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 OFTHEPANAFRICANIST
THEARCHIVES
AND THEBLACKCONSCIOUSNESS-
CONGRESS
MOVEMENTS1
ORIENTATED
BROWNBAVUSILE MAABA
GOVANMBEKIRESEARCH CENTRE
AND DEVELOPMENT
UNIVERSITYOF FORTHARE

On 19 September1998, ProfessorSibusisoBhengu,the SouthAfrican

Ministerof Education,officiallyopenedthe NationalArtsand Heri-
tage CulturalCentre(NAHECS)archivesat the Universityof Fort
Hare.This archivehousesdocumentationfrom threeformerlibera-
tion movements:the PanAfricanistCongressof Azania,the Azanian
People'sOrganizationand the Black ConsciousnessMovementof
Azania.Bhengu,from 1991 to 1994 the first black rectorof Fort
Hare,had signaleda new era for the university.
It was duringBhengu'sadministrationthat the universityreceived
ANC archivaldocuments,firstlyfromthe SolomonMahlanguFree-
dom College(SOMAFCO),the ANC school in Tanzaniaduringthe
exile periodbetween1978 and 1992, followed by other documents
from ANC missionsin differentpartsof the world.2 The arrivalof

'I would like to especially thank Prof. Sean Morrow, formerlyDirector of the
Govan Mbeki Researchand DevelopmentCentre, now Departmentof History,
Universityof Fort Hare, and Prof. Tim Stapleton,TrentUniversity,Canada,for
theiradvice.I would also like to thankthe staff of the National Artsand Cultural
Centre (NAHECS)for making researchmaterial available, and for their com-
ments.These includeProf.ThembaSirayi,the Director,and the archivists,Festus
Khayundi,Noludwe Lupuwana,and PunkyKwatsha.Thanksalso for comments
from BulelwaMetuse.
2Forthe ANC Archiveslodged at Fort Hare see T. Stapletonand I. Maamoe,"An
Overview of the AfricanNational CongressArchivesat the Universityof Fort
Hare,"HA 25 (1998), 413-22. See also: S. Morrow,B. Maaba, and L. Pulumani,
"RevolutionarySchooling?Studyingthe SolomonMahlanguFreedomCollege,the
African National CongressLiberationSchool in Tanzania, 1978-1992," paper
submittedfor publicationin Social Dynamics.

History in Africa28 (2001), 417-438.

418 BrownBavusileMaaba

these sources,which are lodged in the UniversityLibrary,was fol-

lowedby the officialopeningof the ANC archiveson 17 March1996
by Deputy PresidentThabo Mbeki of behalf of Nelson Mandela.
Evenbeforethey wereofficiallyopened,the universityhad begunto
receivescholarswho combedthe documentsin an effort to recon-
structthe historyof the exiledliberationmovements.FortHarehisto-
riansalso utilizedthe archives.3
The presenceof the ANC archivesat FortHareseemsto havein-
spiredMbuleloMzamane,Bhengu'ssuccessoras Vice Chancellor,to
statethatFortHareshouldbe a homefor all SouthAfricanliberation
movements'archivalmaterial.Soon,sourcesfromthe threeliberation
movementsweresentto the universityand the formerCentrefor Cul-
turalStudies(CCS),now NAHECS,took chargeof the documents.
Whilethese paperswere beingsortedout, a buildingwas beingcon-
structedon campusto housethe papers.4
In what appearedto be a repeatof the scene at FreedomSquare
when the firstconsignmentof ANC papersarrived,dignitaries,stu-
dentsand universityofficialswatched,on 17 February1997, as the
Premierof the EasternCape,ArnoldStofile,who is also a FortHare
alumnus,turnedthe sod at the site where the new buildingwas to
stand.By the end of 1997 the buildingwas ready.Withthe archives
of Fort Hare itself, unorganizedas they are, the ANC archives,and
the joint PAC, AZAPO and BCM archivesunder NAHECS,Fort
Harehas becomea majorcenterfor researchinto the historyof South
Africanliberation.s

3See as well L.B. Maaba, "The Students of Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College,
1978-1992" (M.A., University of Fort Hare, 1999); idem., "The Social Life of the
Students of Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College, 1978-1992," paper presented at
the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre Seminar Workshop, 22
March 2000; idem., "Historians Do You Us? The Photographs, Art and Artifacts
of Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College, 1978-1992," unpublished paper; Mor-
row/Maaba/Pulumani, "Revolutionary Schooling?"; Morrow/Maaba/Pulumani,
"Education in Exile at Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College and Dakawa Devel-
opment Centre, 1978-1992," forthcoming in P. Kallaway, ed., The History of
Education Under Apartheid; S. Morrow, "The African National Congress
Dakawa Development Centre in Tanzania, 1982-1992," African Affairs 97
(1998), 497-521.
41t should be noted that NAHECS has papers of some South African literary fig-
ures, including A.C. Jordan and G. Mzamane, both renowned Xhosa writers, as
well as the papers of political movements described in the present paper. Also in-
cluded is a collection of Xhosa literature published by Lovedale Press and some of
the original manuscripts of these books.
sS. Morrow and Khayalethu Gxabalashe, "The Records of the University of Fort
Hare," HA 27(2000), 481-97.
 Pan Africanist Congress and Black Consciousness Archives 419

II

Why should the liberation movements have chosen Fort Hare as a de-
pository of their archival material? Before the establishment of Fort
Hare in 1916, different types of missionary institutions had mush-
roomed in southern Africa. Included was Lovedale Missionary Insti-
tution, which was built on the east side of the Tyume River in the
1830s near the future Fort Hare. Around 1878 James Stewart, the
Lovedale missionary and principal, suggested the idea of higher edu-
cation for black students. However, Stewart'sdream of a higher insti-
tute of learning never materialized in his lifetime, as Fort Hare was
only established in 1916, 11 years after Stewart's death, under
Alexander Kerr, the first principal of the institution. Among those
who played an important role in assisting Kerr was D.D.T. Jabavu,
the first black staff member in the institution, who taught courses in
Latin and the Bantu languages.He was the son of John TenguJabavu,
one of the founder members of the university, who was educated at
Lovedale.6
From its establishment,Fort Hare experienced a numberof phases,
firstly as the South African Native College attached to the University
of South Africa. In 1951 it acquired the status of the University Col-
lege of Fort Hare by close association with Rhodes University. In
1960, as part of the rise of apartheid,it was brought under the Minis-
try of Bantu Education, following the passing of the 1959 Promotion
of Bantu Self GovernmentAct which marked separatedevelopment in
South African educational institutions on ethnic lines.7In 1970, the
university became independentand was granted the status of the Uni-
versity of Fort Hare, but was controlled by the apartheidgovernment.
The winds of change that swept across the country in 1990, beginning
with the release of Nelson Mandela and the unbanning of liberation
movements, as well as the return of exiles, were felt in Ciskei when
Lennox Sebe was overthrown by Brigadier Oupa Qgozo. At Fort
Hare, the university council and six top administrators resigned.8 A
new era had dawned for the university.

6For sources that touch on Jabavu see for example, C. Higgs, The Ghost of Equal-
ity: The Public Lives of D.D.T Jabavu of South Africa, 1885-1959 (Athens,
1997); S.J. Ngqongqo, "Mpilo Walter Benson Rubusana, 1858-1910: The Making
of the New Elite in the Eastern Cape" (M.A., University of Fort Hare, 1996),
Monica Wilson, ed., Freedom for My People. The Autobiography of Z.K.
Mathews: Southern Africa, 1901 to 1968 (London, 1993).
7Morrow/Gxabalashe, "Records."
8Fort Hare Newsletter 1992, 4.
420 Brown BavusileMaaba

The appointmentof Bhengumarkedthe re-emergence of the insti-

tutionfromapartheidand was soon followedby the appointmentof
OliverTamboas the firstblackChancellorof the Universityin 1991.
In the early1940s O.R. Tambohad beenexpelledfromthe university
followinghis participationin studentpolitics.Tambo,however,was
not the only renownedleaderproducedby this university,whichwas
the cradlefor blackhighereducationin southernAfricaand also at-
tractedstudentsfrom as far as Kenya.Includedin these is Nelson
Mandela,sentencedto life imprisonment at the RivoniaTrialof 1964
and in 1994, firstpresidentof a democratically-elected governmentin
SouthAfrica.Fromthe liberationmovementswhosearchivesare with
NAHECScameleaderslike RobertMmangalisoSobukwe,founderof
the PAC,who was imprisonedat RobbenIsland.He was a memberof
the ANC youthleagueat FortHareandPresidentof the StudentRep-
resentativeCouncilin 1948.9Anotherwas SabeloQqwetawhosenom
de guerrewas SabeloPhama.A FortHarestudentfrom1971 untilhis
expulsion in 1973 following a student strike, he later becamethe
commanderof the AzaniaPeoplesLiberationArmy(APLA)and the
PAC Secretaryof Defense.'l Fromthe BlackConsciousnessMove-
mentcamethe youngand militantBarneyPityana,one of the leading
proponentsof the organizationin the early1970s, exiled laterin the
decade.11
Thereis no doubtthatFortHaremanagedto host the archivesbe-
causeit is the oldestinstitutionof higherlearningfor blackpeoplein
southernAfricaand claims many famousgraduates.Coupledwith
this is the fact that FortHare, or at least an importantsectionof its
students,haveidentifiedwith the historyof resistanceagainstapart-
heidand indirectlyplayedan importantrole in the strugglefor libera-
tion in Africa.Bhenguechoed this in his speechduringthe official

9B. Pogrund, Sobukwe and Apartheid (London, 1990).

l'UFH NAHECS, Box 9. "The Biography of Comrade Sabelo (Victor Phama)." It
was common in exile for those who left South Africa to use pseudonyms in an ef-
fort to thwart the South African security forces. See, for instance, Shubin, ANC: A
View from Moscow (Bellville, 1999); S. Ellis and T. Sechaba, Comrades Against
Apartheid: the ANC and the South African Communist Party in Exile (London,
1992); Maaba/Morrow/Pulumani, "Education in Exile."
" For sources on BCM see T. Sono, Reflections on the Origins of Black Conscious-
ness in South Africa (Pretoria, 1993); B. Pityana et al, eds., Bounds of Possibility:
The Legacy of Steve Biko and Black Consciousness (Claremont, 1991); R Fatton,
Jr.. Black Consciousness in South Africa: The Dialectics of Ideological Resistance
to White Supremacy (New York, 1986); A. Stubbs, ed., Steve Biko: I Write What I
Like (New York, 1978), M. Mangena, On Your Own: Evolution of Black Con-
sciousness in South Africa/Azania (Braamfontein, 1989).
 Pan AfricanistCongressand BlackConsciousnessArchives 421

openingof the NAHECSarchives.He assertedthat "[i]tis ... appro-

priatethat the liberationarchivesbe housedat an academicinstitu-
tion that history forged into the alma mater of our liberation
struggle"and furtherassertedthat "IbelieveFortHarehas beenpro-
videdwith historicalammo[sic]andit shouldcontinuethe job of lib-
eration."12No wonderthatin 1996, duringthe alumnihomecoming
ceremony,one of the veteransfromLesothourgedhis fellowalumni
to "sendyourchildrento FortHare."'3

III

Politicswithinthe ANC in the late 1950s werenot as stableas an on-

looker might have thought.Withinthe ANC were those known as
Africanists,advocatesof BlackNationalismwho saw the ANC as be-
ing dominatedand controlledby communistsand whiteliberals.The
Africanistsbelievedthat the ANC was too moderatein its approach
to the struggleagainstapartheidand criticizedthose who endorsed
the ANC'sFreedomCharter,withits claimthat "SouthAfricabelongs
to all who live in it."14These were led by Robert Mmangaliso
Sobukweand often met in Dube, Soweto to discuss politics. The
groupalso includedZephaniahMothopeng,a teacherexpelledwhen
BantuEducationwas introduced,andwhoselife was characterized by
repeatedarrests,PeterRaboroko,also a teacherby profession,seenas
the leadingexponentof Africanism,andPotlakoLeballowhosehouse
in Dubewas usedfor politicaldiscussions.It was Sobukwe'sspeechin
1949, whilehe was the Presidentof the StudentRepresentative Coun-
cil at Fort Hare, that many saw as planting the seeds of Pan-
Africanismin SouthAfrica.IsAftermuchsoul-searching and tension,

'2Keynote Address by Prof. S.M.E. Bhengu, Minister of Education at the Inaugu-

ral of the Centre for Cultural Studies, Fort Hare University, 19 September 1998.
13As part of the Fort Hare community, I was an eyewitness to this gathering.
14T.Lodge, "The Pan-Africanist Congress, 1959-1990" in I. Liebenberg et al, eds.,
The Long March: The Story of the Struggle for Liberation in South Africa
(Pretoria, 1994), 104-05. Very little has been written about the PAC but see T.G.
Karis and G.M. Gerhart, eds., From Protest to Challenge: a Documentary History
of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1990: a Documentary Survey (Oxford,
1991); B. Pogrund, How Can a Man Die Better? The Life of Robert Sobukwe
(Johannesburg, 1990); B. Leeman, "Africanist Political Movements in Lesotho and
Azania (South Africa), 1980-1984: The Origins and History of the Basotholand
Congress Party of Lesotho and the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania" (PhD.,
Bremen University, 1984); idem., "The Pan Africanist Congress of Azania" in P.
Alexander et al, eds., A Multi-Disciplinary Snapshot of the Continent in 1995
(Canberra, 1996); idem., Lesole la Mokhehle (n.p.,1991).
'"Pogrund, Sobukwe and Apartheid, 67.
422 Brown BavusileMaaba

the Africanists broke from the ANC in 1959 to form the Pan
Africanist Congress of Azania.
However, the life span of the PAC as a movement operating freely
was short-lived. Following the shooting of civilians in Sharpevilleon
21 March 1960 in an anti-pass campaign organized by the PAC, po-
litical organizations such as the PAC and ANC were banned and po-
litically active individuals including Sobukwe were arrested.The PAC
and the ANC entered a new era as many left the country to establish
these organizations in exile. Leballo and others were among those
who left South Africa to set up the PAC headquarters,first in Lesotho
and then in Tanzania.16
The bulk of the primary sources below pertain to PAC activities,
mostly between 1975 and 1994. Most of these sources shed light on
PAC history in exile, as the organization only operated above ground
for a period of a year.
Most sources in this collection are in English, although in some in-
stances, letters are written in two languages-for example, English
and an African language. In a letter written in a mixture of Zulu and
English, the Administrative Secretary of the PAC in Botswana, Joe
Mkwanazi, is warned about possible attack by the South African se-
curity forces.17Information about one mission is often to be found in
the papers of another. For instance, Mfanasekhaya Gqobose, one of
the founding membersof the PAC, left South Africa in 1962 and went
to Lesotho, where he served as Acting Treasurer-General. He was
however, arrested in Lesotho by the government for his political ac-
tivities and served a prison sentence from 1965 to 1967. He was even-
tually expelled from Lesotho in 1970, together with other PAC mem-
bers after the South African government put pressure on the Lesotho
government.'8 Unfortunately, documents from the PAC Botswana
mission have not yet been sent to Fort Hare.
The Tanzania mission was set up in 1964 following the expulsion
of the PAC from Lesotho.19
16Lodge, "Pan-Africanist Congress."
'7UFH NAHECS, Tanzanian Mission, Box 9, Unidentified person to Joe
Mkwanazi, 10 June 1986. Letters of this nature are also common in the ANC ar-
chives. See Maaba, "Students."
1'UFH NAHECS, Box 5, File 1, and Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Af-
rica): Visits Australia. In many instances the way in which African countries, more
especially the frontline states, handled the presence of South African exiles was
ambiguous, pressured as they were by the South African regime: see for instance,
Maaba, "Students;" S. Ellis and T. Sechaba, Comrades Against Apartheid: The
ANC and the South African Communist Party in Exile (London, 1992); R.
Kasrils, 'Armed and Dangerous:' My Undercover Struggle Against Apartheid (Jor-
dan Hill, 1993), Shubin, ANC.
19Lodge, "Pan-Africanist Congress," 104-24.
 Pan AfricanistCongressand Black ConsciousnessArchives 423

The papers of this mission are, at the moment, one of the largest
collections in the PAC archives with 125 boxes. Available in this col-
lection is correspondence between PAC headquartersand other PAC
offices in the world, as well as donor organizations like the UN. For
instance, a letter to Vusi Ndlovu from the InternationalLabour Office
requires a report from the PAC office on the seminar "on discrimina-
tion in the metal industry" held on the 24-28 April 1987.20 Also in-
cluded in the correspondence is a letter from Johnson Mlambo to
Bobby Dalton in Australia, in which he raises suspicion about the in-
volvement of the South African regime in the death of Samora
Machel, president of Mozambique.21Important also is a letter from
Robert Sobukwe to Major-GeneralRademeyer,Commissioner of Po-
lice, prior to the 1960 Sharpeville massacre. In this letter, Sobukwe
appeals to Rademeyer to instruct the police not use violent actions
against the people, as they were to embark on a peaceful demonstra-
tion against the Pass Laws.22
Speechesand addressesdeliveredin different places are available in
this collection. These include a speech by John Nyathi Pokela, the
chairperson of the PAC, on 21 March 1982 during the 22nd anniver-
sary of the Sharpevillemassacre. In his speech Pokela defines the role
of the PAC in the struggle:"The PAC, from its very inception, made it
clear that its aim was not to reform the system, but its total and un-
conditional elimination."23 During the 6th anniversary of the
Sharpeville massacre, administrative secretary of the PAC Joe
Mkwanzi, in a speech delivered in Mbeya, Tanzania, empathized the
role of the youth in the struggle against apartheid.24However, some
of the speeches and addressesare undated, and in some instances it is
not clear who the speaker was, or if the addressee is known, as the
name of the speaker,as well as the audience, is not given. This might
have resultedfrom the mistake of those who were typing the speeches,
or from a desire for secrecy.
Documentation on policy documents and on different meetings of

21UFH NAHECS, Tanzanian Station, Box 6, Bill Ratteree to Mr. Vusi Ndlovu, 6
July 1987.
21UFH NAHECS, Tanzanian Station, Box 6, Johnson Mlambo to Bobby Dalton,
28 November 1986.
22UFH NAHECS, Tanzanian Station, Box 9, Robert Sobukwe to Major General-
General Rademeyer, 16 March 1960.
2"UFH NAHECS, Tanzanian Station, Box 81, Speech by John Nyathi Pokela:
22nd anniversary of the Sharpville shooting, 21 March 1982, 3.
24UFH NAHECS, Tanzanian Station, Box 81, Speech by the Administrative Secre-
tary of the PAC, Joe Mkwanzi at Mbeya Region during the 6th anniversary of the
June 16 massacre.
424 BrownBavusileMaaba

the PACCentralCommitteealso formpartof this collection.Someof

the thingsdiscussedin thesemeetingswerethe ways in whichNigeria
couldassistthe PACin infiltratingammunitioninto SouthAfricaand
the uncertaintythatthe PACfacedin relationswith Mugabe'sZANU,
thoughMugabehadassuredthemof support.Also discussedin these
meetingswas the issueof cliqueswithinthe PAC.25
Documentationon variousmeetingsbetweenthe PACand other
sympatheticforcesalso formpartof thiscollection.Includedin this is
the Non-AlignedForeignMinisters'conferencein 1988, where the
SouthAfricanregimewas furthercondemnedand wherethe intensifi-
cation of the armed struggleand consumerboycotts by township
dwellerswere advocated.26Traveldocumentslike passports,visas,
travelpermits,and otheridentificationdocuments,as well as newspa-
perclippings,also formpartof this collection.
Of interestin the TanzanianMissionis documentationon the PAC
settlementknownas MosogoronearBagamoyowherethe Tanzanian
governmenthad allocated400 hectaresof landto the PACfollowing
the Sowetouprisingin 1976. In this complexthe PAChoped,like the
ANC, to bridgethe gap betweenmentaland manuallaborby estab-
lishinga "dual-purposeSecondaryNocational School in which they
wouldbe educatingthe headwith trainingthe handin a singleinstitu-
tion."27Includedin the Mosogorofilesare picturesof PACcadresin
differentworkshopsof the complex.Suchpictorialsourcesshedlight
on the lifestyleand whereaboutsof the individualsand eventscov-
ered.PACnewslettersand publicationsform part of this collection.
Some of these are Azania Combat,Azania News, The Africanist,
AzaniaStruggle,AzaniaStudent,and Izwe Lethu.
Thereare also 30 boxes of Zimbabwematerialsin this collection.
Thecorrespondence fromthismissionis differentfromthatof others,
as most of the lettersare privateor personallettersfrom friendsor
relatives.Also includedin this are postcardsand even Christmas
cards.It is throughthese lettersthat people'sstates of mind are re-

2sUFHNAHECS,TanzanianStation,Box 1: Minutesof CentralCommitteeMeet-

ings:Minutes, 1975-1982, 6.
26UFHNAHECS,TanzanianStation,Box 6, Non-AlignedForeignMinisters'Con-
ference1988.
27UFHNAHECS,TanzanianStation,Box 37, ProposedMasterPlanfor Multipur-
pose Developmentof the PACKitonga Site, 41. There are also some artifactsin
the PACcollection,but it is not clearwhetherthese came fromMosogoroor from
another PACMission. Ironically,the ANC also had a school in Tanzaniacalled
SolomonMahlanguFreedomCollege,. For this see Maaba, "Students"'Morrow/
Maaba/Pulumani,"RevolutionarySchooling?";Morrow,"DakawaDevelopment
Centre."
 Pan AfricanistCongressand Black ConsciousnessArchives 425

vealed-their feelings,experiences,andwishes.It is also throughsuch

correspondence that scholarscan reconstructthe socialhistoryof the
exiled community.One letter reads, ". . . life is very hard in exile
mfowethu,it took me timewhenI arrivein Americato get rid of frus-
trationsthatI sufferedin Zimbabwethat'swhy you knowI blundered
with that Chich[rectechick]."28Also availablein this collectionare
newspaperclippingson differenteventsin and outsideSouthAfrica.
Thereis not muchdocumentation on meetingsor reportson activi-
ties of the PACfrom this office. However,thereare speeches,state-
ments, and addresses of various PAC leaders, including Edwin
Makoti,M. Pheko,AhmedGoraEbrahim,and RobertM. Sobukwe.
Except for Sobukwe's,the speecheswere made in exile and cover
themeslike the role of Zimbabwein the liberationof SouthAfrica,
andcriticismof the SouthAfricangovernment,as well as concernson
the escalationof violence in South Africaand commemorationof
revolutionary days.29
Thereare also some obituariesof PACleadersin this collection,
incluidngthat of SabeloPhama,who died on his way backto South
AfricafromTanzaniain 1994. The previousyear he had threatened
thatAPLAwouldlaunchmassiveattacks,describingthatas "theyear
of the greatstorm."30
Thereare also 50 boxes emanatingfromPACactivitiesin London
and the UnitedKingdom.Of interestin this collectionis correspon-
denceon anti-apartheid activistsand theiractivitiesin London.One
letter directedto Englishrugby captain Will Carlingfrom Carol
Brickly,on behalfof the Cityof LondonAnti-Apartheid group,with
regard to an intended rugbygame between the England SouthAf-
and
ricareads:

Wewish to informyou that we will hold demonstrations at the

groundswherethe Springboks aredueto play.Wedo so withthe
supportof the PanAfricanistCongressof Azania,the SouthAfri-
canCouncilof SportandtheSACOSrugbyunion.31

Whilethis letterwas writtenin 1992 afterthe PACand otherlibera-

tion movementswereunbannedin 1990 and most of the exiledcom-

2HUFH NAHECS,ZimbabweStation,Box 12, undatedletterfromNew Orleansto

an unidentifiedperson.
29UFHNAHECS,see Boxes 1 and 2 of the ZimbabweMission.
3"Phama'sthreatswere widelycoveredby the mediaat the time.
31UFHNAHECS,London Station, Box 8, Carol Bricklyto Mr. Will Carling, 9
September1992.
426 BrownBavusileMaaba

munityhad, by 1992, returnedhome, the influenceof the liberation

movementson anti-apartheid groupsstill seemedto be strong.A few
photographsof demonstrators, probablyfromthe Londonanti-apart-
heid movement,hoistingplacardsaimedat the SouthAfricanregime
rangingfrom "Mangopehas been boughtby Apartheid"to "I have
told the policeeven to shoot my own child,"also formpartof these
sources.32
Some of the letters focus on PAC educational issues. Documenta-
tion, mostly correspondence on different issues between the PAC and
organizations like the World Council of Churches, British Council of
Churches, Catholic Institute for International Relations, and Com-
monwealth of Nations form part of this mission. Striking also in the
correspondence are letters relating to cooperation between the PAC
and BCM in the early days of the latter's exile between 1979 and
1983. For example, a letter dated 23 October 1979 from BCM orga-
nization secretary, Molefe Pheto, to Michael Muendane, PAC chief
representativein London, invites the PAC in its London office to co-
operate with the BCM "with regard to our [BCM] exile situation and
work,"33 and also in relation to commemoration days like "Biko
Day."34
Included also in this mission are some office diaries. These spell
out the activities and plans of the PAC in London and can be useful,
as diaries often capture the events and atmosphere of a particularday
and place. However, some of the diaries have gaps. This can make it
hard for researchers to follow exactly the daily activities of the PAC
in London.
Some newspapers are also available under this mission and include
The Sowetan, The Star, and socialist orientated newspapers like the
Voice of the International Black Revolution, Fight Racism: Fight Im-
perialism, African People's Socialist Party, and some newspaper clip-
pings. Topics of newspaper cuttings from British publications range
from the South African political situation to activities of the anti-
apartheid activists in London.3s
The archives of the PAC mission to the United Nations consists of
106 boxes. Available under this heading is correspondence between
the PAC and the UN on a variety of aspects ranging from education

32UFHNAHECS,See Box 8 of the LondonMission.

33UFHNAHECS,LondonStation,Box 2, Molefe Phetoto MichaelMuendane,23
October1979
34UFHNAHECS, London Station, Box 8, Molefe Pheto to M.N. Muendane,
1981.
3sUFHNAHECS,See, for instance,Boxes 18 and 26 of the LondonMission.
 Pan AfricanistCongressand Black ConsciousnessArchives 427

to financial issues. One letter from Mary Robertson confirms to the

PAC Permanent Observer Representative that "medical supplies" as
required by the PAC at Bagamoyo had already been sent.36 There is
also correspondence on computer discs mainly from S.E.M. Pheko,
chief representative of the PAC in the UNO, to different organiza-
tions, representatives and the PAC itself. A letter by Pheko to
Madeleine Albright, the USA permanent representative in the UNO,
states clearly on behalf of the PAC that the organization ". . . has the
honour as well as deep sorrow to convey the PAC official position ...
regardingthe tragic death of Miss Amy Biehl'sdeath [sic]."37
Included under this mission are details about the background of
some of the PAC leaders including some biographies. There is back-
ground information on Jeff Masemola, sentenced to life imprisonment
on 7 July 1963, on Robben Island.38 Included in file of Clarence
Makwetu, Presidentof the PAC from 1993 to 1996, is information on
his background and his speech at the special session of the Security
Council of the UN on 15 July 1992. It was during this gathering that
Makwetu raised concerns about the escalating violence in South Af-
rica.39Also in these files are listed political activities of the PAC lead-
ers in the struggleagainst apartheid,as well as letters to organizations
like the National Council of Churches, to universities, and to some
committees against apartheid.
Of interest in Zeph Mothopeng's file is a letter written by his wife
who was "out of employment because of severe arthritis," and also a
speech she made on 10 October 1986 which was organized by the
Special Committee against apartheidin which she raised her concerns
about her husband's health in prison. There is also the file of John
Nyathi Pokela, PAC chairman who died on 30 June 1985 after a
short illness.40In 1982 at the UN General Assembly Pokela asserted
that "... Apartheid is a crime against humanity and must be totally
eliminated."41Also, apart from speeches, statements and addresses by

36UFH HANECS: United Nations Station, Box 62, Mary Robertson to Ahmed
Gora Ibrahim, 25 May 1983.
37UFH NAHECS, Dr. S.E.M. Pheko to H.E. Madeleine Korbel Albright. Disk 1.
PAC supporters killed Amy Biehl in 1991 at Gugulethu Township and the Truth
and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa has since pardoned these.
3sUFH NAHECS, United Nations Station, Box 25, Biography of the late Comrade
Kgabi Jafta Masemola.
39UFH NAHECS, United Nations Stations, Box 25, Speech by the President of the
Pan Africanist Congress of Azania, CDE Clarance Mlamli Makwetu, delivered at
the special session of the Security Council of the United Nations on 15 July 1992.
411UFH NAHECS, United Nations Station, Box 26, Biography of John Nyathi
Pokela by Gora Ibrahim.
4'UFH NAHECS, United Nations Station, Box 26, Address by John Nyathi Pokela
428 BrownBavusileMaaba

and about PACleadersdeliveredin the UN, there are some which

were deliveredin symposiumsother than the UN. Availablealso in
this collectionare photographsof PACmembersin UN sessionsand
newspaperarticles,especiallyon PACleaders.
TheJohannesburg officeof the PAChas a collectionsimilarin size
to the Tanzanianmission,with 126 boxes. Followingthe unbanning
of the liberationmovementsin 1990, exiledmembersof the liberation
movements,includingthe PAC,returnedto SouthAfrica.This was
followedby the continuationof theiractivities,which had beencar-
riedon underground and in exile. Overthreedecadesafterits found-
ing, the PAC opened its first South Africanheadquartersbased in
Johannesburg.
Correspondence formspartof this collection.This includescorre-
spondencewith other structureswithin the country,includingPAC
branches,religiousgroups,and abroadto PACmembersand other
missionsstill in operationin exile. A letter fromJohnsonMlambo,
the Deputy Presidentof the PAC at the time, makes an appeal to
GautengMinisterof SecurityJessieDuarteto assistwith the integra-
tion of PACmembers".... into the variousdepartmentsof SouthAf-
ricanPoliceService."42 Thereis also documentationon the PACand
its viewson the negotiationswith the regimeand on the ongoingvio-
lencein SouthAfrica.
Otherdocumentsunderthis missionincludematerialon PACcam-
paigns,policies,meetings,and otherplannedactivitieswith the libera-
tion movements,andwith otherstructureswithinthe country,includ-
ing the Congressof South AfricanTrade Unions (COSATU)and
AZAPOand the government.43 Thereare also addressesby PACand
other officials.For instance,documentationon the PAC'sthird na-
tional congressheld at the Universityof Transkei,3-6 April 1992
formspartof thiscollection.Amongthe plannedactivitiesby the PAC
was assistanceto the Boipatongcommunityallegedlyattacked by
nearbyKwa MadalaHostel dwellersin which43 peoplewere killed
and manyinjured.Thereare also 48 boxes on AzanianPeoples'Lib-
erationArmyunderthis office. However,theseare restrictedpending
a decisionby the PAC.

Chairman of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania to UNO General Assembly, 9

November 1982.
42UFH NAHECS: Johannesburg Office, Box 113, Deputy-President of the PAC J.
Mlambo to the Gauteng Minister of Safety and Security, 8 August 1994.
43UFH NAHECS: Johannesburg Office, Box 93, Pan Africanist Congress Proposal
for the urgent socio-economic restructuring of the recently violated Boipatong
Squatter Community.
 Pan AfricanistCongressand Black ConsciousnessArchives 429

There is a collection of oral documentation in the form of reel-to-

reel tapes on different issues pertainingto the PAC. However, some of
the tapes do not have dates and this makes it difficult for a researcher
to ascertain when the information on the tape was recorded. In some
instances, this can be established by following the events spoken
about on the tapes. These sources as well, are essential in the recon-
struction of PAC history in exile. This paper will look at a few of
these in an effort to show the nature of these sources.

Interview with Johnson Mlambo, Tape 12

This is an interview with Johnson Mlambo on what appears to be Ra-
dio PAC aimed at spreading PAC propaganda. This was conducted in
Xhosa, and Mlambo spells out information about his lengthy jail sen-
tence from 1963 to 1983 following his role in the struggle against
apartheid. Mlambo also talks about the struggle against Ian Smith by
the Zimbabwe liberation movements and the role of the armed
struggle in the fight against apartheid. The date of the interview, 21
May 1985, is on the cover of the tape and the interview itself helps to
confirm the date.

Address to the UNO by Nyathi Pokela, Tape T76A

In this address Pokela urges the UN and the international community
to look into the issue of apartheid and how the policies have affected
the masses of South Africa. Although there is no date for this source,
it is possible that that the speech was delivered during P.W. Botha's
period in power in South Africa, as Pokela criticizes his regime.

PAC Consultative Conference Arusha, Tanzania, June-July1978.

Tape 60
Alhough the tape might have been recorded during the conference
mentioned above, what dominates the discussion is the tension within
the PAC with reference to funds. Other issues raised include the lack
of discipline within one of the PAC camps in Tanzania and tribalism
in the same camp, which led to a march to the Dar-es-Salaamoffices
by some cadres to present their grievances about the camp.

BCM(A), AZAPO, PAC, Consultative Conference held in Kadoma,

Zimbabwe, August 1991: Reel T 76A
It was at this conference that the three organizations, BCM(A),
AZAPO, and PAC resolved to form the Patriotic Front among them-
selves. and also to press that a constitutional assembly be formed for
430 BrownBavusileMaaba

the transferof politicalpower"fromthe whitesettlerminorityto the

oppressedand exploitedmajority."
Apartfromthesesources,thereis a collectionof 40 transcribedin-
terviewson the PAC donated to the archivesby the scholar Gail
Gerhart.Some of these interviewsare direct transcriptsfrom tapes
and othersare verbatimnotes. These examinethe formationof the
PACin 1958-59, its antecedentsin the YouthLeague,and the events
surroundingthe 1960 Sharpevillemassacre.
In this collectionthereare videotapesdocumentingthe historyof
the PAC,fromspeechesto ralliesand funerals.I look at a sampleof
threevideotapesin thiscollection.

VideoTV 27
The openingspeech of the video shows MakwetuaddressingPAC
supportersclad in PACtee-shirtsand waving PACflags at Umtata
stadiumin a rallycommemoratingthe Sharpvillemassacreof 1960.
Amongthe dignitariesat the rallywereBantuHolomisa,the rulerof
Transkeiand a staunchsupporterof the liberationmovements,the
PAC,and the ANC. At this gatheringMakwetusaid clearlythat the
PACwouldinvolveitselfin negotiationsonly with the thenapartheid
governmentif the landissuewas partof the agenda.

VideoNYV 44
This is an interviewwith Zeph Mothopeng,presidentof the PACat
the time,on the 3 August1989 in whatappearsto be a privatestudio.
It is in this interviewthat the apparentlytiredand ill-lookingpresi-
dent assertedthat negotiationswith the SouthAfricanregimewere
out of placeuntilcertaindemandsand issueswereaddressed.For in-
stance,to him the whitesonly electionsin SouthAfricawerean indi-
cationandcontinuationof "whitedomination."Mothopengalso em-
phasizedthat only black people could liberatethemselvesfrom the
oppressionof the apartheidstate.
VideoNYV 40 A
In this tape, the UNO specialsessionto commemoratethe death of
RobertSobukweis shown. The chairpersonof the ceremonyasked,
for the dismantlingof apartheidthroughpeacefulmeans and also
lookedat Sobukwe'scontributionto the fightagainstapartheidfrom
his studentdays at Fort Hare Universityas a memberof the ANC
YouthLeagueto the formationof the PACin 1959 and laterhis im-
prisonmentat RobbenIsland.Thechairperson's speechis followedby
addresses from representativesof organizations ranging from the Or-
 Pan AfricanistCongressand Black ConsciousnessArchives 431

ganizationof AfricanUnityto the Non AlignedMovement.Theyall

paid tributeto Sobukwefor his effortsin the struggleagainstapart-
heid.

IV
The early1960s saw the disappearance fromthe open politicalscene
of boththe ANC and PACas the two organizationshad beenbanned
in 1960 and were forced to operate undergroundfollowing the
Sharpvillemassacre.Manyleaderswereimprisonedwhile otherslike
Tamboand Leballowent into exile.The ANC suffereda majorblow
when prominentmembersof the organizationwere arrestedand
chargedwith hightreason.All werefoundguiltyand sentencedto life
imprisonmenton RobbenIslandin 1964.44A vacuumhad beencre-
atedin blackSouthAfricanpolitics.
Blackuniversitystudentsin SouthAfricahad beenfollowingpoliti-
cal activitiesin the countryand privatelyparticipatingin politicalde-
bateswhilemostmaintainedallegianceto the PACand ANC.45These
studentswere also affectedby variousformsof oppressionand ma-
nipulation.For example,they were subjectedto a tight disciplinary
code and isolatedon campusesthathad beendeliberatelybuiltin ru-
ral "tribal"areasfar fromthe mainstreamof politicalactivity.They
also dislikedthe ideathat the universitiesand especiallytheirsenates
and councilsweredominatedandcontrolledby white professorsand
lecturers.Thiswas coupledwith the fact that they were barredfrom
studyingin white universities,althoughthis did not applyto the Uni-
versityof SouthAfrica(UNISA)or to the Natal UniversityMedical
School.46
Blackstudentsbeganto mobilizeand in 1967; many joined the
UniversityChristianMovement(UCM)and two yearslaterthe South
AfricanStudentsOrganization(SASO).47 Priorto SASO,black uni-
versity students were of
part the National Union of South African
Students(NUSAS).Among the reasons for their breakawayfrom
NUSASwas thatsome blackstudentsfelt thatwhite studentswanted
44B.Hirson, Yearof Fire, Yearof Ash: The Roots of a Revolution? (London,
1979), 64.
4SManysourcescover the events of the early 1960s leadingto the Rivonia Trial,
amongthem, R. Davieset al., The Strugglefor SouthAfrica,2 (London,1988);J.
Frederikse,The UnbreakableThread,Non-Racialismin South Africa (Harare,
1990), Pogrund,How Can a Man Die Better?;N. Mandela, Long Walkto Free-
dom: The Autobiographyof Nelson Mandela(Johannesburg,1994).
46Horrel,BantuEducationto 1968 (Johannesburg,1968), 34-46.
47Hirson,Yearof Fire,64.
432 BrownBavusileMaaba

to act as masterminds behind black protest and that they sidelined

blacks in discussions. The black students took a decision:

Whereaswe the Black students of South Africa having examined

and assessedthe role of Blackstudentsin the strugglefor the eman-
cipation of the black people in South Africaand the bettermentof
their social, political and economiclot, and having unconditionally
declaredour own lack of faith in the genuinenessand capabilityof
multi-racialorganizationsand individualrights in the country to
effect rapidsocial changes. . . do commitourselvesinto the realiza-
tion of the worth of the BlackMan, the assertionof his dignityand
to promotingconsciousnessand self-relianceof the black commu-
nity.48

This new philosophy, in which black people asserted their pride in

their community was referredto as Black Consciousness.49 This phi-
losophy was expressed through SASO and the Black People's Conven-
tion, which was formed in 1972. Steve Biko, the President of SASO,
was regarded as the main thinker behind Black Consciousness. The
Black Consciousness Movement spread in the 1970s and soon after
the Soweto uprising of 1976 many students who were influenced by
this philosophy fled into exile, where they organized themselves into
the Black Consciousness Movement of Azania. This organization suf-
fered major blows when it was banned in 1977 and Biko mysteriously
died in the hands of the police in August of that year.s50
These few documents cannot be easily classified as belonging to
particularmission stations. Moreover, the documents are filed in such
a way that readers with no understanding of the differences between
the Black Consciousness Movement of Azania BCM(A), as the orga-
nization came to be known in exile, and Azanian People's Organiza-
tion (AZAPO) can be left confused. The argument of the archivists at
NAHECS is that the "archives have to keep the principal of original
order" and that since these sources were sent from the AZAPO Na-
tional Office they can only be separated with the approval of the
AZAPO office. So it is very common to find sources for both AZAPO
and BCM(A) mixed within one box or file. This it seems will be a
problem that will persist for some time. I have attempted to separate
these categories for the convenience of readers so they may know
what to expect from the two organizations, which only merged after
1994. However, for a researcher to study either the history of

4'Ibid,72.
49D.Woods, CryFreedom:Biko (New York, 1979), 73.
SOIbid.
 Pan Africanist Congress and Black Consciousness Archives 433

BCM(A) or AZAPO, one would have to go through all the boxes

available under this heading.
Also in this collection, just as in the PAC papers, some of the let-
ters are written in both English and South African indigenous lan-
guages. A letter from one individual named Dodo to another called
Mandisi in which it is explained that finally accommodation has be-
come available is written both in Xhosa and English: "Ndiyavuya
kakhulu ukwazi into ngoba indawo yokuhlala ikhona. This is very
important for the children."5' Some of the documents in this collec-
tion are handwritten. In this paper, I will first look at the BCM (A)
and then AZAPO.
Correspondenceof BCM(A) with others like the ANC dates back
as early as 1977, although there is not much from that early period.
This was not long after the Soweto uprising and the banning of BCM
later referredto as BCM(A) and other organizations which were per-
ceived as a threat to the regime. Writing to Harry Nengwekhulu, Di-
rector of External Affairs for the Black People's Convention in 1978,
Thabo Mbeki, the political secretaryin the ANC's presidentialoffice,
makes a suggestion that the two organizations meet at the end of
June.52
Very little correspondence between AZAPO and BCM(A) exists,
especially for the early years of BCM(A) in exile. In one interesting
letter to BCM(A), George Wauchope states clearly that BCM(A) and
AZAPO are two distinct organizations and distances AZAPO from
BCM(A). He asserts that "the practise of calling us your home-based
front organization as a whole . .. as perceived by the system will ren-
der us vulnerable. This becomes very serious in the light of your hav-
ing to resort to armed struggle." He further states that "we would
like to strongly urge you to desist from direct communication with
the office and/or individuals such as phone calls and letters." This
does not mean that communication between the two organizations
did not continue. It would seem that this took place but under certain
specific circumstances and conditions. There is, for instance, a letter
dated 28 March 1985 from Gaborone to South Africa in which
BCM(A) proposes that AZAPO take action against the New Zealand
All Blacks rugby team's visit to South Africa. The context of this letter
was supposed to be verbally communicated as "... the origin of this

SIUFH NAHECS: BCM(A)/ AZAPO Collection, Box 3, Dado to Mandisa, 8 No-

vember 83.
52UFH NAHECS: BCM (A)/ AZAPO Collection, Box 1, Thabo Mbeki to Harry
Nengwekhulu, 12 March 1979.
434 BrownBavusileMaaba

letter"had to be ". .. keptas secureas possibleand the originof the

letter... be conveyedto Azapomembersin verbalform."s3
Thereis also correspondencebetweenBCM(A)membersand do-
nor organizations,as well as betweenits own membersin different
countries,includingLesotho, Botswanaand the United Kingdom.
Muchis discussedin theseletters,includingproposedconferencesand
projectsby the movement,educationrelatedissues,and movesto es-
tablishnew BCM(A)branches.
Speechesand addressesof BCM(A)membersrangefromthe days
of O.R. Tiro, Presidentof the SRCat the Universityof the North in
1972, to othersgivenin exile and backin SouthAfricafrom1990.
In the 1972 graduationspeech,which led to his expulsion,Tiro
challengedthe segregatedsystemof educationin SouthAfricaand the
way in which the Universityof the North was beingrun. "Timeand
againI ask myself,"he said, "How do black lecturerscontributeto
the administrationof this University?For if you look at all the com-
mitteesthey arepredominantly whiteif not completelywhite."54It is
said that Tiro was the firstpersonto be assassinatedin exile when a
letterbombexplodedin his handswhilein Botswanain 1973. Speak-
ing at a conferenceorganizedby the ZambiaAssociationfor the Lib-
erationof SouthernAfrica,BafanaButheleziaccusedthe Bantustan
leadersof beingstoogesof the SouthAfricanregime.At thisgathering
he statedthatthe peoplehaddemonstrated throughthe Sowetoupris-
ing that they were to
prepared fight for theirliberation.ss
Someminutesof BCM(A)meetingsare also in this collection.In a
conferencereportof the Canadaregion,amongotherissuesdiscussed
was fundraisingby the branch,in whichit was agreedthat employed
membersof the BCM(A)would contribute$5.00 monthly,while the
unemployedwould give what they could afford. It was also agreed
that an effort had to be made to sell BCM(A)tee-shirtsand but-
tons.56
Another document in this collection is a 1980 draft constitution of

s3UFH NAHECS: BCM (A)/ AZAPO Collection, Box 1, Makgolo Makgolo to

people addressed as "comrades." 28 April 1985. UFH NAHECS: BCM (A)/
AZAPO Collection, Box 2, Gerrit de Jager to Sello Pella, 23 January 1983.
54UFH NAHECS: BCM(A)/AZAPO Collection, Box 13, Speech delivered by O.R.
Tiro on graduation Day on behalf of the graduates, 1972. For more on Tiro see.
Hirson, Yearof Fire.
55UFH NAHECS: BCM(A)/AZAPO Collection, Box 13, and Speech by Bafana
Buthelezi at a conference organized by the Zambian Association for the Liberation
of South Africa.
56UFH NAHECS: BCM(A)/AZAPO Collection, Box 9 Canada Region Conference
Report 25-27 July 1987.
 Pan AfricanistCongressand Black ConsciousnessArchives 435

the BCM(A),which stipulatesthat ". . . the basiccauseof the prob-

lem in Azaniais Capitalismand Imperialismand therefore.. ." in
SouthAfrica,the situationdemands"theadoptionof the Revolution-
ary theoryand practiceof Marxism-Lenin as a guidingideology."s7
Newspaperclippings,thoughvery few, form partof this collection,
and this includesan interviewwith TsietsiMashinini,in whichhe ex-
plains his role before the Soweto uprising and his views on
BCM(A).ss
Interestingin this sectionare sourceson the BCM(A)role in the
Dukwe Refugee Settlement,about 130 kilometersnorthwest of
Francistown, Botswana. This settlement was initiated by the
Botswanagovernmentto serveas a campfor refugeesfrom "politi-
cally disturbedcountries,particularlyin SouthernAfrica,"and in-
cluded Angolans,South Africans,Namibians,and Zimbabweans.
Thiscommunity,like the ANC settlementsat Mazimbuand Dakawa
in Tanzania,aimed at self-reliancethroughagricultureand other
means.It would be interestingto makea studyof thesecommunities
andsee whethertheyall drewfromthe samesourceon the conceptof
TheDukwesettlementhada sizeablenumberof students
self-reliance.
from the Soweto uprisingand an effort was made to give "literacy
andnumeracyprogrammes" to students,althoughthisis describedas
"aprecariousprogram... undertaken by thoseamongthemwho had
already advanced in their education before they left the country."59
Also includedin the Dukwe materialis a list of at least 67 Dukwe
residents,which might be of vital importancefor a historianwho
wantsto undertakean oral historyof the settlement.Thistype of re-
searchwould be vital,as thereareveryfew documentson Dukwe.
Therearealso BCM(A)newslettersand publicationsin thiscollec-
tion which includeBlackConsciousnessMovementof Azania:One
Azania,One Nation, BCM(A)InternalNewsletter,BCM(A):Imbono
namalingeethu, and Solidarity:Official Organ of the Black Con-

"7UFHNAHECS:BCM(A)/AZAPOCollection,Box 19, and BlackConsciousness

Movementof AzaniaDraftConstitution-1980.
"XUFH NAHECS:Box 16, BCM (A)/AZAPOCollection:Newspaperarticle:inter-
view with TsietsiMashinini:ReprintedfromInter-continental
Press,15 November
1976 and 14 March 1977. On the role of Mashininion the Soweto uprisingsee:
Hirson, Yearof Fire;S.M. Ndlovu, The Soweto Uprising:Counter-Memories of
June 1976 (Randburg,1998).
59UFHNAHECS:BCM(A)/AZAPOCollection,Box 18, Documenton the Dukwe
settlement,The Dukwe settlementmade headlinesagain when the secessionists
from the CapriviStripin Namibia were accommodatedthereafter beinggranted
politicalasylumby the Botswanagovernmentin 1999. For detailson SOMAFCO
see Maaba, "Students."
436 BrownBavusileMaaba

sciousnessMovement.Someof these belongto an earlierperiodbe-

fore exile and includeSASO Bulletin,1977 and SASONewsletter,
1975.

Little has been writtenabout AZAPO(AzanianPeople'sOrganiza-

tion),whichwas formedin 1978, thusbecomingthe firstnew organi-
zationto be launchedin SouthAfricafollowingthe banningof all or-
ganizationsin 1977. Fromthe onsetAZAPOmadeit clearthatit was
unashamedlya followerof the BlackConsciousnessphilosophy.This
organizationsuffereda majorblow when its leadershipwas arrested
soon afterits formation.In September1979 a new AZAPOexecutive
was formed following a conferencein Roodeportat which Curtis
Nkondo, the one-timeChairmanof the Teachers'ActionCommittee,
whichhad beenthe mastermindbehindthe resignationof teachersaf-
ter the Sowetorevolt,was electedits president.60
Later,the presenceof AZAPOin SouthAfricaled to tensionwith
ANC supportersand this in some instances,disturbedthe day-to-day
runningof the schoolsin the townshipsandsometimescausedblood-
shed. as the AzanianStudentsMovement(AZASM),AZAPO'ssec-
ondarystudentwing, clashedwith that of the ANC, the Congressof
SouthAfricanStudents(COSAS).61 AZAPOwas also seenby someas
dominatedby intellectualswhose rhetoricideasand strategiescould
not be understoodby the massesof SouthAfrica.Its claim to have
supportfrom the workingclass seems to have been exaggerated.62
However,as has beensaid,littlehas yet beenwrittenaboutthis orga-
nization. The sources below could help in the reconstructionof
AZAPO'shistory.Bannedin 1987, the AZAPOwas forced under-
groundand into exile. It was unbannedin 1990 and its mergerwith
BCM(A)followed. AZAPOdid not take part in the South African
generalelectionsof 1994 ,butdid participatein the 1999 electionsaf-
ter it had suffereda blow when earlierin the year, some expelled
membersformedthe SocialistPartyof Azania.63
The AZAPOarchivescontaindifferenttypesof correspondence be-
tweenAZAPOheadquarters in Johannesburg and its brancheswithin

6"T.Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 (New York, 1983), 344.
61As a secondary school student in Kwa-Thema, a township in the East Rand,
Johannesburg, I witnessed these clashes.
62Lodge, Black Politics, 346-47.
63S. Maseko, "The PAC, AZAPO and the UDM" in A. Reynolds, ed., Election
'99: South Africa (Claremont, 1999), 128-29.
 Pan Africanist Congress and Black Consciousness Archives 437

the country and its youth league, AZAPO Student Convention

(AZASCO), as well as with other organizations such as the AZAPO
Congress of Trade Unions, (AZACTU). There are letters to other
countries, which seem to have sympathized with AZAPO in its
struggle against apartheid. Of interest are letters to two figures on op-
posite poles, Colonel Mucammar Gadhdhafi of Lybia and Bill
Clinton, then president-elect of the USA. In a letter to Gadhdhafi,
Deputy Presidentof AZAPO Tiyani Mabasa felt inspired by the stand
taken by Libya against the "unprovoked and vicious acts of banditry
and aggression, by imperial America on the progressive people of
Libya." Ironically, the letter to Clinton congratulates him after his
presidential elections and hoped his ascendance to the presidency
would mark "the survival of democracy."64
There are other forms of documentation in this collection, which
include reports on AZAPO activities and documentation on its
branch meetings. Included is a report on the Tenth Annual Congress
of AZAPO from 22-23 December 1990 which focused on the
progress and activities of AZAPO and its relations with other libera-
tion movements.65 Other sources include documentation on a meet-
ing held by AZAPO, BCM(A) and PAC in Kadoma, Zimbabwe on 9-
10 August 1991. Here the three organizations discussed issues relat-
ing to negotiations with the South African government. Other matters
discussed related to sanctions against South Africa and the issue of
violence within the country.66There is also policy documentation in
which criticism is leveled against the apartheid regime and in which
AZAPO calls for an integrated education system.67 There are also
press releases on various issues, including the ongoing violence in the
country, negotiations with the regime and class boycotts by students.
There are some joint AZAPO and BCM(A) press statements from af-
ter 1990. These include a press release on the Biko memorial and an-
other on boycotts of sporting entertainmentfigures who performedin
South Africa. Newspaper clippings also form part of this collection.
There are lists of AZAPO members and telephone numbers and ad-
dresses and some biographicalmaterial on AZAPO cadres.

64UFH NAHECS: BCM (A)/AZAPO Collection, Box 1, Lybon Tiyani Mabasa to

Colonel Muamma Gaddafi, nd, AZAPO to Bill Clinton and the American people,
n.d.
65UFH NAHECS: BCM (A)/AZAPO: Box 9, Report on the Tenth Annual Con-
gress of Azapo, 22-23 December 1990.
66UFH NAHECS: BCM (A)/AZAPO Collection, Box 10, AZAPO BCMA PAC
Resolutions of Kadoma Consultation August 1991.
67UFH NAHECS: BCM(A)/AZAPO Collection, Box 19, AZAPO Education
Policy.
438 BrownBavusileMaaba

TheAZAPOpapersalso havenewslettersbelongingto this organi-

zation and include Azania LiberationSupport Committee,1983,
AzaniaSocialistReview,Tokoloshe:AzapoNewsletter,and Umhlaba
wethu:AZAPOKwa-ZuluRegionalNewsletter.

VI

The Universityof FortHareis about 134 kilometersfromEastLon-

don Airportand is locatedin the smalltown of Alice.The NAHECS
archivesopen at 8am and close at 4:30pmfromMondaysto Thurs-
daysandclose at 3:30pmon Fridays.Findingaidsareavailablein the
archivesto help guide researchers.Primarysourcesin the NAHECS
archives,rangingfromthe PACto BCM(A)and AZAPO,providea
fascinatingchallenge for researchers.Inquiriesabout the archives
shouldbe addressedto:

The Archivist
NationalHeritageand CulturalStudies
Universityof FortHare
PrivateBagX1314
Alice
5700
Phone number: (040) 602 2277
Fax number: (040) 6531926
E-mail:ccs@ufh.ac.za
Website:http://www.ufh.ac.za