This article was downloaded by: [University of York]

On: 16 October 2014, At: 01:53

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Africa Education Review

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/raer20

The use of assessment in the

development of higher-order thinking
skills
a
Geesje van den Berg
a
School of Education , University of South Africa , E-mail:
Published online: 02 Jun 2008.

To cite this article: Geesje van den Berg (2004) The use of assessment in the development of higher-
order thinking skills, Africa Education Review, 1:2, 279-294, DOI: 10.1080/18146620408566285

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18146620408566285

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 The use of assessment in the
development of higher-order
thinking skills
Geesje van den Berg
School of Education
University of South Africa
vdberg@unisa.ac.za.
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

Abstract
In an increasingly complex and specialised society, it is imperative that individuals think
critically and creatively. This kind of thinking is also required to achieve the critical
outcomes as stated in the Revised National Curriculum Statement for South Africa. It
seems, however, that higher-order thinking is unlikely to occur unless learners are
engaged in activities that deliberately promote this kind of thinking. They should also be
guided on how to engage in these complex thinking tasks. The aim of this article is to
reflect on the use of assessment to promote learners' higher-order thinking skills. The
role of assessment has implications for the nature of teacher training programmes. If
lecturers model the way assessment can be done to develop higher-order thinking skills,
it is hoped that teachers will have little difficulty in adapting it to their unique classroom
situations. Examples from language modules of an in-service teacher training
programme are used to show how assessment can be implemented to help learners
develop higher-order thinking skills within the framework of outcomes-based education
and the Revised National Curriculum Statement.
Keywords: assessment, higher-order thinking skills, outcomes-based education,
in-service teacher training, language teaching

1. Introduction
In 2004 South Africans celebrated the tenth anniversary of a democratic South Africa.
Since 1994, transformation has become visible on every level of South African society,
including education. Major changes in the education system have been implemented by
the new democratic government. However, these changes in education are not unique to
© Unisa Press ISSN 1814-6627 Africa Education Review 1 (2) 2004 pp. 279-294 279
 Geesje van den Berg

South Africa. Within the last two decades, Canada, England, Japan, Australia, New
Zealand and the United States of America have also launched large-scale transformation
of their education systems. Educationists, policy makers and business leaders
throughout the world ascribe the educational transformation to various factors. The
most prominent are the global economy, technological inventions and changing
demands of the workplace (Dreyer 2000, 266). This new competitive environment
brings with it challenges concerning education and training. The skills of knowing how
to work with constantly changing data, thinking critically and creatively, recognising
how to work together on projects, tolerating ambiguity and persisting in the face of
pressure are just a few of the new competencies that teachers need to help learners to
achieve (Department of Education 1998, ch 2, 3-6). For the purpose of this article,
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

learners refers to schoolchildren, while students refers to adult learners in higher

education institutions.
To respond to, and act on, the above-mentioned challenges in a South African
context, outcomes-based education (OBE) and its South African version, Curriculum
2005 (Department of Education 1995) and the Revised National Curriculum Statement
(Department of Education 2002a) were implemented.
This approach, which offers innovative ways of learning and teaching, required a
new assessment policy. In the Revised National Curriculum Statement, assessment is
seen as a continuous, planned process of gathering information about the performance
of learners measured against the assessment standards of the learning outcomes of the
different learning areas (Department of Education 2002b, 113). Vandeyar and Killen
(2003, 130) refer to this kind of assessment as standards-referenced assessment.
If one examines the grade-specific assessment standards of, for example, the
languages learning area, it becomes clear that most of them do not necessarily promote
higher-order thinking. For example, instructional verbs frequently used in the
assessment standards which indicate what learners should know and be able to do are
understand, use, read, write and interact. How can teachers contribute to the
development of learners' higher-order thinking skills in order for them to face modern
challenges? How can assessment be designed to ensure that learners develop these
skills? Finally, how can teacher training programmes be structured to model this kind of
assessment?
In this article, the primary aim is to investigate how assessment can be used to
develop learners' higher-order thinking skills. This is done by discussing the theory and
the practice of assessment as described in the relevant literature and then offering
practical examples from the researcher's own work in this area. The role of assessment
has implications for the nature of teacher training programmes. If lecturers model the
way assessment can be used to develop higher-order thinking skills, it is hoped that
teachers will have little difficulty in adapting it to their unique classroom situations. In
this article, language modules of an in-service teacher training programme are used to
illustrate how teachers can continuously assess their learners and thereby develop their
higher-order thinking skills. According to O'Tuel and Bullard (1993, 1), higher-order
280
 The use of a s s e s s m e n t in the d e v e l o p m e n t of higher-order thinking skills

thinking refers to complex processes such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Since
assessment has a developmental role to play in the learning process (Puhl 1997), the
development of higher-order thinking skills should be part of this process. It is argued
that knowledge and skills gained in programmes like the one discussed in this article,
should provide teachers with a better understanding of their own assessment practices.

2. Assessment as a tool to develop higher-order thinking skills

When assessment is done, it should meet the requirements of current assessment
policies. The Department of Education (2002b, 115) gives the following characteristics
of assessment:
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

• It takes place over a period of time and is continuous. Learning is assessed regularly
and the records of learners' progress are updated throughout the year.
• Assessment supports the growth and development of learners. Learners become
active participants in learning and assessment, understand the criteria that are used for
assessment activities, are involved in self-evaluation, set individual targets for
themselves, reflect on their learning and thereby experience improved self-esteem.
• Assessment provides feedback from learning to teaching. Feedback is a crucial
element in formative assessment. Methods of feedback include appropriate
questioning, focusing the teacher's oral and written comments on what was intended
to be achieved by an assessment activity, and encouragement to a learner.
• It allows for integrated assessment. This may include assessing a number of related
learning outcomes within a single activity and combining a number of different
assessment methods. Competence in particular learning outcomes can be demon-
strated in many different ways. Thus a variety of assessment methods and
opportunities must be provided by means of which learners can demonstrate their
ability.
• Assessment uses strategies that cater for a variety of learner needs (e.g. language,
physical, psychological, emotional and cultural). Continuous assessment allows
teachers to be sensitive to learners with special educational needs and to overcome
barriers in learning through flexible approaches. In any group of learners, there are
different rates and styles of learning. All learners do not need to be assessed at the
same time and in the same away.
• It allows for summative assessment. The accumulation of the results of continuous
assessment activities provides an overall picture of a learner's progress at a given
time. Summative assessment needs to be planned carefully from the beginning of the
year so as to include a variety of assessment strategies, such as exercises, tasks,
projects, and school and class tests, which will provide learners with a range of
opportunities to show what they have learnt and how they have grown in their
learning.
281
 Geesje van den Berg

A review of the literature on assessment in OBE (Pahad 1997; Puhl 1997;

Department of Education 2002b) indicates that one can distinguish between the
following kinds of assessment. All of them should be dealt with in the classroom to
ensure that assessment is an ongoing process:
• baseline assessment
• formative assessment
• summative assessment
• portfolio assessment
• systemic assessment.

Baseline assessment usually takes place at the beginning of a grade or phase to

Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

establish what learners already know. It helps teachers in their planning. Baseline
assessment can also be used to gather information about the nature and cause of barriers
to learning. This kind of assessment, also referred to as diagnostic assessment, should
be followed by guidance, appropriate support and intervention strategies.
Formative assessment monitors and supports the process of learning and teaching,
and is used to inform learners and teachers about learners' progress so as to improve
learning. Constructive feedback helps learners to grow. Formative assessment can also
be diagnostic in nature.
Summative assessment gives an overall picture of learners' progress at a given
time, such as at the end of a term or year. In contrast with content-based assessment, it is
not the only means of assessment. In agreement with Hancock (1994), it is argued that
tests should be used in combination with other kinds of assessment.
Portfolio assessment is done by assessing a meaningful collection of a learner's
work. A portfolio is more than a folder stuffed with a learner's papers, progress reports
and related materials. It must be a purposeful collection of a learner's work that tells the
story of his or her efforts, progress or achievement in a given area over a period of time.
A well-designed portfolio system can serve many important purposes: it can motivate
learners, it can show teachers and parents what learners know and can do, and it
encourages learners to engage in self-reflection (Dreyer 2000, 272). Perhaps the greatest
overall benefit of using portfolio assessment is that learners are taught, by example, to
become independent thinkers: in other words, it facilitates the development of their
autonomy as learners (Hancock 1994).
Systemic assessment in this context is a way of monitoring the performance of the
education system. One component of this is the assessment of learner performance in
relation to national indicators.
An overview of the different kinds of assessment indicates that assessment is
integrated with teaching and learning, and gives teachers a wider range of evidence on
which to judge if learners are making progress and becoming competent in what they
are supposed to know and be able to do. It also provides learners with expanded
opportunities to achieve set outcomes. In the real world, most people are given more
282
 The use of a s s e s s m e n t in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h e r - o r d e r t h i n k i n g skills

than one opportunity to demonstrate their competence, whether at work or in a social

setting. So, it makes sense to provide similar opportunities for learners (Pahad 1997, 6).
According to Masters and Foster (1996, 8), assessment has also shifted from passing or
failing to the concept of ongoing growth. Assessment thus no longer has a judgmental
role; rather it now has a developmental role to play.
Different assessment methods should be used within the different kinds of
assessment. No single method can appraise the totality of the learner's school and
learning experience or do justice to the diversity of learners who must be accommodated
(Sanders and Horn 1995, 1). The following four methods of assessment can be used
(Gauteng Department of Education 2002, TR5):
1. self-assessment
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

2. peer assessment
3. group assessment
4. teacher assessment.

Self-assessment occurs when learners assess their own work. It gives them an
opportunity to reflect on their own progress, and to develop plans for their future
learning (O'Malley 1997, 3). Used sensitively, with more emphasis on learners' growth
and understanding of the self than on arriving at a final mark, self-assessment can
contribute to learners' ability to structure their own learning (Dreyer 2000, 273). In this
way, learners take ownership of, and responsibility for, their own learning. Although
some learners find it difficult to assess their own work, it helps them to review their
work and to produce a better product.
Peer assessment occurs when learners assess one another's work and commu-
nicate this assessment to peers. They can rate the oral and written work of their peers,
identifying areas that need to be improved as well as areas that are presented well
(O'Malley 1997, 4). Learners learn about their own learning by reflecting on the
activities of their peers. Like any other form of communication, this form of assessment
depends on the abilities of peer assessors, the topic, the guidance of the teacher and on
sensitivities involved (Puhl 1997, 8).
Groups can assess themselves or other groups in the class. Group assessment helps
learners to stay focused and to work towards achieving the set outcome(s). Assessment
can be done by completing a yes-no checklist or open-ended questions. Sometimes
during group work, peer assessment or self-assessment can also be done in an informal
way. A benefit of group assessment, as well as of self-assessment and peer assessment,
is that it can stimulate reflection and metacognition. The inclusion of metacognition
corresponds with recent research on how learners' knowledge about their own cognition
and control of their own cognition play an important role in learning (Anderson and
Krathwohl 2001,43).
Because teacher assessment is the traditional way of assessing learners, it is
probably the best known method of assessment. The teacher still has a very important
283
 Geesje van den Berg

role to play in outcomes-based assessment. Certain tasks can best be assessed by the
teacher, for example, a written piece of work or a test. Sometimes the teacher also needs
to assess work to determine what learners know, what they can do, as well as any
problem areas. Feedback is an essential part of any assessment task. All assessment
tasks, regardless of who the assessor is, should be well planned and managed by the
teacher. Because assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process, it
should always stimulate growth. Learners should also show growth in the use of higher-
order thinking skills.
The previous discussion dealt with the principles, kinds and methods of
assessment as they are seen in the current outcomes-based approach. Because
assessment is part of learning and teaching, it holds the potential of affirming higher-
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

order creative and critical thinking and it embraces not only cognitive outcomes, but
affective and behavioural outcomes as well (Puhl 1997, 3). If learners are assessed in an
ongoing way, it means that the whole range of schoolwork and homework can be
acknowledged (Dreyer 2000, 269). In contrast to traditional testing, 'students are
evaluated to show what they integrate and produce rather than on what they are able to
recall and reproduce' (Huerta-Macias 1995, 9).

3. Why teach higher-order thinking skills?

In an increasingly complex and competitive society, it is imperative that individuals
think critically and creatively - skills which require higher-order thinking. This kind of
thinking is necessary to achieve the critical outcomes as stated in the Revised National
Curriculum Statement. These outcomes describe the kind of citizen the education and
training system in South Africa should aim to produce (Department of Education 2002a,
11). If one reads the critical outcomes, it becomes clear that critical and creative thinking
are prominent in these outcomes. According to the Department of Education (2002a,
11), the critical outcomes envisage learners who will be able to
• identify and solve problems in which responses display that responsible decisions
using critical and creative thinking have been made
• work effectively with others as members of a team, group, organisation and
community
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively
• collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information
• communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the
modes of oral and/or written presentation
• use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation
284
 The use of a s s e s s m e n t in the d e v e l o p m e n t of higher-order thinking skills

The developmental outcomes envisage learners who are also able to

• reflect on and explore a variety of strategies to learn more effectively
• participate as responsible citizens in the life of local, national and global communities
• be culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts
• explore education and career opportunities
• develop entrepreneurial opportunities.

Assessment that supports and promotes critical and creative thinking should help
enable learners to achieve these outcomes. Questions that only assess learners' ability to
memorise and recall information do not show the full extent of their learning and
development. O'Tuel and Bullard (1993, 19) make the obvious, but necessary, point that
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

this is not to imply that knowledge and an understanding of different types of questions
should be avoided. Basic questions are necessary to ensure that learners know and
understand what they are learning. Unfortunately, since recall is easy to assess, teachers
may become accustomed to concentrating on this skill at the expense of higher and more
complex levels of learning. As a result, learners easily get into the habit of answering
questions which only require lower-order thinking skills. They may well see questions
about application and reflection as unfair, illegitimate or even meaningless (Black 1999,
129). To avoid this, teachers should consciously think of questions and tasks that require
learners to use higher-order thinking skills. As Killen (2002) notes, teachers should
structure learning tasks that will require learners to do much more than simply follow
routine procedures and manipulate knowledge.
The point can therefore be made that higher-order thinking is unlikely to occur
unless learners are engaged in activities that deliberately promote this kind of thinking.
They must also be guided on how to engage in these complex thinking tasks. According
to Killen (2002), there is ample research evidence to demonstrate that learners' learning
improves when they are involved in higher-order thinking. As O'Tuel and Bullard
(1993, 4) argue, higher-order thinking develops an inquisitive and positive 'can do'
attitude. The teacher plays a major role in developing this attitude by creating a thinking
environment. This can be done by giving learners the necessary support, encouraging
them without judging the results, transmitting to the learners confidence in their ability,
showing them that error-making is part of the process and, possibly most importantly,
challenging learners.
Although Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy (1956) was established long before current
assessment practices came into being, it remains a useful framework for teaching and
assessing higher-order thinking skills (Van der Horst and McDonald 2001, 8). Bloom's
taxonomy is hierarchical because the lower levels are considered inherent in the higher
levels; that is, the learners can perform the activities of the levels lower than the one on
which they are working (O'Tuel and Bullard 1993, 19). This means that learners should
have a good basic knowledge and understanding of whatever tasks they are engaged in,
before they can be engaged in tasks which require higher-order thinking skills.
285
 Geesje van den Berg

In Table 1, the levels pertaining to the cognitive domain are presented in

increasing order of intellectual demand. Although Bloom's taxonomy focuses on the
learner's cognitive domain, this domain is importantly related to the affective and
psychomotor domains (Haladyna 1997, 6). This implies that the learner is acknowl-
edged as a whole person and can be assessed when using the taxonomy. Accompanying
verbs are given for each level, which indicate possible assessment tasks that may be
given on that specific level.

Table 1: The levels of Bloom's taxonomy with accompanying verbs

Level Verbs that can be used to set tasks

Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

Knowledge Tell, list, describe, relate, locate, write, find,

(This level involves recall of specific facts
or other information)
Comprehension
(This level is the first level of understand-
ing. It applies to facts, concepts, principles
and procedures)
Application
(This level refers to the ability to use
information in new situations)
Analysis
(This level refers to the ability to break
down a whole into its component parts,
making comparisons, finding similarities
and differences between parts of a whole)
Synthesis
(This level refers to the ability to put
elements together to form a new whole,
for instance, writing an essay)
Evaluation
(This is the most complex and highest level
of cognitive thinking. The processes here
involve making judgments based on some
type of criteria)
name, state, spell, arrange, define, match,
demonstrate
Explain, outline, discuss, distinguish,
restate, translate, compare, describe,
change, construct, retell
Apply, solve, show, use, illustrate,
calculate, construct, complete, examine,
classify, develop, design, rewrite,
dramatise, predict, use
Classify, analyse, examine, compare,
contrast, investigate, categorise, identify,
explain, separate, advertise, determine,
interpret
Create, invent, compose, predict, plan,
construct, design, imagine, improve,
propose, devise, formulate, explain,
organise, plan, summarise
Select, judge, choose, debate, reflect,
verify, recommend, assess, rate, prioritise,
evaluate, determine, criticise, explain,
convince

Source: Clark (1999) (adapted)

It can be reasoned that the verbs that are used when asking questions or giving
tasks, will, to a large extent, determine at which level of thinking learners will function.
286
 The use of assessment in the development of higher-order thinking skills

OTuel and Bullard (1993, 20) argue that tasks on the upper four levels of the cognitive
domain encourage higher-order thinking. They require learners to engage in complex,
contextualised thinking in order to manipulate both information and abstract ideas in ways
that transform their meaning. They require learners to make judgments, to apply multiple
criteria in order to make those judgments and to control their own thinking. When learners
engage in higher-order thinking, they will typically be required to verify, predict, explain,
contrast, compare, prioritise, assess, convince and reflect. The precise results of these
processes are often unpredictable and there might be several acceptable answers.
To show how current assessment practices can be part of the learning process and
how they can develop learners' higher-order thinking skills, examples are taken from
language modules of the National Professional Diploma in Education (NPDE) currently
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

offered by the University of South Africa (Unisa).

4. Examples from the Unisa National Professional Diploma in

Education
The NPDE is a programme designed to empower under-qualified teachers in Southern
Africa by offering them the opportunity to upgrade to qualified teacher status (REQV 13
in terms of the Employment of Educators Act of 1998). The NPDE covers all eight
learning areas in the three phases of the general education and training band: foundation
phase, intermediate phase and senior phase. The full curriculum comprises 60 NPDE
modules of which 6 modules are about language teaching. Approximately 1 600
students are currently enrolled for one or more of the language modules.
The NPDE is unlike traditional Unisa programmes in that it requires at least ten
per cent of national learning time to be offered as direct face-to-face contact in
decentralised centres. This is done in the form of contact sessions facilitated by lecturers
and tutors. As Puntambekar and Du Boulay (1999, 246) state, one important implication
of the face-to-face support system underlines the Vygotskian concept that understanding
one's own learning is enhanced by interaction with others during learning. The social
context thus supports the individual's learning.
The NPDE is registered on level 5 of the National Qualification Framework (NQF)
and is directed at classroom-based teachers who are at the forefront of implementing
new curriculum approaches. Mothata, Van Niekerk and Mays (2003, 86) state that the
move towards outcomes-based education has, therefore, had a profound impact on the
design of the NPDE programme. The language modules are based on the outcomes-
based approach and the Revised National Curriculum Statement.
It is believed that through the approach to assessment followed in the programme,
teachers will change their assessment practice (Mothata et al. 2003, 81). If, for instance,
students are guided to engage in complex thinking tasks such as analysing, synthesising
and evaluating information, they should be able to set tasks in their classrooms that
require higher-order thinking skills.
Different kinds and methods of assessment are used so that the way the NPDE is
287
 Geesje van den Berg

delivered models the kind of assessment that students are required to use in their classrooms.
These different kinds and methods of assessment are also in line with the principles of
assessment in the Revised National Curriculum Statement as discussed earlier in this article.
The following kinds and methods of assessment are used to assess students who
are doing the NPDE.

4.1 Formative assessment

Students complete two assignments for each of the five modules taken in one year (i.e.,
ten assignments during the year). The second assignment builds on the first one. They
receive these assignments at the beginning of their academic year, and normally start
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

working on them after their first contact session in April. Both assignments should be
submitted by the end of August. Assignments count for 50 per cent of the final mark.
During contact sessions students have to discuss basic given concepts as well as
the assignments for each module. They do this in a structured way by means of tasks
they have to complete mainly in groups. In general, group discussions help them in their
preparation for the different written assessment tasks during the year.
Two excerpts from assignments in two different language modules are used to
illustrate the kinds of questions that are designed to develop higher-order thinking skills.
These assignments are based on applied competence, where students are required to use
their own classroom experience and apply their knowledge gained from the study material.

Example 1: Module NPD006-A: Introduction to the languages learning area

Assignment 1
Response to a newspaper article
Read the newspaper article entitled 'Give OBE a second chance' (annexure A) and then
answer the questions.
1. What do you think the author means by the following statement: The Revised National
Curriculum Statement could help to breathe new life into your teaching'? Answer the
question using the following statement as a basis: 'except for the critical outcomes, all
the other design features of C2005 will be phased out as the Revised National
Curriculum Statement is phased in'.
2. Do you think that the Revised National Curriculum Statement could help to breathe new
life into your language teaching? Give a reason for your answer.
3. Realising that there are differences between Curriculum 2005 in its original formulation
and the Revised National Curriculum Statement, how will these differences affect the
following aspects of your language teaching?
3.1 Outcomes for your classroom activities
3.2 Learners' activities in your classroom
3.3 Assessment in your classroom

288
 The use of assessment in the development of higher-order thinking skills

In the aforementioned questions, students are required to understand the structures

of Curriculum 2005 in its original formulation and the Revised National Curriculum
Statement before they will be able to draw comparisons (question 1). In question 2,
students have to analyse the revised curriculum to determine if it could help to breathe
new life into their language teaching. Question 3 asks students to reflect on their own
classroom practice and to explain how the revised curriculum will affect outcomes,
activities and assessment in their language teaching. In order for students to use their
higher-order thinking skills, they must have the necessary knowledge and understanding
of concepts and content dealt with in the study material.

Example 2: Module NPD014-A: Principles of learning and language teaching

Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

Assignment 2
Response to a scenario
1. (In this scenario Mrs Cele wants learners to conclude a story that she has read to them.
Her learners work individually and in groups. Mrs Cele uses the communicative
approach. Learning outcomes, activities and assessment are discussed in the
scenario.)
1.1 What are Mrs Cele's roles in this activity? Present your answer in the form of a
mind map.
1.2 What are the roles of the learners in this activity? Present your answer in the form
of a mind map.
1.3 (a) How is language taught?
(b) What kinds of activities are used?
1.4 How do you think Mrs Cele should address the fact that learners in her class learn
differently?
1.5 What do you think the goals of the approach are?
2. How do you use the communicative approach in your classroom?
3. In which areas can you still improve in using the communicative approach? Give
reasons for your answer.
4. How will this assignment help you to improve your classroom practice? Give a reason
for your answer.

Students have information on the communicative approach in their study material.

They have to make sure that they know how the communicative approach is used in
outcomes-based education before they will be able to answer the questions. In this
scenario, theory has been put into practice. Moreover, students are asked to apply their
knowledge by categorising the roles of the teacher and the learners. They also have to
determine how the communicative approach is used by Mrs Cele (question 1). In questions
2 to 4, students move from the scenario to evaluate and reflect on their own teaching.
289
 Geesje van den Berg

Two answers to question 3 are provided to show the kind of answers learners
presented:
In the grammar part, I should keep explanations and drilling short and keep it to a minimum
to give more time for activities in which learners get exercise in language usage.
I should improve on giving learners more opportunities to communicate. I also need to
improve on combining all four language skills.

Because evaluation is a complex thinking skill, students initially had difficulty

answering question 4. At first many wrote down sentences from the study material that
they considered suitable as answers. Because of guidance during contact sessions and
similar questions in subsequent assignments, learners began to find it easier to reflect on
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

their own learning. Below are three examples of answers that show their understanding
of the question:
To plan classroom activities using the communicative approach. The focus is on
communication, and grammar teaching should be done in context.
The learners must be involved in all the classroom activities. I will give them tasks and
allow them to share their ideas.
Now I know that the teacher's role is to organise and facilitate communication between the
learners and study material rather than do all the talking. I have to plan activities and
assessment to help my learners to achieve the outcomes.

4.2 Summative assessment

At the end of the academic year, students write an open-book examination for each
module. The examination builds on the two assignments. Students are required to apply
the knowledge and skills gained during the year. The examinations count half the final
mark for each module.

Example 3: Module NPD001-4: Language and learning skills

(This is a compulsory module for all first-year students. The main purpose of this
module is to develop students' own language and learning skills so that they become
more effective communicators, and to help them to become self-directed learners.)

Question 3
Read the newspaper article entitled 'Grade 3 failure sounds a warning about our schools'
before answering the questions that follow.
3.1 Draw a tree diagram to summarise the newspaper article. In your tree diagram, show
and elaborate on the main problem areas in the foundation phase as discussed in the
newspaper article.

290
 The use of assessment in the development of higher-order thinking skills

3.2 Write a formal letter to the press (approximately 200 words) in response to the
newspaper article. The content of the letter should be a concise response in which
you give your opinion of the newspaper article.
Make sure that you meet the following assessment criteria:
• The letter is about the educational issue.
• The reply is in direct response to the article that was chosen.
• The appropriate format of the letter is used.
• You have used grammar with sufficient accuracy to facilitate communication.
• You have used vocabulary that is both appropriate for the context and that conveys the
intended meaning.
• You have insight into the writer's intention.
• You have written fluently, appropriately and should be easily understood by the
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

intended audience.
• You have achieved understanding, resolution of issues and identifiable learning
through written communication.
• You have included the important points in your letter.

Question 3 requires higher-order thinking skills, because students have to

summarise the newspaper article, evaluate it and write (create) a letter to give their
opinion on the matter. In this process, students use their knowledge to build ordered
connections which lead to judgements.
Clearly stated assessment criteria guide students in the writing process. In
assessing them, they are not compared with one another, but rather are assessed
according to set criteria or standards (criterion-referenced assessment or standards-
referenced assessment). Students should be aware of these criteria - they can even be
involved in setting criteria for different tasks. This makes the process of assessment
transparent. Fair assessment is indeed based on criteria which are valid and transparent
and which applied with consistency and without discrimination.
From the examples it is clear that assessment is an integral part of the learning
process, because learners get the opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned, are
able to apply their knowledge, and are able to evaluate and reflect on issues as well as
on their own teaching. In these assignments students also have the opportunity to
identify what it is that they still need to learn. The assessment tasks enable them to
connect what is being learned to their prior knowledge.
By means of clearly stated assessment criteria and feedback by tutors and lecturers
after the marking of assignments, assessment becomes a process wherein learners
constantly have the opportunity to reflect on their own learning.

4.3 Portfolio assessment

Students have to submit a portfolio at the end of their second and final year of study. A
portfolio in this context can be described as a selection of students' own work and some
291
 Geesje van den Berg

of the work completed by their learners during the course of their two years of study.
The portfolios consist mainly of language lessons taught in the beginning, during and at
the end of the programme. It should also contain reflection on lessons, materials used
and examples of work their learners did during these lessons. Tutors have a key role to
play in advising students on how to compile their portfolios. Students are also given a
set of assessment criteria.
The portfolio assessment involves three methods of assessment
1. self-assessment
2. peer assessment
3. tutor/lecturer assessment.
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

About a third of the students had difficulty assessing their own portfolios. They
felt that the tutor should have given them more guidance. One student stated that she
had realised for the first time how her learners must feel when they have to assess their
own work. Peer assessment was easier and helped students to learn about their own
learning by reflecting on the activities of their peers.

5. Conclusion
As stated in the introduction, the main aim of this article was to investigate how
assessment can be used to develop learners' higher-order thinking skills. This was done
by first discussing the principles, kinds and methods of assessment in current education
policies in South Africa. It was found that although assessment in the Revised National
Curriculum Statement holds rich potential to develop learners' higher-order thinking
skills, teachers have to plan well and engage learners in activities that encourage and
develop this kind of thinking.
Examples from language modules of the Unisa NPDE used in this article, show
how assessment can be implemented to help students grow by improving their quality of
thinking and, therefore, their higher-order thinking skills. Verbs representing the upper
four levels of Bloom's taxonomy, as used in the examples, indicate that students had to
use their higher-order thinking skills in order to complete the assessment tasks. The
examples focused on how formative, summative and portfolio assessment are dealt with
in the programme.
A limitation of this research is that, although it is hoped that students will use the
information on the development of higher-order thinking skills and the examples from
the assessment instruments and to adapt them to their own classroom situations in order
to develop their learners' higher-order thinking skills, it has not as yet been investigated
if they actually do this. This will be a study worth undertaking. Student feedback has,
however, shown that the programme has had a profound impact on the way students
think about assessment. At the end of the 2003 academic year, Unisa NPDE students
were invited to submit an anonymous evaluation of the NPDE programme. Of the 2 318
292
 The use of assessment in the development of higher-order thinking skills

students in the programme, 707 (30.5%) submitted an evaluation form and 654 (92.5%)
of these provided an evaluation of the extent to which the assessment practice in the
NPDE programme had helped them to reflect on and improve their own assessment
practice. On a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 representing 'I have learned and changed a lot' the
weighted average was strongly positive (4,77), indicating that the programme has
succeeded in getting most students to think about how they assess their learners.

References
Anderson, L. W. and D. R. Krathwohl, eds. 2001. A taxonomy for learning, teaching and
assessing. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Black, P. 1999. Assessment, learning theories and testing systems. In Learners, learning and
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

assessment, ed. P. Murphy, 118-134. London: Paul Chapman.

Clark, D. 1999. Learning domains on Bloom's taxonomy.
http//www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html (accessed on 24 September 2001).
Department of Education 1995. White Paper on Education and Training. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
_____
. 1998. Green Paper on Further Education and Training. http://www.polity.org.za./govdocs/
green_papers/furtheredgp.htm (accessed on 19 February 2002).
_____
. 2000. Report on the review committee on Curriculum 2005. http://education.pwv.gov.za/
Policies (accessed on 19 February 2002).
_____
. 2002a. Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9: Overview. Pretoria: Govern-
ment Printer.
_____
. 2002b. Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9: Languages. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Dreyer, C. 2000. Assessment in outcomes-based education: A guide for teachers. Journal for
Language Teaching 34 (3): 266-284.
Gauteng Department of Education. 2002. Assessment for learners in the ECD/foundation phase.
Johannesburg: Government Printer.
Haladyna, T. M. 1997. Writing test items to evaluate higher-order thinking. Massachusetts: Allyn &
Bacon.
Hancock, C. R. 1994. Alternative assessment and second language study: What and why? [http://
www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed376695.html (accessed on 24 September 2001).
Huerta-Macias, A. 1995. Alternative assessment: responses to commonly asked questions.
TESOL Journal 5:8-10.
Killen, R. 2002. Productive pedagogy. Unpublished manuscript, University of Newcastle, Australia.
Masters, G. and M. Foster. 1996. Developmental assessment: Assessment resource kit.
Melbourne: The Australian Council for Educational Research.
Maurer, R. E. 1996. Designing alternative assessments for interdisciplinary curriculum in middle
and secondary schools. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Mothata, S., L. van Niekerk and T. Mays. 2003. Learner assessment in practice: lessons from the
NPDE. Perspectives in Education 21 (1): 81-99.
O'Malley, J. M. 1997. Using authentic assessment in ESL classrooms. http://www.scottfores
man.com/sfaw...r/educator2educator/teaeslas.html (accessed on 25 October 2003).
O'Tuel, F. S. and R. K. Bullard. 1993. Developing higher-order thinking in the content areas K-12.
California: Critical Thinking Press & Software.
Pahad, M. 1997. Assessment and the National Qualifications Framework: a guide for teachers.
Sandton: Heineman Higher and Further Education.
293
 Geesje van den Berg

Puhl, C. A. 1997. Develop, not judge: continuous assessment in the ESL classroom. English
Teaching Forum 35 (2): 2-9, 15.
Puntambekar, S. and B. du Boulay. Design of MIST: A system to help students develop
metacognition. In Learners, learning and assessment, ed. P. Murphy, 245-257. London:
Paul Chapman.
Sanders, W. L. and S. P. Horn. 1995. Educational assessment reassessed: the usefulness of
standarized and alternative measures of student achievement as indicators for the
assessment of educational outcomes. Education Policy Analysis Archives 3 (6): 1-13.
van der Horst, H. and R. McDonald. 2001. Outcomes-based education: Theory and practice. Irene:
H. van der Horst and R. McDonald.
Vandeyar, S. and R. Killen. Has curriculum reform in South Africa really changed assessment
practices, and what promise does the Revised National Curriculum Statement hold?
Perspectives in Education 21 (1): 119-134.
Downloaded by [University of York] at 01:53 16 October 2014

294