#09 – Metal Forming and Bulk Deformation

ITS
Industrial Engineering

Manufacturing System Laboratory

Department of Industrial Engineering – ITS
 2017

Last update: Oct 14th, 2017

 Metal Forming
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Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic

deformation is used to change the shape of metal work pieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the
yield strength of the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the
die
 Stresses in Metal Forming
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• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive

– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses
 Material Properties in Metal Forming
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• Desirable material properties:

– Low yield strength
– High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature is raised
• Other factors:
– Strain rate and friction
 Reminder
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• Yield Strength
• Ductility
• Malleability
• Machinability
• Stiffness
• Toughness
• Creep
 Reminder
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• Yield Strength  A yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in

engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform
plastically.
• Ductility  ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is
often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
• Malleability  Malleability is the quality of something that can be shaped into
something else without breaking, like the malleability of clay. Malleability — also
called plasticity
• Machinability  machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be cut
permitting the removal of the material with a satisfactory finish at low cost.
• Stiffness  Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists
deformation in response to an applied force. The complementary concept is
flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff it is.
• Toughness  toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically
deform without fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of
energy per unit volume that a material can absorb before rupturing.
• Creep  creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to
move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses
 Metal Forming Classification
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 Basic Types of Deformation Processes
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1. Bulk deformation
– Rolling
– Forging
– Extrusion
– Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
– Bending
– Deep drawing
– Cutting
– Miscellaneous processes
 Bulk Deformation Processes
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• Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape

changes
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface
area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and rectangular
bars
 Rolling
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Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling

 Rolling (2)
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• Rolling is deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by

compressive forces exerted by two opposing rools
• Rolling processes is conducted at rolling mills
– Massive pieces of equipment
– High investment cost, to be used for production in large quantities of standard items
• Hot rolling
– Large amount of deformation required
– Benefit:
• Free residual stress
– Disadvantage:
• Low Tolerance
• Oxide scale at surface
• Cold rolling
– Further flatenning of hot rolled plates and sheets
– Metal strengthening, tigher tolerance, free oxide scale
Industrial Engineering ITS

Rolling Mills
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Rolling process
 Rolling Mills Configuration
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(a)two-high (b)three-high (c) four-high (d) cluster mill (e) tandem rolling mill
 Other Rolling Processes(1)
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• Thread rolling
– Cold rolling
– Production rate: 8 unit/sec
 Other Rolling Processes (2)
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• Ring rolling
– Hot rolling for large ring diameter
– Cold rolling for small ring diameter
 Other rolling Processes (3)
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• Roll piercing
– Hot rolling
– For making thick pipe
– Rotary tube piercing
 Rolling Defects
a. Waviness
– Improper roller speeds
b. Zipper cracks
– Too much rolling in center
c. Edge cracks
– Too much rolling on outside
d. Alligatoring
– Too much induced tensile
stress in the part, or defects
 Forging
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Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (b) forging

 Forging
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• Deformation process in which the work is compressed between two

dies using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part
• Oldest metal forming operation
• For making automotive component, aerospace, ex: crank shaft, gear,
turbine, etc
• Forging types:
– Forging machine that applies an impact load: forging hammer
– Forging machine that applies gradual forces: forging press
 Forging operations classification
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Industrial Engineering ITS

Open-Die Forging
Open Die Forging Defects
• Fracture -
– exhausted ductility
– Inter granular fracture in
hot working
• Barreling - Friction
• Solution -
– limited deformation per
step
– Process anneal between
steps
 Impression-Die Forging
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(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece

(2) partial compression
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates
 Flashless Forging
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(1) just before initial contact with workpiece

(2)partial compression
(3) final punch and die closure
Defects - Impression Die and Closed Die Forging
• Cracking
• End grains
• Laps
• Cold shuts
• Anisotropy
Industrial Engineering ITS

Forging Machines
 Extrusion
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Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

 Extrusion
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• Compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow

through a die opening to produce a desired cross sectional
shape
• Advantages
– A variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot
extrusion
– Grain structure and strenght properties are enhanced in
cold and warm extrusion
– Fairly close tolerances are possible, especially cold extrusion
– Little or no scrap is created
• Shape factor:
= perimeter/weight or
=perimeter/cross-sectional area
 Extrusion
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• Hot extrusion
– Material: aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc.
– Reduces strength and increase ductility of metal, more
extreme size reduction, and more complex shapes, increase
ram
– Lubrication is critical
• Cold extrusion
– Material: low carbon steel, stainless steel
– Increase strength (strain hardening), accuracy of tolerance
 Types of Extrusion
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(a) Direct (b) indirect (c) hydrostatic (d) impact

Industrial Engineering ITS

Extrusion product example

 Mechanics of Extrusion
Step 1: Compute the extrusion ratio:
Re = A0 / A1
Step 2: In cold working, compute true strain,
 = ln Re
In hot working, compute mean strain rate, A0 A1
6vd0 tan 
2
m  
d0  d1
3 3

Step 3: compute mean flow Step 4: compute extrusion pressure

using an empirical formula
stress. In cold working
n 1 n 1
K  2  1
 fm  [ ] pe   fm (0.8  1.2 )
 2  1 n 1
In hot working Step 5: compute extrusion force,
 fm  C m Pe  pe A0
 Defect in Extrusion
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(a) Centerburst
(b) Piping/tailpipe, fishtailing
(c) Surface cracking
 Wire and Bar Drawing
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Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

 Wire & Bar Drawing
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• Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod or

wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening
• Bar drawing: large diameter
• Wire drawing: small diameter
• Cold-working operation
• Benefit:
– Accuracy is easily attained
– Better surfac
– Increase Strenght and hardeness
– Easy set up (economical batch) for mass production
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Drawing Equipment
 Tube Drawing (1)
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• Without mandrel (tube sinking)

 Tube Drawing (2)
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• With mandrel
– (a) fixed mandrel (b) floating plug
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Bulk Deformation Product

 Sheet Metalworking
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• Forming and related operations performed on metal

sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal, which
distinguishes these from bulk deformation
• Often called press working because presses perform these
operations
– Parts are called stampings
– Usual tooling: punch and die
 Sheet Metal Bending
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Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending

 Deep Drawing
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Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (b) drawing

 Shearing of Sheet Metal
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Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (c) shearing

 Temperature in Metal Forming
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• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
– Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
– In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
 Temperature in Metal Forming
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• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower

forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working
 Cold Working
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• Performed at room temperature or slightly above

• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
– These operations are near net shape or net shape processes
 Advantages of Cold Forming
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• Better accuracy, closer tolerances

• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product
• No heating of work required
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming
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• Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation

• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that
can be done
– In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further
deformation
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold
worked
 Warm Working
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• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

below recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working
often expressed in terms of melting point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
 Advantages of Warm Working
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• Lower forces and power than in cold working

• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
 Hot Working
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• Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization

temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting
point on absolute scale
– In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level
 Why Hot Working?
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Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far

more than possible with cold working or warm working
• Why?
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than
at room temperature
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
 Advantages of Hot Working
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• Workpart shape can be significantly altered

• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
– Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently
processed by cold forming
 Disadvantages of Hot Working
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• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal
energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool life
 Lubrication in Metal Forming
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• Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface

in many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of
friction
• Benefits:
– Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
– Better surface finish
– Removes heat from the tooling
 Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant
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• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal

drawing, etc.)
• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost