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Application of the CSAMT method to groundwater exploration in a

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Article  in  Geophysics · August 2013

DOI: 10.1190/geo2012-0533.1

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GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 78, NO. 5 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2013); P. B201–B209, 10 FIGS.
10.1190/GEO2012-0533.1
Case History
Application of the CSAMT method to groundwater exploration
in a metropolitan environment
Changmin Fu1, Qingyun Di1, and Zhiguo An1
ABSTRACT
Urban and suburban areas of large cities impose great
challenges to geophysical surveys because of high-level
ambient noise. This is particularly true for controlled source
audio-frequency magnetotellurics (CSAMT) because the
frequency range of the method overlaps those of many civil
and industrial noises. Among the different types of noise
sources, perhaps the most noticeable one is the 50-Hz power
grid. We have successfully applied the CSAMT method for
groundwater exploration in a suburban Beijing area where
the ambient noise level is about three times as high as would
normally be encountered. Several steps were taken in assur-
ing quality use of the method, including careful survey
design, adequate frequency range selection, and large trans-
mitter dipole length and transmitter-receiver spacing. The
next step was static effect removal through low-pass filtering
and topography correction to remove any nonhorizontal com-
ponent in the electric field measurement. Finally, a 1D inver-
sion method was applied to construct an (apparent) resistivity
cross section. The survey revealed a low-resistivity, water-
bearing layer sandwiched between a surface cover layer
and the bedrock. The available well data suggested that the
depth of the bedrock was accurately mapped, to within about
2 m, at a depth level of 150–165 m.
INTRODUCTION
Metropolitan Beijing has been facing serious water shortage as its
economy booms and population constantly increases. The drinking
water in Beijing mainly depends on the quaternary circulating
Manuscript received by the Editor 20 December 2012; revised manuscript received 15 April 2013; published online 8 August 2013.
1
Key Laboratory of Engineering Geomechanics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. E-mail: fcm168@mail
.iggcas.ac.cn; qydi@mail.iggcas.ac.cn; 2008dreamfuture@163.com.
© 2013 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
B201
water. The amount of supply is not predictable and the quality
of the water varies. In recent years, attempts have been made by
the municipal government to find deeper and cleaner groundwater
resources for future use.
The deeper groundwater resources in the Beijing area are usually
in the limestone formation of the Ordovician system. Due to the
large burial depths, often several hundred meters, geologic informa-
tion about the groundwater resources is scarce. Geophysical meth-
ods have been the primary tools to locate the groundwater
reservoirs. The primary challenge for geophysical surveys is the
high-level civil and industrial noises.
The controlled source audio-frequency magnetotellurics
(CSAMT) method has proven to be effective in rejecting ambient
noises, leading to relatively high signal-to-noise ratios (Nabighian,
1988; Zonge and Hughes, 1991; Fu et al., 1993; Xu and Liu, 1995;
Tang and He, 2005). With a powerful transmitter of up to tens of
kilowatts and carefully selected survey parameters, the method can
produce a large depth of investigation. This feature makes the method
particularly useful for mineral exploration, geothermal investigation,
hydrocarbon exploration, long and deep tunnel detection, and
groundwater contamination problems (Wannamaker, 1997; Uns-
worth et al., 2000; Di et al., 2002, 2004; Takahashi, 2004; Wanna-
maker et al., 2004; Pellerin and Wannamaker, 2005; He et al., 2006;
Miller et al., 2006, 2008; Troiano et al., 2009; An and Di, 2010; An
et al., 2012). As reported by Nichols et al. (1994), Wu and Shi (1996),
and Wu et al. (1996), the method also finds applications to the study
of deeply buried groundwater. Our goal for this study was to test the
CSAMT method for its ability to delineate underground structures in
a noisy urban environment. We anticipated our experimental results
would shed additional lights on the application of the method to sim-
ilar environments in other areas.
In the following, we will discuss our CSAMT experiments car-
ried out in the Chao-bai River and Huai River area, Beijing. The
B202 Fu et al.

objective was to outline the limestone distribution and locate any electrical and magnetic fields are given as follows (Goldstein, 1971;
water storage in the limestone. The survey results are consistent Goldstein and Strangway 1975):
with the geologic information and the borehole data.
I · AB · ρ1
Ex ¼ · ð3 cos2 θ − 2Þ; (1)
GEOLOGIC AND GEOPHYSICAL 2πr3
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDWATER
IN BEIJING AREA
3 · I · AB · ρ1
Beijing is located in the secondary tectonic element of northern Ey ¼ · sin 2θ; (2)
4πr3
China (Bin, 2002). From the Mesoproterozoic, a massive littoral
deposit has formed in the Beijing area. Chang-cheng formation,
Ji-xian formation and Qing-bai-kou formation are widely distrib- rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uted in the area. The thickness of deposition is large, ranging from I · AB · ρ1 μ0 ω
Ez ¼ ði − 1Þ · · cos θ; (3)
several hundred meters to several thousand meters. There are many 2πr2 2ρ1
water-rich strata, such as the carbonates and sandstones in Ji-xian
formation, and the water-rich strata in Cambrian and Ordovician.
After the Cenozoic era, the Northern China fault was formed in re-
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3I · AB 2ρ1
sponse to the Himalayas’ movement. In the Paleogene, a series of H x ¼ −ð1 þ iÞ · · cos θ · sin θ; (4)
faulted-basins were created in Beijing area, forming the section of 4πr3 μ0 ω
the Northeast China fault and some deeply buried water-rich strata.
Based on drilling and rock sample testing, we find that the resis- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
tivity of the quaternary deposits in the Beijing region is usually 10– I · AB 2ρ1
100 ohm-m. The resistivity of shale is usually 100–200 ohm-m. The H y ¼ ð1 þ iÞ · · ð3 cos2 θ − 2Þ; (5)
resistivity of the sandstones is generally 200–400 ohm-m, and the 4πr3 μ0 ω
resistivity of calcareous rocks is 300–1000 ohm-m. The resistivity
of the volcanic rocks in the Jurassic system is in the range of 1000–
2000 ohm-m. The resistivities of fractured rocks often are lower, 3I · AB · ρ1
Hz ¼ i · sin θ: (6)
from a few tens of ohm-meters to a few hundreds of ohm-meters. 2πμ0 ωr4
The existence of water can cause the resistivity to drop substantially.
The lower resistivity provides a good foundation for detecting frac- It follows from equations 1 and 5 that the ratio of Ex ∕H y can be
tured rocks filled with water. written as
The survey area is located in northern Beijing, near Beijing’s  
eighth water plant. The region is surrounded by hills to the north- 1  Ex 2
ρs ¼ . (7)
east, northwest, and north and a plain to the south. The study area is μ0 ω  H y 
covered with sand and gravels. The geologic map (Figure 1) shows
that the region is almost fully covered by the Quaternary loose al- The Cagniard resistivity is defined as
luvial and diluvium layers. The bedrocks are limestone and dolo-
stone of Cambrian and Ordovician. The red lines on the map 1 jEx j2
indicate the CSAMT survey lines, with two north–south lines ρs ¼ ; (8)
5f jH y j2
(one upstream and the other downstream) and three cross river lines
(north, center, and south; because of the block of buildings, the
with the impedance phase given by
south line is divided into three parts). The green lines show the
transmitter locations. The river has dried up for many years because P ¼ Ephase − H phase : (9)
of a water shortage, which is convenient for field work.
The thickness of the Quaternary loose alluvial and diluvium layer Note that the Cagniard resistivity gives the true resistivity of the
in the study area is greater than 300 m. The aquifers change from subsurface only when the ground is uniform. Otherwise, the Cag-
coarse with a grain size of several centimeters and single-layered in niard resistivity is an apparent resistivity of the subsurface.
the north, to thin and multilayered in the south. Groundwater exists
in almost all the multilayer sand gravel stone strata with depth rang-
ing from three to hundreds of meters. Deep karst water may also DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING
exist in the area.
Because most groundwater reservoirs in Beijing area are in the
OVERVIEW OF THE CSAMT METHOD limestone strata of the Ordovician system, the first task of our
CSAMT survey was to find the burial depth of the limestone stra-
The CSAMT method uses a grounded dipole or horizontal loop tum. Another important objective was to find fractures or faults,
as the transmitting antenna. Electrical (E) and magnetic (H) fields which may serve as water conduits. Five CSAMT lines were de-
are, respectively, measured with a grounded wire and a high-gain signed to cover the survey area. The upstream line and the down-
magnetic antenna. The ratio of the orthogonal horizontal compo- stream line follow the river, generally running in the north–south
nents, Ex ∕H y , gives the Cagniard resistivity (Cagniard, 1953). For direction. Two (north and central) of the cross-river lines intercept
an electrical dipole source over a uniform half-space, the far-zone the upstream line. The third (south) cross-river line intercepts the
 Groundwater exploration with CSAMT B203

downstream line. Because of the obstacles on the surface, the south vey lines. Transmitter sites Tx1, Tx2, and Tx3 are located to the
cross-river line was broken into three parts: part 1, part 2, and part 3. south for the three cross-river lines, respectively. Tx4 is located
Five transmitter sites (Tx1–Tx5) were selected for the different sur- to the southeast for the upstream line and Tx5 is located to the west

Figure 1. Bedrock geology map in Mi-Huai-Shun (red solid line is the CSAMT survey line, with green lines showing various transmitter
locations).
B204
of the downstream survey line. The electric dipole transmitter length
is more than 2000 m. The distance between the transmitting dipole
source and the receivers are all about 12 km. An output power of
30 kW was supplied to the electric dipole transmitter in the survey
system shown in Figure 2. Frequency ranges from 0.25 to 8192 Hz.
The receiver electrode spacing is nominally 40 m. The receiver sys-
tem includes a computer-controlled digital receiver, magnetic coils,
and nonpolarization electrodes. The multichannel receiver instru-
ment can simultaneously acquire the electrical field at seven stations
and one magnetic field. Prior to the survey, the receiver and coil
calibrations were checked for consistency.
Prior to the CSAMT survey, data were acquired to understand the
ambient noises. The numerous factories, power lines, and roads
around the survey area caused great concern about the background
noise level. It was discovered that the ambient electric field can
reach up to 5 mV∕km at some sounding sites, over ten times the
anticipated signal levels. Such a high noise level can severely reduce
the interpretability of the CSAMT data. To improve signal-to-noise
ratios, we increased the acquisition (stack) time as a first step toward
noise reduction. The nominal acquisition is three minutes, but we
increased the acquisition time for this survey area to over 10 mi-
nutes. For random noises,
pffiffiffi this would increase the signal-to-noise
ratios by a factor of 3 or more. However, if signals are nonsta-
tionary, the gains in signal-to-noise ratios may be less. Noise reduc-
tion for nonstationary signals will be discussed next.
Prior to geologic interpretation, the acquired data were corrected
for noise, static, and terrain effects.
Noise correction
Electrical or magnetic signals acquired in a CSAMT survey may
not be stationary. For instance, the electrical potential drop mea-
sured across two electrodes may be affected by electrode polariza-
tion, causing the potentials of the electrodes to drift. The
polarization effect may vary in time so the measured potential drop
will also vary with time. The noises may also be nonstationary. For
instance, the electrical or magnetic interference from power lines
may be affected by the load. Higher loads accompanied by higher
currents in a power line may cause stronger interference. Other in-
terference due to the nearby factories and plants may vary in time,
Figure 2. Sketch of CSAMT observation system.
Fu et al.
depending on the usage of the machines that generate the electrical
or magnetic interference. To apply noise reduction to such a non-
stationary system, we applied the Hilbert-Huang transformation
(HHT). The HHT is a self-adapted signal-processing method devel-
oped for nonlinear, nonstationary signals (Huang et al., 1998). This
method has been used in many researches on nonlinear, nonstation-
ary signal processing. Put in simple words, the method assumes that
any nonlinear and nonstationary signal contains an infinite number
of intrinsic modes. Each mode has a dominant frequency content.
For instance, the intrinsic mode originated from power lines will
have a dominant frequency content around 50 Hz. The decompo-
sition is similar to the Fourier transform that decomposes a time
signal into its frequency spectrum. The two methods are also similar
in that the original time signal can be uniquely constructed from the
decomposed intrinsic modes or frequency spectrum. The difference
is that the intrinsic modes from the HHT decomposition are dis-
crete, whereas the frequency spectrum from the Fourier transform
can be continuous. Filtering with the Fourier transform method can
be done by removing or suppressing undesired frequency contents,
whereas filtering with the HHT method is accomplished by discard-
ing unwanted intrinsic modes. Notice that each intrinsic mode will
generally contain signals at more than one frequency. Hence, re-
moving one intrinsic mode in HHT filtering will generally affect
signals at multiple frequencies.
The HHT method finds intrinsic mode functions through the so-
called empirical mode decomposition. Often, a small number of in-
trinsic mode functions results from the decomposition. The first
intrinsic mode function generally contains the highest frequency
content and the subsequent intrinsic mode functions represent over-
all lower frequencies. Next, an application of the Hilbert transform
to the intrinsic mode functions yields instantaneous frequencies as
functions of time. This will produce an energy-frequency-time dis-
tribution, designated as the Hilbert spectrum. It shows for any time
instant what frequency content the signal may contain. This infor-
mation is particularly useful for analyzing nonstationary signals
such as those arising from unsteady noisy environments. It is pos-
sible to select time windows during which noises are weaker so that
noises are maximally rejected.
We illustrate the HHT method with a field-recorded time series of
the Ex field. The transmitting frequency is 21.333 Hz. The unproc-
essed data is shown in Figure 3. The Fourier transform shows that
the data is dominated by the 50 Hz industrial noises and a DC bias.
The spectrum practically does not show any meaningful signal at
the target frequency of 21.333 Hz. For comparison, the Hilbert
spectrum from the HHT method is shown in Figure 4. Here, only
the first seven intrinsic modes are shown. We clearly see that the
first mode corresponds to the 50-Hz industrial noises. The second
mode results from the transmitted signal at 21.333 Hz. The sub-
sequent modes with generally lower frequency contents originate
from other unspecified sources. To suppress the noises, we simply
discard all but the second mode. The reconstructed time sequence is
shown in Figure 5. Now after the Fourier transform, the target signal
stands out clearly. This example clearly shows the advantage of the
HHT method over the Fourier method in noise filtering of nonsta-
tionary signals.
Static correction
The static effect on CSAMT survey results from near-surface
conductive inhomogeneities that can cause electric field distortions
 Groundwater exploration with CSAMT B205

over a wide time window. Such an effect, if not properly removed, geneities under the thick vegetation. Several methods exist for cor-
can mask the late-time or deep structure information in the mea- recting the effect. In this study, we used the low-pass-filter method
surement. Medium-to-strong static effects were expected to exist suggested by Torres-Verdín and Bostick (1992). In particular, a
in the survey area because of the near-surface conductive inhomo- Hanning window was used,

Figure 3. Original signal and spectrum of original signal.

Figure 4. Energy-frequency-time distribution.

B206 Fu et al.

1 
largely been removed and much geologic information has been
1 þ cos 2πx jxj ≤ ω∕2
hðxÞ ¼ ω ω ; (10) revealed.
0 jxj > ω∕2
Terrain correction
where ω is the filter window width. In implementation, a seven-
point discretized form of hðxÞ was convolved with the acquired Due to topography restriction, CSAMT surveys in a mountainous
data. Figure 6 shows an example of the apparent resistivity contour area often result in electrical and magnetic-field components being
maps before and after static correction. In the uncorrected contour nonorthogonal, as required in the Cagniard apparent resistivity cal-
map (Figure 6a), a lot of stripe-shaped features exist, depicting culation. It is relatively easy to measure a horizontal magnetic field
the typical static effects. After the correction, the static effect has but it is often difficult or even impossible to acquire a horizontal

Figure 5. New signal and spectrum of new signal.

Figure 6. The contour maps of inverted resistivity before and after static correction: (a) original data with static effect; (b) after static
correction.
 Groundwater exploration with CSAMT B207

electric field on a slope. To calculate the horizontal electrical field ence along the slope, Δl is the distance interval along the slope, and
component from an actual electric field measurement along a slope, Δx is the horizontal distance.
the following simple relation can be applied:
THE CSAMT RESULT AND INTERPRETATION
ΔV ΔV
Ex ¼ El cos θ ¼ cos θ ¼ cos2 θ; (11) We now discuss the CSAMT data for the upperstream line (the
Δl Δx
south part), the central cross-river line and the south cross-river line.
Figure 7 show examples of typical corrected apparent resistivity and
where Ex is the corrected electrical field, θ is slope angle which is phase responses over normal and faulted/fractured strata. The resis-
calculated from the mapping data, ΔV is measured potential differ- tivity value over the unfaulted strata (Figure 7a) is about 270 ohm-m
at the high frequency of 8192 Hz. As frequency decreases, the ap-
parent resistivity value gradually reduces to about 80 ohm-m at
80 Hz. In the low-frequency limit, the resistivity value increases
rapidly as frequency decreases. The apparent resistivity curve over
the faulted strata (Figure 7b) shows a similar pattern, but with the
overall resistivity value being about 10 times smaller at high
frequencies and about three times smaller at low frequencies.
The lower resistivities are clear indications of faulted rocks filled
with water. Larger variations in the resistivity at higher frequencies
result from resistivity heterogeneities near the surface. This example
shows that the CSAMT method can be effective in detecting faulted
or fractured bedrocks in the survey area.
We applied 1D inversion to the apparent resistivity and phase
responses to derive underground geoelectrical cross sections. The
1D inversion approach follows that described by Routh and Olden-
burg (1999). Figure 8 shows the resistivity inversion result together
with a geologic interpretation for the south part of the upperstream
survey line. The resistivity cross section generally shows three dif-
ferent layers. The upper layer represents the medium to low resis-
tivity surface cover. The highly varying resistivity profile reflects
the lateral variations near the surface mixed with several high-
resistivity bodies. The thickness of the upper layer varies from
20 m to 80 m. The middle layer has relatively low resistivity, about
Figure 7. Comparison of normal stratum and fault: (a) CSAMT ap- 40 ohm-m. This layer is composed of a series of beaded low-
parent resistivity and phase curves on normal stratum; (b) CSAMT resistivity anomalies. Previous experience suggests that this low-
apparent resistivity and phase curves on fault. resistivity layer is the Quaternary aquifer consisting of sands,

Figure 8. CSAMT inversion section and geologic interpretation map of the south part of the upperstream survey line.
B208
gravel, and clay. Its top boundary is the groundwater table and its
lower boundary defines the bedrock. The lower layer is the low-
porosity, low-permeability bedrock consisting mainly of Cambrian
limestone. A low-resistivity, faulted zone is clearly visible between
stations 1440 and 2160, as indicated by the black circle, named T1.
This zone is expected to provide favorable groundwater storage.
Several wells were designed by the Beijing Water Authority to
verify the CSAMT interpretation. The locations of the wells are in-
dicated in Figure 8. Well J9 was drilled to a depth of 150 m without
encountering the bedrock, as explained by the interpreted bedrock
depth of 270 m at the location. Similarly, well J8 was drilled to
140 m without intercepting the bedrock either, the interpreted bed-
rock depth is 230 m. The interpreted bedrock depth at well J7 is
about 170 m and the well encounters the bedrock at the depth of
165 m. Well J6 enters the bedrock at depth of 148 m, where the
interpreted depth is about 150 m. The other two wells, J5 and
J3, stopped before the anticipated bedrock depths were reached
and neither well met the bedrock.
Figure 9 shows the CSAMT resistivity inversion result and the
geologic interpretation along the west part of the central cross-river
Figure 9. CSAMT inversion section and geologic interpretation
map of the west part of the central cross-river line.
Figure 10. CSAMT inversion section and geologic interpretation map of the south cross-river line (part 1 and part 2).
Fu et al.
line. The basic geologic structures are very similar to those of the
upperstream survey line, the lower layer is a relatively intact bed-
rock formed by massive Cambrian limestone. At the intersection
point with the upperstream line near the J7 well, the central
cross-river line data yields an interpreted bedrock depth of about
168 m, whereas the interpreted bedrock depth from the upperstream
line data at the same location is 170 m. This result shows that the
interpretations from the different survey line data are highly
consistent.
Figure 10 shows the first and second parts of the south cross-river
line. The basic geologic structures are also consistent with those of
the upperstream and the central cross-river survey lines. The differ-
ence is that there is a low-resistivity area between 720 m and
1800 m. An especially low-resistivity zone underneath 1600 m
is interpreted to be a fault (labeled as F1). Its location is consistent
with that of the Chao-bai River, suggesting that this part of the
Chao-bai River is largely controlled by a fault underneath. We be-
lieve the low-resistivity area around the F1 is a favorable ground-
water storage zone but this needs to be otherwise verified.
CONCLUSIONS
Strong ambient noises put a great challenge on the processing of
the CSAMT data acquired in the Chao-bai River and the Huai River
area, Beijing. Our studies show that several measures can be taken
to improve the signal-to-noise ratios and increase the data interpret-
ability. On the transmitter side, a large output (up to 30 kW) trans-
mitter helps the signal strength. A longer data acquisition (stacking)
time helps suppress the ambient noises. Last but not the least, the
HHT data filtering proves to be effective in separating nonstationary
noises, e.g., the 50-Hz industrial noises, from the useful signals.
Upon separation, all but the useful signals are thrown away, leading
to substantial reduction of noises. The HHT filtering method is par-
ticularly useful for data conditioning in this and other similar areas
where industrial noises are strong and unsteady.
The 1D inversion results of our CSAMT data agree with the bore-
hole results from one of the five survey lines. At well locations
where the well intercepted the bedrock, the errors in the predicted
bedrock depths are no more than 3%. This indicates that even in
areas with high lateral variations in the underground resistivity, a
 Groundwater exploration with CSAMT
1D inversion may still yield reasonably accurate results. We show
that the CSAMT data are able to clearly distinguish a faulted bed-
rock from an unfaulted bedrock. The former appears as a low(er)-
resistivity zone on the inverted resistivity cross section. We were
able to identify two potential zones with favorable groundwater
storage. In addition, one of the inverted CSAMT resistivity cross
sections (along the south cross-river line) illustrates a faulted zone
underneath the Chao-bai River that is not shown in the existing geo-
logic map.
Application of the CSAMT method in the urban and suburban
Beijing areas has shown that the method is capable of locating
deeply buried reservoirs as deep as 1000 m or more in the presence
of strong ambient noises. This method has obvious advantages in
finding the lower-resistivity faults filled with groundwater. The sur-
vey results proved once again that the CSAMT method is very use-
ful and effective in high-ambient-noise environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors and their research group would like to thank the fi-
nancial support from the SinoProbe-09-02 (201011079) project,
and also gratefully acknowledge the National Natural Science
Foundation’s support (No. 41004053, 41104045), and the Science
Foundation of Key Laboratory of Engineering Geomechanics, In-
stitute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences
(No. KLEG201103, KLEG201105). We want to thank Tsili Wang
for helping improve this paper, and especially to thank the editors
and two reviewers for their valuable suggestions that helped im-
prove the clarity of this paper.
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