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Article
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Figure 1. (a) UV−visible absorption spectrum, (b) Tauc plot estimating the optical band gap, (c) XRD pattern, and (d) Raman spectrum of MAPbI3
thin film. Insets show (a) d[(αhν)2]/d(hν) versus energy plot of the material and (b) lattice structure of the perovskite.
report, which came to our attention during manuscript review, material begins at that wavelength. The shouldered peak at 490
solution-processed Cu2O (and CuO) were used as hole- nm was similarly assigned to the transition from the lower
transport materials in perovskite solar cells.17 Apart from its valence band (VB2) to the CB in the two-valence-band model;
natural p-type conductivity, Cu2O also possesses a high carrier an iodide-to-lead charge-transfer transition has also been
mobility of about 100 cm2/(V·s) and a long carrier diffusion assigned to the higher-energy peak. A better view of these
length ranging up to several micrometers.18−20 Since light two photoinduced peaks can be obtained from d[(αhν)2]/
enters through the HTL in a direct (p−i−n) structure, a band d(hν) versus hν plots as shown in the inset of Figure 1a. The
gap of 2.16 eV21 moreover would allow Cu2O to absorb higher- plot shows two distinct peaks at energy values 1.67 and 2.49 eV,
energy photons while remaining transparent to the perovskite. which correspond to 742 and 498 nm, respectively. The
In this work, we report fabrication and characterization of positions match the peaks appearing in the absorption
planar perovskite solar cells based on Cu2O and MAPbI3. spectrum.
In Figure 1b, we show a plot of (αhν)2 versus energy (Tauc
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION plot) to obtain the optical gap of the perovskite. From
2.1. Characterization of Perovskite Material. To ensure extrapolation of the linear part of rgw Tauc plot (Kubelka−
formation of the perovskite, the material was characterized by Munk theory26), the optical gap of MAPbI3 could be estimated
conventional techniques. In Figure 1, we present the optical as 1.54 eV, which is in close agreement with previous reports.27
absorption spectrum of a MAPbI3 thin film deposited on a Here, the optical gap inferred the low-energy transition
quartz substrate. The spectrum that extends until the near-IR between VB1 and CB.
region has features characteristic of the perovskite material, Since the crystalline nature of semiconductors is an
indicating that MAPbI3 indeed formed during the reaction.22 important parameter in forming solar cells, we have recorded
The spectrum shows two dominant and distinct photoinduced X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the perovskite thin films.
peaks located at around 490 and 740 nm and a decrease in the The patterns moreover infer formation of the material when
absorbance in the 500−520 nm region, which are characteristics they are compared with reported results in this direction.8,28 In
of MAPbI3 films deposited from N,N-dimethylformamide Figure 1c, we show XRD patterns of MAPbI3 that yielded
(DMF) solvent.23,24 The peaks have been assigned to intense and sharp peaks at appropriate diffraction angles,
transitions arising due to a dual valence band structure (VB1 ensuring formation of the corresponding material in a single
and VB2) of methylammonium-based perovskites.25 The peak phase. The material adopted a typical tetragonal structure for
at 740 nm has been attributed to a direct gap transition from CH3NH3MX3 hybrid perovskites (M = Pb, Sn; X = halogen)
the first valence band maximum (VB1) to the conduction band formed by a three-dimensional anionic framework of PbI6
(CB) minimum, representing that the photogeneration in the octahedron with methylammonium cations in the interstitial
1429 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b11540
J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 1428−1437
The Journal of Physical Chemistry C Article
Figure 4. Current−voltage characteristics of (a) NiO/MAPbI3/PCBM, (b) Cu@NiO/MAPbI3/PCBM, and (c) Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM
heterojunctions under dark and white light illumination conditions.
presence of copper, which is known to occupy vacant metal which reached up to 8.30%. Solar cell parameters of Cu2O/
sites, led to a decrease in carrier concentration (as evidenced by MAPbI3−xClx/PCBM heterojunction have been appended in
a shift in Fermi energy away from the VB edge); in the band Table 1. Since the efficiencies of MAPbI3−xClx- and MAPbI3-
diagram of Cu@NiO/MAPbI3/PCBM (Figure S5b in Support- based devices were comparable, we continued further character-
ing Information), upon alignment of Fermi energy, a large ization of the Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM heterojunction.
energy difference hence existed between VB of Cu@NiO and We may add here that we did not target to use CuO as a
CB of MAPbI3. Since the energy difference is known to HTL that can be formed through high-temperature annealing
contribute to VOC, this parameter excelled in Cu@NiO/ of Cu2O layer, since such annealing reduces carrier mobility
MAPbI3/PCBM heterojunction, exceeding 1 V. and hence also the conductivity.34 Moreover, as compared to
We introduced Cu2O also with MAPbI3−xClx, that is, as a Cu2O, cupric oxide has a smaller band gap (∼1.4 eV);21 CuO
Cu2O/MAPbI3−xClx/PCBM p−i−n heterojunction device. I−V would hence form an opaque layer in front of the perovskite,
characteristics under dark and white light are shown in Figure 5. reducing its light-absorbing capability drastically.
In the case of a planar junction perovskite solar cell, it is of
critical importance that the layers are uniform and smooth for
better contact with the next material. For example, a smooth
MAPbI3 film would lead to better contact between the
perovskite and PCBM layers, enabling efficient electron
extraction in the devices. To compare the morphology of
HTL and MAPbI3 films deposited on different HTLs, we
recorded their atomic force microscopic (AFM) images (Figure
S7 in Supporting Information). When we compared surface
morphology of NiO, Cu@NiO, and Cu2O layers, we observed
that the root-mean-square (RMS) roughness (RRMS) of the
Cu2O layer was the least. This implied that the Cu2O/MAPbI3
interface will facilitate hole extraction in the devices. To
compare morphology of MAPbI3 films deposited on different
Figure 5. Current−voltage characteristics of Cu2O/MAPbI3−xClx/
HTLs, we recorded AFM images of HTL/MAPbI3 films. While
PCBM heterojunctions under dark and white light illumination
conditions. RRMS of the perovskite film deposited on bare glass substrate
was around 62 nm, the smoothness of the MAPbI3 film
improved by a large extent when the perovskite layer was
Here also, the dark characteristics were rectifying in nature; formed on a HTL, implying a more compact and denser nature
under illumination, the device acted as a solar cell, the η of of the film with less voids and traps. With a layer of NiO, Cu@
Figure 6. (a) −dV/dI vs (ISC − I)−1, (b) ln (ISC − I) vs (V + IRseries), and (c) dI/dV vs V plots of the heterojunctions with a range of HTLs as stated
in the legend. In the former two plots, broken lines represent linear fits to the experimental points.
Figure 7. Photocurrent hysteresis behavior of Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM heterojunction with different (a) voltage sweep directions and (b) delay times.
Symbols have the same meaning in the two plots. (c) Photovoltaic parameters of the heterojunction measured over a span of 15 days.
NiO, or Cu2O beneath, the RRMS of MAPbI3 layer was 19.4, ⎡ q ⎤ ⎛ V + IR series ⎞
15.0, and 5.3 nm, respectively. Such a smooth surface of Cu2O/ I = ISC − I0 exp⎢ (V + IR series)⎥ − ⎜ ⎟
⎣ nKBT ⎦ ⎝ R shunt ⎠
MAPbI3 heterojunction would allow formation of a uniform
(1)
PCBM layer leading to better contact between these two layers
and hence unhindered electron extraction in the devices. where I is current flowing through the external load, ISC is light-
Improved η in Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM could therefore be due induced current, I0 is dark saturation current density, V is
applied voltage, n is the ideality factor, KB is the Boltzmann
to efficient hole and electron extractions at the two interfaces. A constant, T is temperature, and q is electron charge. Equation 1
homogeneous ETL would furthermore allow deposition of a reduces to
smooth top Al electrode, ensuring reflection of unabsorbed
q
photons. ln(ISC − I ) = ln I0 + (V + IR series)
2.4. Junction Properties. Apart from the solar cell nKBT (2)
parameters, such as VOC, ISC, fill factor, and η, we have
when the contribution of Rshunt is neglected. From the first
analyzed the I−V characteristics further. It is imperative that an derivative of eq 2, Rseries of the devices can be evaluated as
efficient solar cell structure would possess low series resistance
and high shunt resistance. While low series resistance (Rseries) dV nKBT 1
− = R series +
improves charge extraction possibilities, large shunt resistance dI q (ISC − I ) (3)
(Rshunt) would reduce recombination losses. We therefore
Equation 3 allowed us to determine the series resistances of our
analyzed the I−V curves to evaluate the resistances (Rseries and
devices, based on the three HTLs, when we plotted −dV/dI
Rshunt) of the solar cells. versus (ISC − I)−1 (Figure 6a). Equation 3 in addition yielded
Planar-structured solar cells can in general be treated as a the ideality factor (n) from the slope of the linear fit. When
single-junction diode; I−V characteristics of such diodes can be Rseries of the device is available, it may be used in eq 2 to
expressed as determine I0 as intercept, with the ordinate of the linear fit to ln
1433 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b11540
J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 1428−1437
The Journal of Physical Chemistry C Article
(ISC − I) versus (V + IRseries) plots in the higher ISC − I region 0.35 mA/cm2 and 0.01 V, which amounted to 2% and 1% with
(Figure 6b). respect to the magnitude of the parameters, respectively. A low
Rshunt of devices could also be evaluated from eq 1 as hysteresis effect in Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM could be achieved,
q presumably due to a morphologically superior Cu2O layer on
dI 1
− = + I0eqV / nKBT which the perovskite film was deposited. The low hysteresis in
dV R shunt nKBT (4) these devices moreover implied that the parameters achieved in
Here, the contribution of Rseries was neglected. From plots of the solar cells appeared truly due to efficient charge separation
dI/dV versus V (Figure 6c), Rshunt could be estimated from the at p−i and i−n interfaces of the direct p−i−n heterojunctions.
reciprocal of the ordinate at V = 0. The other term, namely (q/ 2.6. Stability. In perovskite solar cells, stability has
nKBT)I0, could be neglected due to a low value of I0. The values remained an issue since their inception.39,40 The instability
of Rseries, Rshunt, I0, and n, as obtained from the above analysis, apparently occurs due to degradation of the perovskite (and
are listed in Table 2. The values show that Rseries was the lowest also spiroMeOTED) upon exposure to oxygen, moisture, UV
and Rshunt was the highest in the Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM radiation, temperature, and the solvents and additives used
heterojunction as compared to the corresponding resistances of during processing of the materials. In order to protect the
the devices based on the other two hole-transport materials. materials and the devices from oxygen and moisture, we
The improved fill factor strongly indicates a reduction in fabricated the devices and characterized them in a glovebox. We
recombination loss as a result of Cu2O incorporation. However, did not use any additives; neither did we use any encapsulation.
the value is still lower than the reported results and thus may No special effort was undertaken to protect the devices from
have limited the η of the devices. The value of I0 was at least 2 UV radiation or from normal indoor illumination. Parameters
orders of magnitude lower in the Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM of the solar cell recorded once a day over a fortnight are shown
heterojunction. The ideality factor was also substantially in Figure 7c. The devices were found to possess about 60% of
lower in the Cu2O based devices. The junction properties are their initial performance after a fortnight.
hence favorable in the Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM heterojunction,
and the analyses are in concurrence with the superior solar cell 3. CONCLUSION
parameters that we observed in this device. In conclusion, we have introduced Cu2O as a hole-transport
In a heterojunction solar cell, the value of the ideality factor material in perovskite solar cells having a direct p−i−n
represents junction quality and the carrier recombination structure. When we determined the band edges of Cu2O and
mechanism. For such a solar cell, the ideality factor (n) is the perovskite (MAPbI3) and the energy levels of PCBM from
typically between 1 and 2. The value of n approaches unity dI/dV spectra that have correspondence to the material’s DOS,
when the diode current of a pn junction is dominated by carrier we observed that p−i and i−n interfaces formed type II band
diffusion in the neutral region of the semiconductors. When alignment, enabling charge separation at both of them. Due to
carrier recombination in the depleted region dominates the such an appropriate band diagram, the Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM
diode current, the ideality factor approaches 2. In most cases, heterojunction when sandwiched between ITO and aluminum
both phenomena take place simultaneously and hence n lies electrodes yielded an efficiency of 8.23%. The value excelled
between 1 and 2. In our efforts, the ideality factor was higher when compared to heterojunctions based on other HTLs, such
than 2 in all the devices. Such a value meant that recombination as NiO and copper-doped NiO. In the rest of the paper, we
of trapped charges was prevalent in those devices.35 present our results on diode parameters. Such parameters
From eq 1, VOC of the devices could be derived as showed that the higher efficiency in Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM
devices was due to low series resistance, high shunt resistance,
nKBT ⎛ ISC ⎞
VOC = ln⎜ ⎟ and low ideality factor, leading to a low recombination loss as a
q ⎝ I0 ⎠ (5) result of Cu2O incorporation in a direct-structured perovskite
solar cell.
With the values of n and I0 being available, we went on to
evaluate VOC of the devices, and these values are listed in Table
2. The values matched reasonably well with VOC values 4. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
observed in the I−V characteristics under illumination, 4.1. Materials. Methylamine (MA, CH3NH2), hydrogen
implying correctness of the device parameters, such as Rseries, iodide (HI), anhydrous lead iodide (PbI2) and lead chloride
Rshunt, I0, and n. (PbCl2), N,N-dimethylformamide, anhydrous, 99.8% (DMF),
2.5. Hysteresis in Current−Voltage Characteristics. copper(II) chloride dihydrate (CuCl2·2H2O), and chloroben-
Perovskite solar cells having mesoscopic36 or planar junction37 zene (99.5%) were purchased from Sigma−Aldrich Chemical
structure have both been reported to show anomalous Co. Phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) (99%) was
hysteresis in their I−V characteristics, making it difficult to purchased from M/s SES Research, Houston, TX.
accurately represent the device performance. The hysteresis 4.2. Synthesis of Perovskites. We synthesized
behavior has been reported to depend on the voltage sweep CH3NH3PbI3 and CH3NH3PbI3−xClx following a reported
direction, sweep speed or delay time, and light soaking of the route that contained a couple of steps. 23,27 At first,
devices.38 These effects led to either over- or underestimation methylammonium iodide (CH3NH3I) was synthesized by
of the device performance. To ensure a high degree of accuracy reacting methylamine (CH3NH2) (13.5 mL, 40 wt % in
of our I−V measurements, we characterized the devices under aqueous solution) and hydroiodic acid (15.0 mL, 57 wt % in
two voltage sweep directions and at various sweep rates or water) in an ice bath for 2 h. When the reaction that produced
delay times. As can be seen in Figure 7a,b, the Cu2O-based CH3NH3I in the form of white powder was complete, the
device exhibited a not-so-significant amount of hysteresis in the solvent was evaporated by use of a rotary evaporator at 50 °C
I−V characteristics under illumination conditions. The for 1 h. The precipitate was then collected, washed with diethyl
deviations in ISC and VOC with a range of delay times were ether (99.7% Merck) three times, dried at 60 °C in a nitrogen-
1434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b11540
J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 1428−1437
The Journal of Physical Chemistry C Article
filled glovebox overnight, and finally stored in the glovebox for Information. Thickness of NiO and Cu@NiO thin films was
further use. around 40 nm each.
To prepare thin films of CH3NH3PbI3 and Cu2O thin films were grown on ITO substrates by the SILAR
CH3NH3PbI3−xClx, a one-step process was followed in both technique, in which highly pure copper(II) chloride dihydrate
cases. A solution of CH3NH3PbI3 was prepared by mixing (CuCl2·2H2O), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), and hydro-
CH3NH3I and PbI2 at 1:1 equimolar ratio in DMF. The gen peroxide (H2O2) were used as copper precursor,
solution was allowed to stir overnight at 70 °C in the glovebox complexing agent, and oxidizing agent, respectively. Dehy-
that had oxygen and moisture levels below 0.1 ppm each to drated methanol acted as a solvent during the film formation
obtain a yellow homogeneous and transparent solution of process. The cationic precursor was prepared by dissolving 0.1
CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite. To form CH3NH3PbI3−xClx, the
M of the copper salt (∼341 mg) in 20 mL of methanol,
reactants, composed of 3:1 molar ratio of CH3NH3I and
followed by complexation with 25% NH4OH at pH 11.8. In
PbCl2 in DMF, underwent the same reaction protocol in the
glovebox. doing so, the light green homogeneous solution of the copper
salt turned deep blue. The film formation process was carried
PbI 2 + CH3NH3I → CH3NH3PbI3 out at room temperature in an automated multivessel dip-
coating unit (Apex Instruments Co. Pvt. Ltd.). The substrates
PbCl 2 + 3CH3NH3I → CH3NH3PbI3 − xCl x + CH3NH3Cl were dipped in (i) copper precursor, (ii) methanol, (iii) H2O2
Upon heating, methylamine hydrochloride decomposed into solution (1%, diluted in methanol) for 10 s to oxidize the
hydrochloric acid and methylamine as adsorbed copper ions that could be inferred from formation of
bubbles, and (iv) methanol, all kept in separate beakers, in
CH3NH3Cl → HCl( ↑ ) + CH3NH 2( ↑ ) sequence for the growth of Cu2O films. The steps were cycled
4.3. Characterization of Materials. The materials were to obtain a desired thickness of Cu2O thin films (40 nm), which
characterized by optical absorption and photoluminescence were finally annealed at 170 °C for 20 min.
(PL) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns, and Following a transfer of HTL-coated ITO substrates to the
Raman spectroscopy. The measurements were carried out with glovebox, thin films of the perovskites were spun on such
a Shimadzu UV-2550 spectrophotometer and Spex Fluoromax substrates at 2500 rpm for 60 s. The films were left in the
4P emission spectrophotometer, Bruker D8 advanced X-ray glovebox for 30 min for slow evaporation of the solvent,
powder diffractometer (Cu Kα radiation, λ = 1.54 Å), and a preceded by annealing at 100 °C for 30 min (45 min for
Horiba Jobin-Yvon triple-grating Raman spectrometer system CH3NH3PbI3−xClx) to promote crystallization of the perov-
(model number T64000) using 514 nm excitation of an argon- skites. Thickness of CH3NH3PbI3 and CH3NH3PbI3−xClx layers
ion laser source (Stabilite 2017, Spectra Physics), respectively. was 270 nm for both. As the n-type ETL layer, PCBM was spun
In addition, the materials were characterized with a scanning from a 17 mg/mL chlorobenzene solution followed by further
tunneling microscope (STM). We used a Nanosurf Easyscan2 annealing at 100 °C for 15 min. Thickness of the ETL was 15
STM in ambient conditions to record tunneling current
nm, which was measured by forming its separate film on a
through ultrathin films of Cu2O and other HTLs, perovskites,
and PCBM. From the tunneling current, we determined substrate. The device fabrication process was completed by
differential conductance (dI/dV) that is known to have a thermal evaporation of aluminum at a pressure below 5 × 10−6
correspondence to the density of states (DOS) of semi- Torr as the top electrode. Here, the evaporation chamber was
conductor materials.41 This enabled us to locate conduction attached to the glovebox, allowing easy transfer of the films
and valence band edges (CB and VB, respectively) of the from the glovebox to the chamber. Thermal evaporation
inorganic semiconductors with respective to their Fermi energy. through a shadow mask was carried out at 0.2 Å/s until a
For PCBM, the dI/dV spectrum located its highest occupied thickness of 100 nm was achieved. With the widths of ITO and
molecular orbitals (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular Al strips being 1/8 in. each and orthogonal to each other, this
orbitals (LUMO), respectively. For STM measurements, tip completed the device fabrication process of four cells, each one
voltage was applied with respect to the substrate. At a positive having an area of 10 mm2, on a single glass substrate.
voltage, the tip therefore withdrew electrons from the 4.5. Device Characterization. Current−voltage (I−V)
semiconductor; the peaks in the positive voltage of DOS characteristics of the devices under dark and illumination
spectrum hence denoted the VB (or HOMO) of the conditions were recorded with a Keithley 2636 electrometer
semiconductors. Similarly, the peaks at negative voltages, at using LabTracer software. Electrodes of the devices, which were
which electrons could be injected from the tip to a kept in the glovebox, were connected to the electrometer via
semiconductor, provided the location of the CB (or LUMO). pressure-loaded spring contacts. A 300 W solar simulator
4.4. Device Fabrication. All the planar perovskite solar (Newport-Stratfort model 76500) attached with an AM1.5 filter
cells were built on patterned ITO-coated glass substrates (sheet
placed outside the glovebox acted as a source for illumination.
resistance = 15 Ω/square). Prior to deposition of a HTL, the
substrates were cleaned following a usual protocol, followed by Intensity of the simulated solar light on the device was 100
UV−ozone treatment for 20 min that ensured better contact mW/cm2. While I−V characteristics were recorded under
with the layer. NiO and copper-doped NiO (5 at. %, Cu@NiO) illumination conditions, regions outside the cell area were
layers were formed via spin-coating from their respective masked to avoid any contribution from neighboring areas or
solutions. Both pristine and copper-doped NiO thin films were cells. Bias was swept toward both directions and also in loops.
also formed by spin-coating their corresponding hydroxide To study stability of the devices, the cells, shelved in the
solutions at 3000 rpm for 30 s, followed by annealing at 425 °C glovebox, were characterized once per day for a fortnight. The
for 15 min. The reported method followed to form NiO and cells were neither encapsulated nor protected from exposure to
Cu@NiO layers31,32 is also briefly stated in Supporting usual room light.
1435 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b11540
J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 1428−1437
The Journal of Physical Chemistry C Article
■
*
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information
(10) Subbiah, A. S.; Halder, A.; Ghosh, S.; Mahuli, N.; Hodes, G.;
Sarkar, S. K. Inorganic Hole Conducting Layers for Perovskite-Based
Solar Cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 1748−1753.
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the (11) Ye, S. Y.; Sun, W. H.; Li, Y. L.; Yan, W. B.; Peng, H. T.; Bian, Z.
ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b11540. Q.; Liu, Z. W.; Huang, C. H. CuSCN-Based Inverted Planar Perovskite
Additional text describing growth of NiO and Cu@NiO Solar Cell with an Average PCE of 15.6%. Nano Lett. 2015, 15, 3723−
3728.
thin films and seven figures showing optical absorption
(12) Chiang, C. H.; Tseng, Z. L.; Wu, C. G. Planar Heterojunction
and XRD of CH3NH3PbI3−xClx perovskites; EDX of Perovskite/PC71BM Solar Cells with Enhanced Open-Circuit Voltage
perovskites; optical absorption, Tauc plots, and XRD of via a (2/1)-Step Spin-Coating Process. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2,
NiO and Cu@NiO thin films and of Cu2O thin film 15897−15903.
formed through SILAR technique; energy band diagrams (13) Hu, L.; Peng, J.; Wang, W. W.; Xia, Z.; Yuan, J. Y.; Lu, J. L.;
of NiO/MAPbI 3 /PCBM and Cu@NiO/MAPbI 3 / Huang, X. D.; Ma, W. L.; Song, H. B.; Chen, W.; et al. Sequential
PCBM; histogram of VOC, ISC, η, and fill factor of Deposition of CH3NH3PbI3 on Planar NiO Film for Efficient Planar
Cu2O/MAPbI3/PCBM solar cells; and surface morphol- Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS Photonics 2014, 1, 547−553.
ogies of perovskite films (PDF) (14) Kim, J. H.; Liang, P. W.; Williams, S. T.; Cho, N.; Chueh, C. C.;
Glaz, M. S.; Ginger, D. S.; Jen, A. K. Y. High-Performance and
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Environmentally Stable Planar Heterojunction Perovskite Solar Cells
Based on a Solution-Processed Copper-Doped Nickel Oxide Hole-
Transporting Layer. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 695−701.
(15) Pathan, H. M.; Lokhande, C. D. Deposition of Metal
*Telephone +91-33-24734971; fax +91-33-24732805; e-mail Chalcogenide Thin Films by Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and
sspajp@iacs.res.in. Reaction (SILAR) Method. Bull. Mater. Sci. 2004, 27, 85−111.
Notes (16) Rafea, M. A.; Roushdy, N. Determination of the Optical Band
Gap for Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Copper Oxide Thin Films
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■
Prepared by SILAR Technique. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2009, 42,
No. 015413.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (17) Zuo, C. T.; Ding, L. M. Solution-Processed Cu2O and CuO as
SC acknowledges DST INSPIRE Fellowship [IF 140158]. The Hole Transport Materials for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells. Small
authors acknowledge financial assistance from DeitY, SERIIUS, 2015, 11, 5528−5532.
(18) Malerba, C.; Biccari, F.; Ricardo, C. L. A.; D’Incau, M.; Scardi,
and Nano Mission (DST) projects.
■
P.; Mittiga, A. Absorption Coefficient of Bulk and Thin Film Cu2O.
Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2011, 95, 2848−2854.
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