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11th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics, NSB2017, 11-14 June 2017, Trondheim, Norway

Impact of building envelope and mechanical component degradation

on The
the 15th
wholeInternational Symposium on District Heating and Cooling
building performance: a review paper
Assessing Georgios
the feasibility of using the heat demand-outdoor
Eleftheriadisa,b,*, Mohamed Hamdyb,c
temperature function for a long-term district heat demand forecast
Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 135, Berlin 10623, Germany
a
a
b
b ECOGLOBE
ECOGLOBE GmbH,Bismarckstraße 10-12, Berlin 10625, Germany
a,b,c
I. Andrić *, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Correc
ccNorwegian a a b c
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 1, Trondheim 7491, Norway

a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
Abstract c
Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France

During the building operation phase, it is recognized that the performance of building envelope elements and energy
supply systems drops with time. This performance degradation usually leads to lower energy efficiency and higher
Abstract
life cycle costs than predicted in the early design phase. This paper quantitatively reviews the impacts of this
deterioration on the whole building performance. From the findings of the reviewed literature, it can be concluded
District
that heatingbuilding
the whole networksperformance
are commonlyis addressed in the to
very sensitive literature
severalasdeterioration
one of the most effective
factors, solutionsthe
particularly forperformance
decreasing the
greenhouse gas
degradation emissions
of the fromventilation
heating, the buildingand
sector.
air These systems (HVAC)
conditioning require high investments
system. The which
impactareonreturned through
the whole the heat
building
sales. Due tomostly
performance the changed
ranges climate
from 20%conditions
to 30% and
overbuilding
20 years, renovation
accordingpolicies, heat demand
to the reviewed in the future could decrease,
studies.
©prolonging the investment
2017 The Authors. return
Published by period.
Elsevier Ltd.
©The2017 Thescope
main Authors.
of Published
this paper isby
toElsevier
assess Ltd.
the feasibility of using the heatNordic
demand – outdoor on
temperature function for heat demand
Peer-review
Peer-review under
under responsibility
responsibility of
of the
the organizing
organizing committee
committee of
of the
the 11th
11th Symposium on Building Physics.
forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was Nordic
used asSymposium
a case study.Building Physics.
The district is consisted of 665
buildingsBuilding
Keywords: that vary in both
ageing; construction
Energy performance;period and Degradation;
Efficiency; typology. Three weatherDecline
Deterioration; scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
1.The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications
Introduction
(the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
scenarios,
With thethe error value
building increased
sector accountingup tofor
59.5% (depending on
approximately 40% theofweather and renovation
the energy demand inscenarios combination
the European Unionconsidered).
(EU) and
The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the
32% in the world [1], particular focus has been placed by both the scientific community and politicians on the energy
decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
performance of buildings. As a result, continuous efforts are being made to reduce the buildings’ energy use. In order
renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the
tocoupled
achievescenarios).
that, the The
energy efficiency
values suggested needs
couldtobebeused
increased
to modifyby the
implementing energy saving
function parameters measuresconsidered,
for the scenarios (ESMs) and and
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
*Cooling.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 30 692 00 14 18; fax: +49 30 692 00 14 18.
E-mail address: eleftheriadis@ecoglobe.de
Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the 11th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics.

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the 11th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.739
322 Georgios Eleftheriadis et al. / Energy Procedia 132 (2017) 321–326
2 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

renewable energy technologies (RETs), such as highly energy efficient fixtures and photovoltaic panels respectively
[2].
For a successful implementation of such measures and technologies, the building has to be designed with a high
level of quality. The energy balance that needs to be solved during this design process can be influenced by a variety
of uncertainty sources. Some of these sources have already been examined to a satisfactory level, with examples
including the probability of a component failure [3] or the impact of climate change on future considerations [4, 5].
There are however others that are yet to be put under thorough examination, one of them being the ageing of buildings
and their components.
It can be observed that the energy performance of both building envelope elements and energy supply systems
drops as a result of natural ageing or even because of mismanagement and poor maintenance [6]. This leads to lower
energy efficiency and higher life cycle costs. The term that can be used to best describe this phenomenon is
“performance degradation”. The effects of this degradation are generally not taken into consideration, neither by
conventional simulation models nor by existing optimization concepts [2, 7, 8].
The paper first provides an overview of studies that deal with the impacts of this performance degradation on the
whole building performance. As a next step, the degradation rates of building envelope elements (mainly insulation)
and mechanical components (e.g. heat pumps) are demonstrated. In this way, conclusions are drawn regarding the
suitability of the reviewed literature for use in future assessments of the energy performance of buildings.

Nomenclature

ESMs energy saving measures

RETs renewable energy technologies
HVAC heating, ventilation and air conditioning
NREL national renewable energy laboratory
DX direct expansion
GSHP ground-source heat pump
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
LTTR long term thermal resistance

2. Degradation impact on whole building

As stated, the performance deterioration that every building element undergoes with time is generally neglected
when assessing the energy performance of buildings. Nevertheless, some studies that examine the effects of
degradation on the energy performance of buildings over time have been carried out [6, 9, 10]. In [6] and [9] the
effects of both climate change and building ageing on the performance of reference buildings are investigated by
conducting simulations. In [6], the IDA ICE model is used to simulate the performance of a library building in Turin,
Italy, while in [9] the simulations of a supermarket in Plymouth, UK are carried out with EnergyPlus V 5.0. Magnuson
[10] examines the impact of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) component degradation on two
buildings of the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas, USA. Here, other factors, such as embodied energy, are
also taken into account. Waddicor et al. [6] and Magnuson [10] use deterministic models to predict performance
degradation, whereas Wilde et al. [9] implement both a deterministic and a stochastic approach. Regardless of the
followed concept, the conclusion in all three studies is that the energy performance of a building is very sensitive to
its ageing and particularly to the degradation of HVAC components.

Table 1. Overview of whole building impact of degradation

Source Building type Considered for degradation? Impact on building energy consumption
Insulation HVAC HVAC (incl. electricity Other Total
and refrigeration) electricity
Derived from [6] Commercial (library) Yes Yes +32% 0 +23%
Derived from [9] Commercial (supermarket) Yes Yes + 9% 0 N.A
 Georgios Eleftheriadis et al. / Energy Procedia 132 (2017) 321–326 323
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 3

Derived from [10] Commercial (university) No Yes +17,5% 0 N.A

3. Degradation of single components

It is evident that the amount of studies presented in the previous section is insufficient to draw definite conclusions
about the impact of degradation on the whole building energy performance. Thus, in order to conduct a successful
examination of this effect, a closer look into each component and its ageing needs to be taken. A distinction between
“mechanical components” and “envelope components” is useful when doing that, similar to the approach in [9]. The
first include the mechanical equipment, such as the components used for heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC) and renewable energy technologies (RETs). The second term stands for the elements of the building
envelope. In spite of the limited amount of quantitative data available [9], there are studies that deal with the
performance deterioration of some mechanical and building envelope components. In some cases, simulations are
performed in addition to the measurements being made.

3.1. Mechanical components

In this section, the degradation rates of HVAC systems are presented as functions of time. HVAC components
degrade even though they are protected from the external environment [6]. Their performance declines as a result of
natural ageing and wear due to operation, with the degradation rate being much higher in the case of inadequate
maintenance [11].
In the reviewed literature particular focus is placed on chillers and boilers. Waddicor et al [6] assume constant
decadal degradation rates for these two components while differentiating between a best and a worst case scenario.
For boilers, the rates range between 6% (low degradation scenario) and 10% (high degradation scenario) every 10
years. The respective values for the degradation of chillers are 10% and 24%. Both [9] and [10] use assumptions from
reports by the national renewable energy laboratory (NREL) of the U.S department of energy ([11] and [12]
respectively). In the first report [11], linear models used to predict the degradation rates of various HVAC components
are presented. Included components are direct expansion (DX) coils, chillers, boilers, heat pumps, constant and
variable-volume fans and gas heating coils. For each component one scenario with and one without maintenance are
considered. The linear equations used can be described as follows:

Eff  BaseEff  1  M  age (1)

with Eff being the efficiency (SEER, EER, HSPF, AFUE) of the equipment at a certain age and BaseEff the efficiency
of the Pre-Retrofit equipment when new. M is a degradation factor dependent upon the technology and the
maintenance scenario chosen and age is the age of the equipment in years. Since the used degradation factors are
largely based on assumptions, further cross- referencing is suggested by the authors.
On the other hand, the equations used in [12], while also considering two maintenance scenarios, have an exponential
form.

Eff  BaseEff  1  M 
age
(2)

It is worth noting that this report considers the broadest scope of technologies of all reviewed literature, including
tables with M-factors for various space heating and cooling, air conditioning, heat pump and water heating equipment.
Results of the calculations of the degradation rates of some typical HVAC components considering the equations and
factors from both [11 and [12] can be found in Table 2.
The mentioned studies assess the degradation of a large amount of components. Nevertheless, there are sources
that either deeply assess the performance of specific technologies [13, 14] or present the results of other studies as
theoretical background behind companies’ products and services [15, 16].
324 Georgios Eleftheriadis et al. / Energy Procedia 132 (2017) 321–326
4 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Zhou et al. [13] have developed a model of a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) that was used to predict the long-
term performance of the GSHP system. The model results showed that after 20 years of running the system, the
performance would decrease by 12,82 %, solely due to the ground temperature rising by 10,5°C. Hitachi [14]
published an article in which the performance degradation of turbo chillers in power plants is examined. For that
purpose, a simulation which uses data on the actual operating behaviour of a chiller facility is conducted. The results
show that chiller performance is reduced by 4,4% during the first five years of operation due to mechanical degradation
connected to the operating hours. An additional 7,6% is the consequence of the contamination in cooling water
(fouling in the condenser tube). This can, however, be avoided through regular chemical cleaning. Both [15] and [16]
present findings of ASHRAE studies that concentrate on the impact of oil fouling in refrigeration systems [15] and in
general HVAC equipment [16]. The outcome is in both cases an efficiency loss of 30% over 20 years due to this
effect. Table 2 offers an overview of the performance degradation values of selected HVAC. Since the time intervals
during which degradation is considered are not the same for each source, they are mentioned in a separate column for
each case.

Table 2. Performance degradation of HVAC components

Parameter [unit] Degradation Degradation interval (years) Building type Source
values
Boiler efficiency [%] 6%-10% 20 Commercial (library) [6], 2 scenarios
5%-20% 20 Commercial Calculated from
[11],
2 maint. scenarios.
10%-24% 20 Residential Calculated from
[11],
2 maint. scenarios.
Chiller COP [-] 10%-24% 20 Commercial (library) [6], 2 scenarios
5%-20% 20 Commercial Calculated from
[11], 2 maint.
scenarios.
4,4%-12% 5 Industrial [14], 2 different
causes.
20%-30% 20 N.A [15]
Heat pump SCOP [-] 5%-20% 20 Commercial Calculated from
[12],
2 maint. scenarios.
GS Heat pump SCOP [%] 13% 20 Mixed [13]
Fan efficiency [%] 4%-10% 20 Commercial Calculated from
[11],
2 maint. scenarios.
Split AC EER [-] 18%-33% 20 Residential Calculated from
[11],
2 maint. scenarios.
Electric water heater efficiency [%] 2%-4% 20 Residential Calculated from
[11], 2 maint.
scenarios.
General HVAC efficiency [-] 30% 20 N.A [16]

3.2. Envelope components

The degradation of the building envelope elements is a result of the effects of the internal and the external climate
of the building. The internal environment is influenced by both the external climate and the occupant behavior, while
the external climate impacts the envelope in various ways. These include but are not limited to: solar radiation, extreme
temperatures, moisture and pollution [17]. The reviewed literature contains information on the deterioration of
insulation material used for walls and roofs.
One common way to quantify the performance decline of insulation is the conduction of accelerated climate ageing
tests in the laboratory. Their goal is to determine the long term thermal resistance of the insulation material (LTTR)
 Georgios Eleftheriadis et al. / Energy Procedia 132 (2017) 321–326 325
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

[17, 18, 19]. The LTTR of closed-cell insulating foams is regarded by some standards to be the value measured after
5 years of storage in a laboratory environment [18]. The laboratory results presented in the aforementioned papers can
be used in order to predict the degradation of polyisocyanurate (PIR) [18, 19] and extruded polystyrene (XPS) [19].
In both reports, in addition to the assessment of the measured values, simulation software is being used in order to
predict future material performance. The same holds true for [20], where measurements are being made and
simulations are being carried out to determine the long term performance of the same materials (PIR and XPS). The
software tool used is the same as in [18].
For rigid polyurethane foam (PUR), LTTR values can be obtained from [21], where it is mentioned that the thermal
conductivity increases sharply directly after installation due to the diffusion of foam cell gases into the environment.
After approximately three years, equilibrium is reached and as a result the thermal conductivity does not rise
significantly for the rest of the product life. The effects of moisture accumulation on roofs have been investigated in
[22]. Here, a linear correlation between moisture content and thermal conductivity of XPS is given. The influence of
moisture accumulation is also considered for vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) by Simmler et al [23]. In this study, the
change in the thermal conductivity of a VIP terrace insulation due to pressure increase and moisture accumulation has
been examined, the result being an increase of 4 mW.m-1.K-1 over 31,6 years. In an assessment of the performance of
VIPs after five years of installation, Molletti et al [24] report a degradation of 10%.
The findings of the literature reviewed in this section are listed in Table 3. The big variation in the time intervals
for which degradation is considered does not play a major role in the final results. This can be attributed to the fact
that for most insulation types the greatest portion of performance deterioration takes place during the first 2-3 years
after installation.

Table 3. Performance degradation of different insulation types

Insulation type Thermal measure [unit] Degradation values Degradation interval Source
(years)
PIR Thermal resistivity [m.K.W-1] 12% 2 [18]
23%-27% 3-6 [20]
XPS R-value [ft2.hr.°F.BTU-1.in-1] 22% 15 [19]
Thermal resistivity [m.K.W-1] 18%-26% 3 [20]
Thermal conductivity [W.m-1.K-1] 12%-21% 17 [22], 3 different roofs
PUR Thermal conductivity [W.m-1.K-1] 14%-17% 15 [21], 2 different
thicknesses
VIP Thermal conductivity [W.m-1.K-1] 80% 31,6 [23]
R-value [ft2.hr.°F.BTU-1.in-1] 10% 5 [24]
PIR: polyisocyanurate; XPS: extruded polystyrene; PUR: polyurethane; VIP: vacuum insulation panel

4. Conclusion

This article provides a review of studies that deal with the performance degradation of building envelope elements
and energy supply components. In addition, the impact of this degradation on the energy performance of buildings is
discussed. The reviewed studies show an impact on the whole building that mostly ranges from 20% to 30% over 20
years. Hereby it is manifest that performance degradation is a significant factor that has to be accounted for supporting
accurate energy performance assessments in the early design phase of a building. This holds especially true in cases
where high energy efficiency is aimed at, since even small deviations in the predicted energy consumption can lead
to a failure to reach the set targets.
Quantifying the performance degradation of envelope and engineering components as a function of time is not a
simple task because of the limited amount of data that is available. Generally, sufficient data can be found in the
literature for only few HVAC components, especially chillers, and building insulation elements. An additional
problem is posed by the fact that the few studies that show the impact of the performance deterioration of HVAC
components and envelope elements on the overall building performance deal exclusively with commercial buildings.
In order to obtain more data of higher quality that covers a broader scope of technologies, more extensive
monitoring of building performance is needed. Besides, the already available data should be qualitatively appreciated.
A possible way to achieve that is by combining the findings on the influence of maintenance with the results on the
326 Georgios Eleftheriadis et al. / Energy Procedia 132 (2017) 321–326
6 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

natural ageing of equipment to develop more accurate performance prediction models. These two improvements
would offer the possibility to conduct additional studies that assess the impacts of performance deterioration on whole
building performance. As a result, engineers would be suitably equipped to take degradation into account when
designing buildings, even residential ones.

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