The Critical Theory of Jurgen Habermas

Jurgen Habermas is widely considered as the most influential thinker in Germany over the past
decade [1970-80]. As a philosopher and sociologist he has mastered and creatively articulated an
extraordinary range of specialized literature in the social sciences, social theory and the history of
ideas in the provocative critical theory of knowledge and human interests. His roots are in the
tradition of German thought from Kant to Marx, and he has been associated with the Frankfurt
School of critical theorists which pioneered in the study of the relationship of the ideas of Marx
and Freud.' (Mezirow, 1981)
Habermas' Three Generic Domains of Human Interest
Habermas differentiates three primary generic cognitive areas in which human interest generates
knowledge. These areas determine categories relevant to what we interpret as knowledge. That is,
they are termed 'knowledge constitutive' -- they determine the mode of discovering knowledge
and whether knowledge claims can be warranted. These areas define cognitive interests or
learning domains, and are grounded in different aspects of social existence -- work, interaction and
power.
Work Knowledge
Work broadly refers to the way one controls and manipulates one's environment. This is
commonly known as instrumental action -- knowledge is based upon empirical investigation and
governed by technical rules. The criterion of effective control of reality direct what is or is not
appropriate action. The empirical-analytic sciences using hypothetical-deductive theories
characterize this domain. Much of what we consider 'scientific' research domains -- e.g. Physics,
Chemistry and Biology are classified by Habermas as belonging to the domain of Work.
Practical Knowledge
The Practical domain identifies human social interaction or 'communicative action'. Social
knowledge is governed by binding consensual norms, which define reciprocal expectations about
behaviour between individuals. Social norms can be related to empirical or analytical propositions,
but their validity is grounded 'only in the intersubjectivity of the mutual understanding of
intentions'. The criterion of clarification of conditions for communication and intersubjectivity (the
understanding of meaning rather than causality) is used to determine what is appropriate action.
Much of the historical-hermeneutic disciplines -- descriptive social science, history, aesthetics,
legal, ethnographic literary and so forth are classified by Habermas as belonging to the domain of
the Practical.
Emancipatory Knowledge
The Emancipatory domain identifies 'self-knowledge' or self-reflection. This involves 'interest in
the way one's history and biography has expressed itself in the way one sees oneself, one's roles
and social expectations. Emancipation is from libidinal, institutional or environmental forces which
limit our options and rational control over our lives but have been taken for granted as beyond
human control (a.k.a. 'reification'). Insights gained through critical self-awareness are
emancipatory in the sense that at least one can recognize the correct reasons for his or her
problems.' Knowledge is gained by self-emancipation through reflection leading to a transformed
consciousness or 'perspective transformation'. Examples of critical sciences include feminist
theory, psychoanalysis and the critique of ideology, according to Habermas.

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Figure 1. Habermas' Three Domains of Knowledge (after Tinning, 1992)

Grundy (1987) provides perhaps the clearest discussion of what each interest actually means to
educators. As Li and Reigeluth (1995) put it, "Grundy (1987) presents a very good interpretation of
these three human interests" (p. 5). She sums up each of the interests as follows. "Put succinctly,
the technical interest is: a fundamental interest in controlling the environment through rule-
following action based upon empirically grounded laws" (p. 12). Discussing the practical interest,
she adds, "This interest could be defined in the following way: the practical interest is a
fundamental interest in understanding the environment through interaction based upon a
consensual interpretation of meaning" (p. 14). And, finally, "The emancipatory cognitive interest
could be defined as follows: a fundamental interest in emancipation and empowerment to engage
in autonomous action arising out of authentic, critical insights into the social construction of
human society" (p. 19).

Technical Interest
The main purpose or objective [of traditional education] is to prepare the young for future
responsibilities and for success in life, by means of acquisition of the organized bodies of
information and prepared forms of skill which comprehend the material of instruction. Since the
subject matter as well as the standards of proper conduct are handed down from the past, the
attitude of pupils must, on the whole, be one of docility, receptivity and obedience. (Dewey, 1938,
p. 18)
The technical interest is grounded in the fundamental human needs of survival and earning a
living. The foundation is in the empirical-analytic sciences where things are proven through
observation and experimentation. (Grundy, 1987) They are then generalizable to other situations.
In Habermas' (1971) own words, "Empirical-analytic knowledge is thus possible predictive
knowledge" (p. 308). The primary purpose of education becomes to prepare the learner to control
and manage the environment. Several authors (e. g., Pusey, 1987 and Mezirow, 1981) even refer to
this interest as "work." The teacher-learner relationship becomes one of the student observing
facts and learning skills from the teacher.

Practical Interest
Whereas the basic orientation of the technical interest is towards control, that of the practical
interest is towards understanding (Grundy, 1987, p. 12). As Dewey said: "Understanding may not
ensure complete agreement, but it gives the only sound basis for enduring agreement" (Winn,
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1959, p. 141). "The practical human interest entails historical and hermeneutic ways of knowing
that represent the physical, social, and cultural worlds as 'texts' which have to be interpreted in
order for meanings to emerge" (Streibel, 1991, p. 4). Habermas (1971), himself, explains, "The
historical-hermeneutic sciences gain knowledge in a different methodological framework ....
Access to the facts is provided by the understanding of meaning, not observation" (p. 309). "In
order for knowledge to be made, human interaction must take place. For Habermas, interaction is
a nonreducible type of action requiring a distinctive set of categories for the description,
explanation, and understanding of it" (Bernstein, 1976, p. 195). Humans not only want to exist
within their society, they must exist within that society (Streibel, 1991). For these reasons, every
student brings a unique perspective into each learning opportunity. The curriculum designer and
the teacher must realize that each student may interpret each learning situation differently.

Emancipatory Interest
Grundy (1987) said, "The emancipatory interest is perhaps the hardest of these conceptual
categories to grasp, but it is in the identification of this interest that Habermas has made his most
original contribution to modem philosophy" (pp. 15-16). Later, she said, "While the other two
interests are concerned with control and understanding respectively, the emancipatory interest is
concerned with empowerment, that is, the ability of individuals and groups to take control of their
own lives in autonomous and responsible ways" (p. 19). Ewert (1991 ) added, "Whereas empirical
and interpretive social sciences describe the world as it is, critical theory tries to understand why
the social world is the way it is and, through the process of critique strives to know how it should
be" (p. 356). Habermas views honest self-reflection as the only path to true emancipation. "Self-
reflection brings to consciousness those determinants of a self-formative process of cultivation
and spiritual formation which ideologically determine a contemporary praxis of action and the
conception of the world" (Habennas, 1973, p. 22). By focusing on the ways that people struggle to
change their social, economic, and cultural conditions of existence towards forms that are more
truthful, more just and more free, the emancipatory interest becomes not some abstract external
idea but a potential within each individual waiting to be realized (Streibel, 1991). Even though this
emancipation must come from within, an emancipatory interest does not deny the importance of
the teacher. In fact, it becomes incumbent upon the teacher to bring enlightenment to others and
provide the conditions for their emancipation (Grundy, 1987, p. 107). "Here the emphasis is on
helping the learner identify real problems involving reified power relationships rooted in
institutionalized ideologies which one has internalized in one's psychological history" (Mezirow,
1981, p. 18).
Through self-reflection, each individual must examine his/her own value systems and concepts of
justice so he/she can understand the many constraints that have become an accepted part of
his/her life. Only through this understanding will they be able to transcend constraints imposed by
socio-economic class, race, gender, or any other constraint they have accepted in the past.
"Emancipation is from libidinal, institutional or environmental forces which limit our options and
rational control over our lives but have been taken for granted as beyond human control"
(Mezirow, 1981, p. 5).

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