Mechanics of Machining

Practical Machining Operations (Turning, Planing, Shaping)

Fifteenth Lecture by Prof. Uday S. Dixit, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Guwahati
 INTRODUCTION
 Most practical machining operations use tools having two or
more cutting edges but a close examination of these operations
will reveal marked similarities with orthogonal and oblique
cutting.
 The mechanism involved in some of the practical machining
operations are quite complex and in many machining only
empirical relationships have been developed.
 The influence of process variables on chip geometry, cutting
forces and surface finish will also be considered.
 TURNING
 In straight turning operation the tool is made to travel parallel to the
axis of rotation of the work-piece.
 The cutting speed or the tangential cutting velocity (V) in this case is
V = πDwN ,
and the feed velocity (v) is
v=fN,
where Dw is the work piece diameter,
N is the rpm and
f is the feed rate.
 Since V >> v, ignore the effect of feed velocity while considering the
resultant relative velocity between the tool and the work-piece.
 The depth of cut (d) is much smaller than (Dw), therefore, the cutting
speed be assumed to be constant throughout the depth of cut.
 4

Straight turning operation

 Undeformed Chip-thickness:
 In turning, the material removal mainly takes place along principal cutting edge ab
but some material removal also occurs along the auxiliary cutting edge bc and this
operation is often called restricted orthogonal cutting.
 The undeformed chip-thickness (t) and the undeformed chip-width (b) in straight
turning operation is defined as
t = f cosγs ,
b = d / cosγs ,
where γs = (90 - γp) = the side cutting-edge angle in ASA system
γp = the principle cutting-edge angle of ORS, MRS and NRS systems
i = inclination angle
 The rake angle (α) for equating this process to orthogonal cutting should be αn in
NRS system and inclination angle (i) should be equal to zero.
 When i = 0, (αn) is equal to (αo) of ORS system.
 Forces and Power
 Most conventional turning operations approximate oblique cutting and require three components
to specify the forces. The three components are:-
Fp= cutting force in the direction cutting velocity
Fq= feed force in the direction of feed motion
Fr = the thrust force perpendicular to the surface

 The force system gives the resultant force R as

R F P
2
 Fq  Fr  .
2 2

Force components in straight turning

 The three-dimensional force system can be reduced to a two-dimensional force
system if the forces are considered in the orthogonal plane i.e., in a plane
perpendicular to the principal cutting edge with ( Fq ) acting in the direction
perpendicular to the principal cutting-edge in the horizontal plane. Thus,

R  P q
F 2
 F 2

and
Fq  Fr
2
 Fq 2 

 This is possible when i = 0°, 0° < γp < 90° and Fq is contained in the
orthogonal plane.
 When i = 0° and γp = 90° or γs = 0°, the thrust force Fr = 0 and the two
dimensional force system gives

R  P q
F 2
 F 2
 When i = 0° and γp = 0° or γs = 90°, the feed force Fq = 0 and the two
dimensional force system gives

R  P r
F 2
 F 2

 Force measurements carried out during turning of a variety of work materials with
tools of various geometry and materials indicate that the forces are power functions
of feed and depth of cut. Thus,
FP  AP f d ,
xp yp

Fq  Aq f d ,
xq yq

Fr  Ar f d ,
xr yr

where A, x and y with subscripts referring to the force components are constants for a
given tool-work piece combination and can be evaluated experimentally.
 Power required in turning (Pw)

Pw  FpV ,
where V is the mean cutting speed.
 The specific cutting energy (us) defined as the energy required to remove a unit
volume of material is
P
us  w ,
Zm
where Zm = the material removal rate, is the product of the mean cutting speed
and the chip cross-sectional area Ac. Thus,

Z m  VAc   DN w fd ,
where D = the mean work-piece diameter, putting the value of Pw and Zm we get

Fp
us  .
fd
Surface Finish
 The surface finish in machining operations depends on
1. the type of chip formation
2. tool profile and geometry
3. cutting conditions

 A continuous chip without built-up-edge represents a steady cutting condition

and hence gives best surface finish.
 Built-up-edge formation leads to vibration and has adverse effects on surface
finish.
 Discontinuous chip formation causes fluctuation in force and leads to the
formation of ridges on the machined surface.
The surface finish may be specified in terms of
(1) The peak-to-valley height (h)- It is the root-to-crest value of surface roughness

(2) The centre-line average (CLA)- It is found by averaging the height of the surface
above and below a centre line over the sample length (ls).

If the ordinates of y are y1, y2,...yn, then

1 n
hCLA   yi .
n i 1
or,
1 x  ls
hCLA   y dx.
ls x  0

11
(3) The root-mean-square (RMS)- It is the square root of the mean of the squares
of the ordinate of the surface from the centre line.

1
 y  y  ....  y 
2 2 2 2
hRMS  1 2 n

 n 
or,
1
 1 x  ls 2  2
hRMS    y dx  .
x 0
 ls 

12
Surface finish in turning using sharp tool

13

Surface finish in turning using tool with nose radius

 The peak-to-valley height (h):
f  h tan  s  h cot  e
f
h
tan  s  cot  e
where γs and γe are side and end cutting edge angles in ASA system.
 For a tool of finite nose radius r, the peak-to-valley
roughness can be evaluated as
f2
r - (r - h) 
2 2

4
f2
h
8r
 This expression is valid when the tool cutting is entirely
on the nose radius (r) only.
When this is not so, the peak-to-valley roughness can be shown to be

r
h  f tan  e  tan 2  e -
2
 2 fr tan 3
e 

 From above equation nose radius,

cutting-edge angles and feed rate have
influence on the surface finish.
 Effect of feed rate and cutting Speed on surface finish:
 Better surface finish is realized only at higher cutting speeds where continuous chips
without built-up-edge formed.
 At lower cutting speeds, discontinuous chip and built-up-edge formation results in poor
surface finish.
On-line prediction of surface finish, dimensional deviation and tool flank wear in turning process, M.Tech. Thesis 2002, IIT Guwahati by K.A.
Risbood

Experiments of turning with TiN

coated carbide tool (v=135m/min)

17
On-line prediction of surface finish, dimensional deviation and tool flank wear in turning process, M.Tech. Thesis 2002, IIT Guwahati by K.A.
Risbood

Experiments with carbide TiN coated carbide

tool (v=175m/min)

18
On-line prediction of surface finish, dimensional deviation and tool flank wear in turning process, M.Tech. Thesis 2002, IIT Guwahati by K.A.
Risbood

Experiments with carbide TiN coated

carbide tool (v=238 m/min)

19
Shaping and Planing
 The cutting action and geometry of the cutting in shaping and planing is similar to
turning but tool angles, feed and speed are not necessarily the same.
 In shaping, the cutting speed is provided to the tool and the feed is given to the work-
piece, while in planing the feed is given to the tool and the work-piece is provided the
cutting speed.
 In both cases, cutting takes place during the forward stroke and the return speed is
made high to reduce the overall machining time.
 Like turning the cutting is along the principal cutting-edge ab while some material
removal also takes place along auxiliary cutting edge bc.
 We assume this also be a case of orthogonal cutting for the purpose of application of
the orthogonal cutting theory.
 Feed f (Planing)

Tool

Principal cutting edge (ab)

Auxiliary cutting edge (bc)

Work-piece

Feed f (Shaping)

Section at XX

21
Undeformed chip thickness in shaping/planing
Undeformed Chip-thickness:
Feed f (Planing)
 The undeformed chip-thickness (t)
and the chip width (b) can be Tool
obtained as Principal cutting
t  f cos  s edge (ab) Auxiliary cutting edge (bc)

d
b
cos  s
 The rake angle (α) for equating to
orthogonal cutting should be αn Feed f (Shaping)
which is equal to αo when i = 0.

Section at XX
 Forces
 The resultant force (R) can be resolved in three force
components: Feed f
Fp = Force in the direction of cutting velocity (Planing) Tool
Fq = Force in the direction of feed motion Workpiece
Fr = Force in the direction perpendicular to the surface

R F P
2
 Fq 2  Fr 2  .

 A plane perpendicular to the principal cutting-edge, Fq

and Fr can be combined to give F′q in the direction
perpendicular to the principal cutting-edge. Feed f
(Shaping)
R F P
2
 Fq2  .
 This is possible only when i = 0.
 For estimating the force components using the orthogonal cutting theory the (t) and (b)
evaluated , while (α) = (αo) when i = 0.

Feed f (Planing)
Tool

Workpiece

Feed f (Shaping)
Surface Finish
 The peak-to-valley height (h) for shaping/planing with a sharp tool can be obtained as

f
h
tan  s  cot  e
Problem 1: A shaft of length 200 mm is mounted between centres. The 100-mm diameter shaft is turned to 98 mm diameter in
a single pass. Assume approach is 2 mm and over-travel is 3 mm. Turning tool has a side cutting edge angle of 45°. Cutting
speed is 50 mm/minute and feed is 0.2 mm/rev. Estimate the time of machining.

Solution:
d = (100–98)/2 = 1 mm 45° dtan45°
Total tool travel L = 200 + dtan45° + 2 + 3 = 206 mm
Calculating RPM of spindle, d
 DN  100  N
V   50
1000 1000
 N  159 rpm
Time of machining

L 200
  6.3min
fN 0.2 159
Problem 2: A straight turning tool has a back rake angle αb of 10° and side cutting edge angle of 40°. For
orthogonal cutting condition , what is the value of side rake angle αs ?

Solution:
For orthogonal cutting condition, i = 0. Therefore
tan i  sin  p tan  b - cos  p tan  s  0.
Here,
αb = 10° and  p  90 -  s  90 - 40  50
Therefore,
sin 50 tan10
tan  s   0.21
cos 50
or
αs = 11.9°
Problem 3: During turning of a 80 mm diameter × 2mm thick aluminium tube with a 0–15–9–9–12–75–1 mm (ORS) tool,
the following data were recorded— cutting speed: 180 m/min, feed: 0.2 mm/rev, cutting force: 1500 N, thrust force: 850 N,
chip thickness: 0.40 mm. Evaluate the shear angle and the power required for the cut.

Solution: Since i = 0, therefore,

 = n = 0 = 15°.
The undeformed chip thickness is
t = fcosγs = fsinγp = 0.2×sin75° = 0.193 mm
Therefore,
t 0.193
r   0.48.
tc 0.4

The shear angle is  0.48cos15 

  tan  -1
  27.9.
 1 - 0.48sin15 

Power required is calculated as

Pw  FpV  1500  180  2.7  105 Nm/min=4500 W=4.5 kW 6 HP

Problem 4: During an oblique cutting test with αn = 25°, i = 10°, t = 0.3 mm and b = 4 mm the following data were
recorded: Chip thickness ratio rt = 0.42, Force components: Fp = 750 N, FQ = 420 and FR = 180 N. Evaluate the normal
shear angle, the shear stress and the coefficient of friction assuming Stabler’s chip-flow rule.

Solution: Normal shear angle is calculated as

rt cos  n 0.42 cos 25
tan n    0.463.
1 - rt sin  n 1 - 0.42 sin 25
Therefore
n  24.8.
Shear stress
FS
 
AS

 FP cos i  FR sin i  cos n - FQ sin n    FP sin i - FR cos i 

2 2


bt
cos i sin n
  750 cos10  180sin10  cos 24.8 - 420sin 24.8   750sin10 - 180 cos10 
2 2


4  0.3
cos10 sin 24.8

= 204.72 N/mm2
Coefficient of friction is calculated as
F

N

 FP cos i  FR sin i  sin  n  FQ cos  n    FP sin i - FR cos i 

2 2


 F P cos i  FR sin i  cos  n - FQ sin  n 

 750 cos10  180sin10  sin 25  420 cos 25   750sin10 -180 cos10 
2 2


 750 cos10  180sin10  cos 25 - 750sin 25
 1.86.
Problem 5: During an oblique cutting test, the following data were recorded: αn = 25°, i = 10°, b = 4 mm, t = 0.3 mm, Vw =
20 m/min, k = 250 N/mm2, µ = 0.6 and ϕn =30 °. Assuming Stabler chip-flow rule, calculate the cutting-power requirement.

Solution: We know
tan n  0.6
or n  31.
and c  i  10.

Cutting force is calculated as

kbt 
 cos  n -  n   tan i tan c sin n 

Fp   
sin n  cos 2
    -    tan 2
 sin 2
n 
 n n n c 

250  4  0.3 
 cos  31 - 25   tan10 tan10 sin 31 

  
sin(30)  cos  30  31 - 25   tan 10 sin 31 
2 2 2
 

= 744 N.
Cutting power,
PW = Fp × V
= 744 × 20 = 14880 Nm/min=248 W
Problem 6: The diameter of a rod is to be reduced from 50 mm to 45 mm
by turning in a single pass turning. Spindle speed is 300 RPM and feed is
0.2 mm/rev. Determine the material removal rate in mm3/minute.

 Solution: Let the turned length is L mm.


 Volume removed =
4
 50 2
- 452  L  373.1L mm 3
L L
 Time of machining=   L / 60 minute
fN 0.2  300
 Hence, MRR=volume removed/time of machining=22386 mm3/min
 By approximate formula: MRR=1000 fVd
 DN   50  300
V    47.12 m/min
1000 1000
 Hence, MRR=10000.247.12 2.5=23560 mm3/min
 % error= -23560  22386
 100%  -5.24%
22386

33
Problem 7: In a shaper, the length of the stroke is 200 mm, the number
of double strokes per minute is 30 and the ratio of return time to the
cutting time is 2:3. What is the average cutting speed?

 Solution: Double stroke per minute = 30

 Number of double strokes in 60 second =30. Hence,
 One double stroke takes 2 seconds.
 Hence, time for cutting stroke={2/(2+3)}2=0.8 second
 Hence, cutting speed =stroke length/time for cutting stroke =200/0.8 mm/s
 =250 mm/s=15000 mm/min=15 m/min

34
Problem 8: ASA tool signature of a single point turning tool is 6-10-7-7-10-30-0.8. This
tool is used for turning of a 50 mm diameter mild steel bar at a feed of 0.24 mm/rev
and depth of cut of 1 mm at a cutting speed of 50 m/minute. What is obtainable ideal
surface roughness.

 Solution: Here, nose radius is 0.8 mm. Hence, peak to valley surface
roughness is given by

f2 0.24 2
Rt    9  10-3 mm=9  m
8 R 8  0.8

 Centerline average surface roughness is approximately one fourth times this

value. Hence,

f2 0.24 2
Ra    2.25  m
32 R 8  0.8

35
Problem 9: By how much percentage is the average cutting temperature expected to change by doubling the cutting
velocity and reducing the principal cutting edge angle from 90º to 30º in a turning operation? Assume that average
temperature is proportional to square root cutting speed and feed.

Solution: The average cutting temperature avg in terms of cutting velocity and true feed is governed by

 avg  Vc f1

wheref1  feed  sin 

The cutting temperature in both cases are given by
 avg1  K Vc a sin 90 and  avg 2  K 2Vc a sin 30

Dividing avg2 by avg1, the ratio obtained is 1. Hence, there is no change in temperature.
Problem 10: Calculate the surface roughness in plain turning of a rod at a feed of 0.3 mm/rev. If
the tool’s (a) cutting angles ( and 1) are 60º and 15º, (b) tool-nose radius r = 1 mm?

Solution: Case (a)

The maximum value of surface roughness hmax in turning process is
f 0.3
Rt    69.61μm
cot   cot 1 cot 60  cot15
Ra  Rt / 4  17.4μm

Case (b) The maximum value of surface roughness hmax in turning process is
f 2 0.32
Rt    11.25μm,
8r 8  1
Ra  Rt / 4  2.81μm
Problem 11: In an orthogonal turning by a tool having orthogonal rake angle = 0º and complementary
of side cutting edge angle  = 90º, the magnitudes of cutting force components Pz and Px were found
to be 900 N and 500 N, respectively. Determine the value of the apparent coefficient of friction (µa)
that will occur at the chip-tool interface under the above mentioned condition.

Solution: Since  = 90º and Px = Pxysin, we get

Pxy = Px = 500 N
For zero rake angle, the friction force is
F= Pxy = 500 N
And the normal force is
N = Pz = 900 N
Therefore,
µs = F/N = 500/900 = 0.55
Problem 12: In a given turning operation, by how much percentage will the average cutting zone
temperature increase if (a) only the cutting velocity is doubled? (b) only the tool-feed rate is
doubled? (c) only the depth of cut is doubled? (d) all those variables are doubled simultaneously?
Assume
 avg  Vc 0.5 f 0.5t 0.2

Solution:  avg  Vc 0.5 f 0.5t 0.2

The average cutting temperature with increase of cutting velocity, feed, and depth of cut is depicted by
20.5 - 1  0.414 41.4%
20.5 - 1  0.414 41.4%
20.2 - 1  0.15 15%

20.5 0.5 0.2 - 1  1.297 130%