1∠360° = 1 + j 0
(10.3)

7
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
Negative sequence:
I a2 = I a2∠0°
(10.4)
I b2 = I a2∠120° = aI a2
I c2 = I a2∠ 240 ° = a 2 I a2

Zero sequence:

I a0 = I b0 = I c0
(10.5)

8
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
Consider the three‐phase unbalanced current of   I a , I b , I c

I a = I a0 + I a1 + I a2
(10.6)
Ib = I + I + I
0
b
1
b
2
b

I c = I c0 + I c1 + I c2
Based on (10.1), (10.4) and (10.5), (10.6) can be rewrite all in terms of phase a
components

I a = I a0 + I a1 + I a2 ⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I a0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
I b = I a0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a2 (10.7)
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I a1 ⎥ (10.8)

I c = I a0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a2 ⎣⎢ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a2 ⎥⎦

9
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
Equation 10.8 can be written as: 

I abc = AI 012
a
(10.9)

Where A is known as symmetrical components transformation matrix, 
I abc
which transforms phasor currents          into components currents  I 012
a
and 
⎡1 1 1 ⎤
A = ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ (10 10)
(10.10)

⎣⎢1 a a ⎥⎦
2

Solving (10.9) for the symmetrical components of currents:

I 012
a = A − I abc (10.11)

The inverse of A is given by: ⎡1 1 1⎤
A − = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥
1 (10 12)
(10.12)
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦
10
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
From (10.10) and (10.12), we conclude that
1
A − = A* (10.13)
3

Substituting for A‐1 in (10.11), we have: 

Substituting for A in (10.11), we have:
⎡ I a0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡I a ⎤
⎢ 1⎥ 1⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I a ⎥ = 3 ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢ I b ⎥ (10.14)
⎢ I a2 ⎥ ⎢
⎣1 a 2
a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

or in component form, the symmetrical components are:  
1
I a0 = ( I a + I b + I c )
3
1 (10.15)
I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
3
1
I a2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
3
11
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
Similar expressions exists for voltage:
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2
Vb = Va0 + a 2Va1 + aVa2 (10.16) V abc = AVa012 (10.17)
Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a 2Va2

The symmetrical components in terms of unbalanced voltages are:
1
Va0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
Va1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc ) (10.18) Va012 = A − V abc (10.19)
3
1
Va2 = (Va + a 2Vb + aVc )
3

12
Symmetrical Components
y p __________
The apparent power may also be expressed in terms of the symmetrical  
components.
components

S ( 3φ ) = V abc T
I abc *
(10.20)

Substituting (10.9) and (10.17) in (10.20), we obtain: 

S ( 3φ ) = ( AVa012 )T ( AI 012
a )
*

(10.21)
=V 012T
a A AI T * 012*
a

A = A, A A = 3
T T *
Since                                      complex power becomes
S ( 3φ ) = 3( V 012 I 012 )
T *

= 3Va0 I 0a + 3Va1I1a + 3Va2 I 2a

* * *
(10.22)

Total power for unbalance 3‐phase system can be obtained from the sum of 
Total power for unbalance 3 phase system can be obtained from the sum of
symmetrical components powers. 
13
Example 1
p _______________________
One conductor of a three‐phase line is open. The current flowing to delta‐
connected load through line a is 10 A. A With the current in line a as
reference and assuming that line c is open, find the symmetrical
components of the line currents.

1
I a = 10∠0° A I a0 = ( I a + I b + I c )
a 3
1
I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
3
1
I b = 10∠180° A I a2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
b 3

Ic = 0 A
c

14
Solution________________________
The line current are:

I a = 10∠0° I b = 10∠180° Ic = 0 1
I a0 = ( I a + I b + I c )
3
From (10.15): 1
I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
1 3
0 Sequence I a( 0 ) = (10∠0° + 10∠180° + 0) = 0 1
3 I a2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
1 3
I a(1) = (10∠0° + 10∠(180° + 120°) + 0)
+ Sequence 3
= 5 − j 2.89 = 5.78∠ − 30° A

1
I a( 2 ) = (10∠0° + 10∠(180° + 240°) + 0)
‐ Sequence 3
= 5 + j 2.89 = 5.78∠30° A

I (0)
=0 I c( 0 ) = 0
From (10.4) b

I b(1) = 5.78∠ − 150 ° A I c(1) = 5.78∠90 ° A

I c( 2 ) = 5.78∠ − 90° A
I ( 2)
b = 5.78∠150° A
15
Example 2
p _______________________

16
Exercise 1_______________________
Show that :
(1 + a)
(a) = 1∠120°
(1 + a )
2

(1 − a)) 2
(b) = 3∠ − 180°
(1 + a) 2

17
Exercise 2_______________________
Obtain the symmetrical components for the set of unbalanced voltages 
V a = 300 ∠ − 120 °, Vb = 200 ∠ 90 °, Vc = 100 ∠ − 30 °
1
Va0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
V 012 = 3
42 .2650 ∠ − 120 ° 1
Va1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc )
193 .1852 ∠ − 135 ° 3
1
86 .9473 ∠ − 84 .8961 ° Va2 = (Va + a 2Vb + aVc )
3
The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced three‐phase
The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced three phase currents are
currents are
I a0 = 3∠ − 30 °, I a1 = 5∠90 °, I a2 = 4∠30 °

Obtain the original unbalanced phasors.
I a = I a0 + I a1 + I a2
Iabc =
I b = I a0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a2
8 .1854 ∠ 42 .2163 °
4 ∠ − 30 ° I c = I a0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a2
8 .1854 ∠ − 102 .2163 °

18
Exercise 3_______________________
The line‐to‐line voltages in an unbalanced three‐phase supply are 
Vab = 1000 ∠ 0 °, Vbc = 866 .0254 ∠ − 150 °, Vca = 500 ∠120 °

Determine the symmetrical components for line and phase voltages, then find the 
phase voltages Van, Vbn, and Vcn.

VL 012 = Va 012 = Vabc =

0 .0 ∠ 30 ° 0 .0 ∠ 0 ° 440 .9586 ∠ − 19 .1066 °
763 .7626 ∠ − 10 .8934 ° 440 .9586 ∠ − 40 .8934 ° 600 .9252 ∠ − 166 .1021 °
288 .6751 ∠ 30 ° 166 .6667 ∠ 60 ° 333 .3333 ∠ 60 °

19
 Sequence Impedance
q p ______________
• The impedance of an equipment or component to the
current of different sequences.

• positive‐sequence
iti i
impedance
d (Z1):
) Impedance
I d th t
that
causes a positive‐sequence current to flow

• negative‐sequence impedance (Z2): Impedance that

causes a negative‐sequence current to flow

• zero‐sequence impedance (Z0): Impedance that causes

a zero‐sequence current to flow

20
Sequence Impedance of Y‐Connected Load
q p
Line to ground voltages are:
Va = Z s I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Z n I n
Vb = Z m I a + Z s I b + Z m I c + Z n I n (10.23)

Vc = Z m I a + Z m I b + + Z s I c + Z n I n
Kirchhoff’ current law:
In = Ia + Ib + Ic (10.24)

Substituting In into (10.23):
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡( Z s + Z n ) Z m + Z n Zm + Zn ⎤ ⎡I a ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ Z + Z ( Z + Z ) Z + Z ⎥ ⎢I ⎥ (10 25)
(10.25)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
b m n s n m n ⎥⎢ b⎥
⎣⎢Vc ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ Z m + Z n Z m + Z n ( Z s + Z n )⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ I c ⎥⎦

V abc = Z abc I abc (10.26)

21
Sequence Impedance of Y‐Connected Load
q p
⎡( Z s + Z n ) Z m + Z n Zm + Zn ⎤
Z abc = ⎢⎢ Z m + Z n ( Z s + Z n ) Z m + Z n ⎥⎥ (10 27)
(10.27)
⎢⎣ Z m + Z n Z m + Z n ( Z s + Z n )⎥⎦

Writing Vabc and Iabc in terms of their symmetrical components: 

AVa012 = Z abc AI 012
a (10.28)
Multiplying (10.28) by A‐1 : 
Va012 = ( A − Z abc A )I 012
a
(10.29)
=Z I012 012
a

where  Z 012 = A − Z abc A

(10.30)

Substituting for Zabc, A and A‐1 from (10.27), (10.10) and (10.12): 

⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡( Z s + Z n ) Z m + Z n Z m + Z n ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
1⎢ (10.31)
Z 012 = ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ Z m + Z n ( Z s + Z n ) Z m + Z n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ Z m + Z n Z m + Z n ( Z s + Z n )⎦⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦

22
Sequence Impedance of Y‐Connected Load
q p
Performing the multiplication in (10.31): 

⎡( Z s + 3Z n + 2 Z m ) 0 0 ⎤
Z 012 ⎢
=⎢ 0 (Z s − Z m ) 0 ⎥ (10.32)
⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 ( Z s − Z m )⎥⎦

When there is no mutual coupling, Zm = 0, and the impedance matrix becomes

⎡ ( Z s + 3Z n ) 0 0 ⎤
Z 012 = ⎢⎢ 0 (Z s ) 0 ⎥⎥ (10.33)
⎣⎢ 0 0 ( Z s )⎥⎦

23
Sequence Impedance of Transmission Lines
q p

For sequence impedance transmission line, Z1 = Z2, whereas Z0 is different

and larger approximately 3 times than positive and negative sequence.

S
Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machine
I d fS h M hi
The positive-sequence generator impedance is the value found when positive-
sequence
q current flows from the action of an imposed
p positive-sequence
p q set of
voltages.

The negative-sequence reactance is close to the positive-sequence

substransient reactance,
reactance i.e
ie: X2 ≈ X" d

Zero-sequence reactance is approximated to the leakage reactance, i.e :

X 0 ≈ Xl
24
 Sequence Impedances of Transformer
q p
• Series Leakage Impedance.
– tthe magnetization current and core losses represented by the shunt branch 
e ag et at o cu e t a d co e osses ep ese ted by t e s u t b a c
are neglected (they represent only 1% of the total load current)
– the transformer is modeled with the equivalent series leakage impedance
• Since transformer is a static device, the leakage impedance will not change 
if the phase sequence is changed
if the phase sequence is changed. 
• Therefore, the positive and negative sequence impedance are the same; 
Z0 = Z1 = Z2 = Zl
• Wiring connection always cause a phase shift. In Y‐Delta or Delta‐Y 
transformer:
– Positive Sequence rotates by a +30 degrees from HV to LV side 
– Negative Sequence rotates by a ‐30 degrees from HV to LV side 
– Zero Sequence does not rotate
Zero Sequence does not rotate
• The equivalent circuit for zero‐sequence impedance depends on the 
winding connections and also upon whether or not the neutrals are 
grounded.

25
Sequence Impedances of Transformer
q p
Connection diagram Zero‐sequence circuit

Figure (a)

Figure (b)
g ( )

Figure (c)
Figure (c)

Figure (d)
Figure (d)

Figure (e)
Figure (e)

26
Sequence Impedances of Transformer
q p
Description of Zero sequence Equivalent Circuit

(a) Y‐Y connections with both neutrals grounded – We know that the zero sequence current
equals the sum of phase currents. Since both neutrals are grounded, there is a path for the zero
sequence current to flow in the primary and secondary, and the transformer exhibits the
equivalent leakage impedance per phase as shown in Fig. (a).

( ) Y‐Y connections with p

(b) primaryy the neutral ggrounded – The p
primaryy neutral is ggrounded,, but
since the secondary neutral is isolated, the secondary phase current must sum up to zero. This
means that the zero‐sequence current in the secondary is zero. Consequently, the zero
sequence current in the primary is zero, reflecting infinite impedance or an open circuit as
shown in Fig.
g ((b).
)

27
Sequence Impedances of Transformer
q p
c) Y‐Δ with grounded neutral – in this configuration, the primary currents can
flow because the zero‐sequence circulating current in the Δ‐connected
secondaryy and a gground return p
path for the Y‐connected p
primary.
y Note that no
zero‐sequence current can leave the Δ terminals, thus there is an isolation
between the primary and secondary sides as shown in figure (c)

d) Y‐Δ
Y Δ connection
ti withith isolated
i l t d neutral
t l – in
i this
thi configuration,
fi ti b
because th
the
neutral is isolated, zero sequence current cannot flow and the equivalent
circuit reflects an infinite impedance or an open as shown in figure (d)

e) Δ‐Δ connection – in this configuration, zero‐sequence currents circulate in

the Δ‐connected windings, but no currents can leave the Δ terminals, and the
equivalent circuit is as shown in figure (e)

Notice that the neutral impedance plays an important part in the equivalent
circuit. When the neutral is grounded through an impedance Zn, because
In=3Io, in the equivalent circuit, the neutral impedance appears as 3Zn in the
path of Io.

28
Sequence Impedances of a Loaded Generator
q p

A synchronous machine generates balanced three‐phase internal voltages and is 
represented as a positive‐sequence set of phasors

⎡1⎤
(10.44)
E abc = ⎢⎢a 2 ⎥⎥ Ea
⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦

29
Sequence Impedances of a Loaded Generator
q p
The machine is supplying a three‐phase balanced load. Applying kirchhoff’s voltage 
law to each phase we obtain:

Va = Ea − Z s I a − Z n I n
Vb = Eb − Z s I b − Z n I n (10.45)
Vc = Ec − Z s I c − Z n I n

Substituting for In = Ia + Ib + Ic into (10.45):

⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ E a ⎤ ⎡( Z s + Z n ) Zn Z n ⎤ ⎡I a ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ E ⎥ − ⎢ Z ( Z + Z ) Z ⎥ ⎢I ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
b b n s n n ⎥⎢ b⎥ (10.46)
⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Ec ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z n Zn ( Z s + Z n ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦

In compact form: V abc = E abc − Z abc I abc (10.47)

30
Sequence Impedances of a Loaded Generator
q p
Transforming the terminal voltages and currents phasors into their symmetrical 
components:

AVa012 = AE 012
a −Z
abc
AI 012
a (10.48)

Multiplying (10.48) by A‐1:
− abc
Va012 = E 012
a − (A Z A)I 012
a
(10.49)
= E 012
a −Z
012 012
Ia

Where:
h ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡( Z s + Z n ) Zn Z n ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
= ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ Z n Z n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥
1
Z 012 (Z s + Z n ) (10.50)
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z n Zn ( Z s + Z n )⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦

Performing the above multiplication:
⎡( Z s + 3Z n ) 0 0 ⎤ ⎡Z 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ 0
Z 012 0 Zs Z1 0⎥
(10.51)
⎢⎣ 0 0 Z s ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦

31
Sequence Impedances of a Loaded Generator
q p
Since the generated emf is balanced, there is only positive‐sequence voltage, i.e:
⎡0⎤
E 012
a = ⎢⎢ Ea ⎥⎥ (10 52)
(10.52)
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

012
Ea Z 012
Substituting for         and           in (10.49):

⎡V ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡Z
Va0 = 0 − Z 0 I a0
a
0 0
0 0 ⎤ ⎡I 0
a
⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ Va1 = Ea − Z 1 I a1 (
(10.54)
)
⎥ = ⎢ Ea ⎥ − ⎢ 0
1
⎢Va Z1 0 ⎥ ⎢I 1
a ⎥ (10.53) or
⎢V 2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎦⎥ ⎢ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ I 2 ⎥ Va2 = 0 − Z 2 I a2
⎣ a ⎦ ⎣ a ⎦

32
 Sequence Impedances of a Loaded Generator
q p
The three equations in (10.54) can be represented by the three equivalent 
sequence networks: 

• Important observations:
– The three sequences are independent. 
– The positive‐sequence network is the same as the one‐line diagram used in 
Th ii ki h h li di di
studying balance three‐phase currents and voltages.
– Only the positive‐sequence network has a source and no voltage source for 
other sequences.
– The neutral of the system is the reference for positive‐
h l f h h f f and negative‐sequence 
d
networks, but ground is the reference for zero‐sequence networks. Thus, zero 
sequence current can only flow if the circuit from the system neutrals to 
ground is complete.
– The grounding impedance is reflected in the zero sequence network as 3Zn
The grounding impedance is reflected in the zero sequence network as 3Zn
– The three‐sequence systems can be solved separately on a per phase basis. 
The phase currents and voltages can then be determined by superposing their 
33
symmetrical components of current and voltage respectively. 
Single Line‐To‐Ground Fault
g
Three‐phase generator with neutral grounded through impedance Zn and SLGF 
occurs at phase a through impedance Zf .

Assuming the generator is initially on no‐load, the boundary conditions at the 
fault point are:
Va = Z f I a (10.55)

Ib = Ic = 0 (10.56)
34
Single Line‐To‐Ground Fault
g
Substituting for Ib = Ic = 0, the symmetrical components of currents from (10.14) 
are:

⎡ I a0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡I a ⎤
⎢ 1⎥ 1⎢
⎢ I a ⎥ = 3 ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (10.57)
⎢ I a2 ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

From the above equation, we find that: Va0 = 0 − Z 0 I a0
1 (10 58) V 1 = E − Z 1 I 1
(10.58)
I a0 = I a1 = I a2 = Ia a a a
3
Va2 = 0 − Z 2 I a2
Phase a voltage in terms of symmetrical components is :
V a = V a0 + V a1 + V a2 (10.59)
Substituti ng Va0 , Va1and Va2 from (10.54) and noting I a0 = I a1 = I a2 :

V a = E a − ( Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 ) I a0 (10. 60)

35
Single Line‐To‐Ground Fault
g
Where Z 0 = Z s + 3Z n . Substituti ng for Va from (10.55), and noting I a = 3I a0 , we get :

3Z f I a0 = E a − ( Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 ) I a0 (10 61)
(10.61)

or

Ea (10.62)
I = 0
0

Z + Z 1 + Z 2 + 3Z f
a

The fault current is
h f l

3E a (10.63)
I a = 3I a0 =
Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 + 3Z f

In order to obtain symmetrical voltage at the point of fault Equation, (10.63) is 
substituted into Eq. (10.54) 

36
Single Line‐To‐Ground Fault
g
Eq. (10.58) and (10.62) can be represented by connecting the sequence 
networks in series as shown in the following figure. 

1 Ea
I a0 = I a1 = I a2 = Ia (10.58) I a0 = (10.62)
3 Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 + 3Z f

37
Line‐To‐Line Fault
Three‐phase generator with a fault through an impedance Zf between phase b
and c.
Ia=0
0

Zs
Ea Va
Eb N

Zs Zs
Ec Ib

Zf Vb
Ic
Vc

Assuming the generator is initially on no‐load, the boundary conditions at the 
fault point are:

Vb − Vc = Z f I b (10.64) Ia = 0 (10.66)
Ib + Ic = 0 (10.65)
38
Line‐To‐Line Fault
Substituting for Ia = 0, and Ic = ‐Ib, the symmetrical components of the currents 
from (10.14) are:
from (10.14) are:

⎡ I a0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ 1⎥ 1⎢
⎢ I a ⎥ = 3 ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I b ⎥⎥ (10.67)
⎢ 2⎥ ⎣⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− I b ⎥⎦
⎣I a ⎦

From the above equation we find that:

From the above equation, we find that:

I a0 = 0 (10.68)

1 (10 69)
(10.69)
I a1 = (a − a 2 ) I b
3
(10.70)
1
I a2 = (a 2 − a) I b
3

39
Line‐To‐Line Fault
Also, from (10.69) and (10.70), we note that:
I a1 = − I a2 (10 71)
(10.71)

From (10.16), we have: Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb = Va0 + a 2Va1 + aVa2 (10.16)
Vb − Vc = (Va0 + a 2Va1 + aV
Va2 ) − (Va0 + aV
Va1 + a 2Va2 )
Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a 2Va2
= ( a 2 − a )(Va1 − Va2 )
(10.72)
= Z f Ib
Va0 = 0 − Z 0 I a0
Substituti ng for Va1 and Va2 from (10.54) and noting I a2 = − I a1 , we get :
Va1 = Ea − Z 1 I a1 (10.54)
(a 2 − a)[ E a − ( Z 1 + Z 2 ) I a1 ] = Z f I b (10.73)
Va2 = 0 − Z 2 I a2
Substituti ng for I b from (10.69), we get :
1
3I a1 I a1 = (a − a 2 ) I b (10.69)
Ea − (Z + Z ) I a = Z f
1 2 1 (10.74) 3
( a − a 2 )( a 2 − a)

40
Line‐To‐Line Fault

Since (a − a 2 )(a 2 − a) = 3, solving for I a1 results in :

Ea (10.75)
I a1 =
(Z 1 + Z 2 + Z f )

The phase currents are

⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥
(10 76)
(10.76)
⎢ b⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ I c ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− I a1 ⎥⎦

The fault current is

The fault current is

I b = − I c = ( a 2 − a ) I a1 (10.77) or I b = − j 3I a1 (10.78)

41
Line‐To‐Line Fault

Eq. (10.71) and (10.75) can be represented by connecting the positive and negative –
sequence networks as shown in the following figure. 

I a1 = − I a2 Ea
I a1 =
(Z 1 + Z 2 + Z f )

42
Double Line‐To‐Ground Fault
Figure 10.14 shows a three‐phase generator with a fault on phases b  and c 
through an impedance Zf to ground. Assuming the generator is initially on no‐
load the boundary conditions at the fault point are
load, the boundary conditions at the fault point are
Vb = Vc = Z f ( I b + I c ) (10.79)
I a = I a0 + I a1 + I a2 = 0 (10.80)

From (10.16), the phase voltages Vb and Vc are

Figure 10 14
Figure 10.14
Double line‐to‐ground fault

43
Double Line‐To‐Ground Fault
Vb = Va0 + a 2Va1 + aVa2 (10.81)
Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a 2Va2 (10 82)
(10.82)

SinceVb = Vc , from above we note that

Va1 = Va2 (
(10.83)
)

Substituting for the symmetrical components of current in (10.79), we get

V( b ) = Z f ( I a0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a2 + I a0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a2 )
= Z f ( 2 I a0 − I a1 − I a2 )

= 3 Z f I a0 (10.84)

44
Substituti ngg for Vb from ((10.84)) and for Va2 from ((10.83)) into ((10.81),
), we have :
3Z f I a0 = Va0 + (a 2 + a )Va1
= Va0 − Va1 (10.85)
Substituti ng for the symmetrica l components of voltage from (10.54) into (10.85)
and solving for I a0 , we get :

E a − Z 1 I a1
I =− 0
0
(10 86)
(10.86)
( Z + 3Z f )
a

Also, substituting for the symmetrical components of voltage in (10.83), we obtain

E a − Z 1 I a1 (10 87)
(10.87)
I =−
2
a
Z2
Substituti ng for I a0 and I 2a into (10.80) and solving for I a1 , we get :
Ea
I a1 = (10.88)
Z ( Z 0 + 3Z f )
2

Z +
1

Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f

45
Equation (10.86) - (10.88) can be represente d by connecting the positive - sequence
impedance in series with the paralel combinatio n of the negative - sequence
and zero - sequence networks as shown in the equivalent circuit of figure 10.15.
The value of I1a found from (10.86) is substitute d in (10.86) and (10.87),
and I a0 and I a2 are found.
found The phase current are then found from (10.8).
(10 8)
Finally, the fault current is obtained from

I f = I b + I c = 3I a0 ((10.89))

Figure 10.15 Sequence network connection for double line‐to‐ground fault

46
EXAMPLE
The one-line diagram of a simple power system is show in Figure 10.16.
10 16 The neutral of each
generator is grounded through a current-limiting reactor of 0.25/3 per unit on a 100-MVA
base. The system data expressed in per unit on a common 100-mva base tabulated below. The
generators are running on no-load at their rated voltage and rated frequency with their emfs in
phase.
phase
Determine the fault current for the following faults
a. A balaced three-phase fault at bus 3 through a fault impedance Z f = j 0.1 per unit
b. A single line-to-ground fault at bus 3 through a fault impedance Z f = j 0.1 per unit
c A line-to-line fault at bus 3 through a fault impedance Z f = j 0.1
c. 0 1 per unit
d. A double line-to-ground fault at bus 3 through a fault impedance Z f = j 0.1 per unit

Item Base Rated X1 X2 X0

MVA Voltage
G1 100 20-kV 0.15 0.15 0.05
G2 100 20 kV 0.15 0.15 0.05
T1 100 20/220 kV 0.10 0.10 0.10
T2 100 20/220 kV 0.10 0.10 0.10
L12 100 220 kV 0.125 0.125 0.30
L13 100 220 kV 0.15 0,15 0.35
L23 100 220 kV 0 25
0.25 0 25
0.25 0 7125
0.7125

47
 Figure 10.16
10 16

Fault

Item Base Rated X1 X2 X0

MVA Voltage
G1 100 20-kV 0.15 0.15 0.05
G2 100 20 kV 0 15
0.15 0 15
0.15 0 05
0.05
T1 100 20/220 kV 0.10 0.10 0.10
T2 100 20/220 kV 0.10 0.10 0.10
L12 100 220 kV 0.125 0.125 0.30
L13 100 220 kV 0.15 0,15 0.35
L23 100 220 kV 0.25 0.25 0.7125
48
To find Thevenin impedance viewed from the faulted bus (bus 3), we convert the delta
formed by buses 123 to an equivalent Y as shown below

Fig. 10.17Positive-sequence impedance

( j 0.125)( j 0.15)
Z 1S = = j 0.0357143 ( j 0.125)( j 0.25)
j 0.525 Z 2S = = j 0.0595238
j 0.525
( j 0.15)( j 0.25)
Z 3S = = j 0.0714286
j 0.525

49
 ( j 0 .2857143 )( j 0.3095238 )
1
Z 33 = + j 0 .0714286
j 0.5952381
= j 0.22

50
To find thevenin impedance viewed from the faulted bus (bus 3), we convert the 
delta formed by buses 123 to an equivalent Y as shown in figure 10.19(b)

( j 0.30)( j 0.35)
Z 1S = = j 0.0770642 j0.077064
j1.3625
( j 0.30)( j 0.7125)
Z 2S = = j 0.1568807
j1.3625
( j 0.35)( j 0.7125)
Z 3S = = j 0.1830257
j1.3625

Fig. 10.19Zero-sequence impedance

51
Combining the parallel branches, the zero‐sequence thevenin
g p q impedance is
p

( j 0.4770642 )( j 0.2568807 )
Z 330 = + j 0.1830275
j 0.7339449
= j 0.35

j0.077064

So, the zero‐sequence impedance diagram is show in fig. 10.20

Fig. 10.20 
Zero‐sequence network 52
(a) Balanced three‐phase fault at bus 3
Assuming the no‐load generated emfs are equal to 1.0 per unit, the fault 
current is

V3a( 0) 1.0
I 3 (F) = = = -j3.125
j3 125 pu = 820.1
820 1∠ - 90° A
Z133 + Z f j0.22 + j 0.1

(b) Single line‐to ground fault at bus 3
F
From (10.62), the sequence component of the fault current are
(10 62) th t f th f lt t
V3a( 0) 1.0
I 30 = I13 = I 32 = = = -j0.9174 pu
Z133 + Z 33
2
+ Z 33
0
+ 3Z f j0.22 + j0.22 + j 0.35 + 3(j0.1)

The fault current is :

⎡ I 3a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ I 30 ⎤ ⎡3I 30 ⎤ ⎡− j 2.7523⎤
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ ⎢ 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
I
⎢ 3⎥ ⎢ = 1 a 2
a ⎥⎥ I =
⎢ 3⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 = 0 ⎥ pu
⎥
⎢ I 3c ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ I 3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢⎣
0
0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

53
(c) Line‐to Line fault at bus 3
The zero‐sequence component of current is zero, i.e.,
I 30 = 0
The positive‐and negative‐sequence components of the fault current are
V3a( 0) 1.0
I13 = −I 32 = = = -j1.8519 pu
Z133 + Z 33
2
+ Z 33
0
+ Zf j0.22 + j0.22 + j0.1

The fault current is
⎡ I 3a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ b⎥ ⎢
I
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
3 = 1 a 2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢− j1.8519⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢− 3.2075⎥⎥ pu
⎢ c⎥
⎣ I 3 ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− j1.8519⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 3.2075⎥⎦

(d) Double Line‐to Line‐fault at bus 3
The positive‐sequence component of the fault current is
V3a( 0) 1.0
I =
1
= = -j2.6017 pu
3 2
Z 33 0
( Z 33 + 3Z f ) j0.22 (j0.35 + j0.3)
Z + 2
1 j0.22 +
Z 33 + Z 33
33 0
+ 3Z f ) j0.22 + j0.35 + j0.3

54
The negative‐sequence component of current is :
V3a( 0) − Z133 I133 1.0 − ( j 0.22)(− j 2.6017)
I 32 = − 2
=− = j1.9438 pu
Z 33 j0.22

Th
The zero‐sequence component of current is:
t f ti

V3a( 0 ) − Z133 I133 1.0 − ( j 0.22)(− j 2.6017)

I 30 = − =− = j0.6579 pu
0
Z 33 + 3Z f j0 35 + j0.3
j0.35 j0 3
And the phase currents are :
⎡ I 3a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ j 0.6579 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ b⎥ ⎢
I
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
3 = 1 a 2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢− j 2.6017 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢4.058∠165.93°⎥⎥ pu
⎢ I 3c ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ j1.9438 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4.058∠14.07° ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
And the fault currents is:

I 3 ( F ) = I 3b + I 3c = 1.9732∠90°

55
UNBALANCED FAULT ANALYSIS USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

Single Line‐to‐Ground Fault Using Zbus

Vk (0)
I =I =I = 1
0 1 2 (10.90)
Z kk + Z kk2 + Z kk0 + 3Z f
k k k

Where Z1kk , Z 2kk and Z okk are the diagonal elements in the k axis of the correspond ing
bus impedance matrix and Vk (0)is the prefault voltage at bus k.
The fault phase current is :

I kabc = A I k
012 (10.91)

Line‐to‐Line Fault Using Zbus

I k0 = 0 (10.92)
Vk (0)
I k1 = − I k2 = (10.93)
Z kk1 + Z kk2 + Z f

56
Double Line‐to‐Ground Fault Using Zbus

Vk (0)
I k1 = (10.94)
Z kk2 ( Z kk0 + 3Z f )
Z kk1 +
Z kk2 + Z kk0 + 3Z f

Vk (0) − Z kk1 I k1
I =−
2
k (10.95)
Z kk2

Vk (0) − Z kk1 I k1
I =−
0
(10.96)
Z kk0 + 3Z f
k

Where Z1kk , and Z 2kk , and Z okk are the diagonal elements in the k axis of the correspond ing
bus impedance
p matrix. The pphase currents are obtained from ((10.91),
), and the result current is

I k ( F ) = I kb + I kC (10.97)

57