SEE 1063 Week 2 Intro To Semi & PN Junction

INTRO TO SEMICONDUCTOR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rubita Sudirman

Room : P19a 05-01-07/ 01-01-13
Contact : +(60) (07) 55 57022
Email : rubita@fke.utm.my
http://rubita.fke.utm.my/
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Semiconductor
 The 4 valence electrons of one atom form a bonding arrangement with
adjoining atoms, creating eight shared valence electrons for each atom and
producing a state of chemical stability
 The recombination process occurs when electron at the conduction band falls
(due to energy loss) and filled up the holes in the valence band.
 This process does not create current, but only seen as charge cancellation.
 Free electrons tend to find holes, while holes tends to attract free electrons.
 Both are trying to re-establish the covalent bonding.
 The presence of free electrons and holes in semiconductor contributes to

current flow when potential (voltage) is applied across the material.
 When hole exists, it is easier for the neibouring valence electrons to move and
fills up the holes when voltage potential is applied.
 The process continues until current is produced.
 ‘Hole’ current occurs at the valence band, because electrons in valence band
will not become free electrons only by moving from one atom to another.
 Electron current occurs only in the conduction band and involves free electron
flows.
 In short, hole current is actually the flow of electrons, but, only electrons in the
valence band are involved.
 Hole flows in opposite direction from the electron.
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Covalent Bond
Atoms joined together by an electron sharing

process that changes the electrical conductivity of
the material, causing each group of atoms to
become stable
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Semiconductor Crystal
The 4 valence electrons of one atom form
a bonding arrangement with adjoining
atoms, creating eight shared valence
electrons for each atom and producing a
state of chemical stability
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Figure 1–9 Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal.
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Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Thomas L. Floyd
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Electronic Devices, Electron Flow Version, 5e
All rights reserved.
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Conduction Electrons
The valence electrons within the crystal
structure that manage to escape
(becoming free electrons) from their
parent atom
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
 A very pure semiconductor crystal (no impurities). Ex.: tetravalent element
(Group IV) of periodic table (Germanium & Silicon are two widely used
elements for the making of diod, transistor and ICs.
 The obvious difference between Germanium and Silicon is the amount of

energy required to cross the forbidden gap (Eg for Silicon is 1.1 eV and
0.67 eV for Germanium).
 The resistance of a semiconductor material reduced when temperature

increased. However, the resistance by the Silicon crystal is higher than the
Germanium crystal. That is why Germanium is lesser used in electronic
devices.
 This is due to the design of the circuit which heat is one of the problem
that need to be addressed. Since heat is a parameter that is hard to be
controlled, the circuit design must avoid/ reduce the heat generation as
much as possible.
 All atoms in Group IV have 4 valence electrons. In order to obtain a stable

material, every valence electrons is attached to their adjacent neighbor‘s 12
valence electron through the covalent bonding.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
 An impure semiconductor.
 An extrinsic semiconductor is obtained when an intrinsic semiconductor is
doped with impure atom.
 Doping is a process of adding impure substance to intrinsic semiconductor
material in a controlled manner so that the crystal form does not changed.
 Even a ration of 1:10 million of impure substance to intrinsic material,
could change the electrical characteristics of a substance.
 Almost all semiconductor components are composed from extrinsic
semiconductor material.
 There are two extrinsic semiconductor types: n and p.

 Both of them are obtained by adding impure atoms which has certain
electrons valence to the pure material.
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Doping
A process of adding other materials called

impurities to the semiconductor crystal to
change its electrical characteristics
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N-type Material
 N-type material is obtained by adding impure atom which
has 5 valence electrons, called as pentavalent atom. Ex.:
antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus (Gorup V material).
 When impure atom is added to semiconductor material,

an excess electron exist in the new material.
 This is due to the 5th electron from the impure atom

which did not formed any covalent bond with the
semiconductor atom.
 This electron enters the conduction band as free electron.
 No hole is created from this process.
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N-type Material
Excess electron
 Since the impure atom has donate one
excess electron, this impure atom is
called donor atom.
 This doped donor material is known as n-

type material because the free electron
has negative charge (negative carrier)
 When the pentavalent impure atom

donate its excess electron, it looses one
electron.
Figure 1.10: Crystal structure
 This process caused the atom becomes consisting donor atom
unstable because the number of electron
is no longer the same as the proton.
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Pentavalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. An antimony (Sb) impurity
atom is shown in the center. The extra electron from the Sb atom becomes a free
electron.
Thomas L. Floyd
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Boron impurity in p-type material.
Robert L. Boylestad
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9e
Fig. 1.10 Electron versus hole flow.
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

Robert L. Boylestad Inc.
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
P-type Material
 If an impure atom for Group III
was added to intrinsic
semiconductor material, p-type
material will be obtained.
 Impure atom of Group III
(trivalent atom): Boron,
Aluminium, Indium and Gallium
has 3 valence electrons.
 When trivalent atom make a
bonding to the semiconductor
material‘s atom, only 3 bonds are
formed.
 These bonds lack one electron to
complete the outest shell with 8
electrons. As a consequence, a Figure 1.11: Crystal structure
hole is formed (positive charge concicting acceptor atom.
carrier).
 No free electron produced
through this process.
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P-type material
 Since there exist a hole, the
trivalent atom is ready to
accept electron, thus it is called
as an acceptor atom.
 The increase of positive charge
carrier caused the material
been classified as p-type.
 When the trivalent impure
atom received an electron, it
becomes unstable because the
number of electron is more
than than the proton.
 This process has changed the
acceptor atom to negative ion
or acceptor ion.
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Figure 1–16 Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity
atom is shown in the center.
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Thomas L. Floyd
Atomic structure of (a) silicon; (b) germanium; and (c) gallium and arsenic.
Robert L. Boylestad
Fig. 1.4 Covalent bonding of the silicon atom.

Fig. 1.5 Covalent bonding of the GaAs crystal.

N-type and P-type Semiconductors
The process of creating N- and P-type
materials is called doping.
Other atoms with 5 electrons such as Other atoms with 3 electrons such as
Antimony are added to Silicon to Boron are added to Silicon to create a
increase the free electrons. deficiency of electrons or hole charges.
N-type P-type
Majority and Minority Carrier
 At low temperature, n-type extrinsic semiconductor has many free
electrons as its current carrier, while p-type has many holes.
 These current carriers are the majority and minority carriers of

the material.
 At room temperature or higher, negative and positive charge

carriers are created because electrons are freed from its orbit.
 Hence, there exist a few hole in n material and electron in p

material.
 This few carriers called minority carrier and it increases as the

temperature increased.
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Movement of Charge Carrier
There are 2 ways how hole and electron

move in semiconductor material:
Diffusion
 A process where the carriers (in high density
region in a semiconductor crystal) will disperse
themselves to achieve a uniform concentration
Drift Current
 results when available charge carriers move
under the influence of an applied electric field
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Movement of Charge Carrier
 Diffusion occurs when two material with different concentration is
mixed. When they are fully mixed, the concentration is uniform.
 For example, if a drop of ink fall into clean water, the ink
concentration is spread out to bigger area until the concentration
is uniform across the water.
 As in a semiconductor material, charge carrier (either hole or

electron) from the high concentration area will move to the low
concentration area until the concentration of the charge carriers is
uniform.
 Due to the movement to balance the charge concentration, charge

transfer occurs and cause the generation of electrical current.
 This current called the diffusion current because the charge carrier
diffused from one area to the other.
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Drift Current
Drift current
Concentration of
carrier electrons
 Drift current created when charge carrier is under the control of electric
field.
 Free electrons moves to the positive terminal of the applied voltage

source.
 During the movement, free electrons might bump with other atoms. Every
time it bumps, it will bounce randomly. However, the existence of electric
field, the free electrons drift toward the electric force applied, which is
towards the positive terminal.
 In brief, drift current is propotional to the applied electric (Ohm‘s Law).
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Figure 1–14 Hole current in intrinsic silicon.
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Thomas L. Floyd
(a) n-type material; (b) p-type material.

A p–n junction with no external bias. (a) An internal distribution of charge; (b) a diode symbol, with
the defined polarity and the current direction; (c) demonstration that the net carrier flow is zero at the
external terminal of the device when VD = 0 V.
Robert L. Boylestad
Fig. 1.13 Reverse-biased p–n junction. (a) Internal distribution of charge under reverse-bias conditions; (b) reverse-bias
polarity and direction of reverse saturation current.

Fig. 1.14 Forward-biased p–n junction. (a) Internal distribution of charge under forward-bias conditions; (b) forward-bias
polarity and direction of resulting current.

PN JUNCTION
Construction of semiconductor device
Diodes are constructed as a single piece

of semiconductor material with one side
doped with p-type material and the other
side with n-type material
The first integrated circuit, a phase-shift oscillator, invented by Jack S. Kilby in 1958. (Courtesy of Texas Instruments.)
Robert L. Boylestad
Computer chip. (© Stock Photo/ CORBIS.)
Robert L. Boylestad
The basic diode structure at the instant of junction formation
showing only the majority and minority carriers.

Thomas L. Floyd
After the initial surge of charge across the
junction, the depletion region acts as a
barrier to the further movement of
electrons across the junction.
Figure 1–18 Formation of the depletion region. The width of the depletion region is exaggerated for illustration purposes.

Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1–19 Energy diagrams illustrating the formation of the pn junction and depletion region.

Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1–31 Diode structure and schematic symbol.

Thomas L. Floyd
Types of Diodes
BIAS
The use of a dc voltage to establish
certain operating conditions for an
electronic device
Figure 1–20 A diode connected for forward bias.

Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1–21 A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers and the voltage due to the barrier potential across the depletion
region.

Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1–26 Forward-bias measurements show general changes in VF and IF as VBIAS is increased.

Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1–27 Relationship of voltage and current in a forward-biased diode.

Thomas L. Floyd
A diode connected for reverse bias. A limiting resistor is shown
although it is not important in reverse bias because there is
essentially no current.

Thomas L. Floyd
The diode during the short transition time immediately after reverse-
bias voltage is applied.

Thomas L. Floyd
The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased diode is due to the
minority carriers from thermally generated electron-hole pairs.

Thomas L. Floyd
V-I characteristic curve for a reverse-biased diode.

Thomas L. Floyd
Breakdown Voltage
The magnitude of the

breakdown voltage (BV)
is smaller for heavily
doped diodes as
compared to more lightly
doped diodes.
Current through a diode
increases rapidly once
breakdown has occurred.
The complete V-I characteristic curve for a diode.

Thomas L. Floyd
Ideal Diode Equation
A fit to the I-V characteristics of a diode yields the
following equation, known as the ideal diode equation:
vD
I D  I s (e nVT
 1)
The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q

VT = 25.9 mV when T = 300K, room temperature.
Temperature effect on the diode V-I characteristic. The 1
mA and 1 mA marks on the vertical axis are given as a
basis for a relative comparison of the current scales.

Thomas L. Floyd
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SEE 1063 Week 2 Intro To Semi & PN Junction

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INTRO TO SEMICONDUCTOR

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rubita Sudirman

 The presence of free electrons and holes in semiconductor contributes to

Atoms joined together by an electron sharing

 The obvious difference between Germanium and Silicon is the amount of

 The resistance of a semiconductor material reduced when temperature

 All atoms in Group IV have 4 valence electrons. In order to obtain a stable

 There are two extrinsic semiconductor types: n and p.

A process of adding other materials called

 When impure atom is added to semiconductor material,

 This is due to the 5th electron from the impure atom

 This electron enters the conduction band as free electron.

 No hole is created from this process.

 This doped donor material is known as n-

 When the pentavalent impure atom

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

 These current carriers are the majority and minority carriers of

 At room temperature or higher, negative and positive charge

 Hence, there exist a few hole in n material and electron in p

 This few carriers called minority carrier and it increases as the

There are 2 ways how hole and electron

 As in a semiconductor material, charge carrier (either hole or

 Due to the movement to balance the charge concentration, charge

 Free electrons moves to the positive terminal of the applied voltage

 In brief, drift current is propotional to the applied electric (Ohm‘s Law).

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education,

Construction of semiconductor device

Diodes are constructed as a single piece

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The magnitude of the

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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