Temperature and Heat

Temperature
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• Measurement
• Thermal Expansion
Heat
• Specific Heat Capacity
• Latent Heat
• Calorimetry
• Heat Transfer

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 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. differentiate between heat and temperature.
2. state the different methods of temperature measurement.
3. define thermal equilibrium.
4. state Zero’s Law of Thermodynamics.
5. state the factors that affect thermal expansion of a body.
6. solve problems using equations for thermal expansion.
7. state the relation between linear and volume expansion.

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8. define specific heat and latent heat.
9. apply the principle of the conservation of heat to solve
problem involving specific heat and latent heat
10. state and describe the mechanisms of heat transfer.
11. describe the factors that affect heat transfer

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 Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is.
• Heat is the energy transferred between objects because of
a temperature difference.
• When we say, there is a transfer of heat or heat flow from
object A to object B, it means the total energy of A decreases
and that of B increases.
• Objects are said to be in thermal contacts if heat can flow
between them.
• After some time in thermal contact, the transfer of heat
ceases, the objects are in thermal equilibrium.

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 Temperature and Heat
Temperature, T
• is defined as a fundamental quantity that measures the degree of
hotness of a body.
• The units for temperature are degree celsius (centigrade) (C),
degree fahrenheit (F) and kelvin (K).
• It is scalar quantity and its dimension is .

Heat, Q
• is defined as the energy that is transferred from one body to
another because of a difference in temperature.
• Heat always transferred from a hot region (higher temperature) to a
cool region (lower temperature) until thermal equilibrium is achieved.
• It is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J).

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 Thermal Equilibrium
• is defined as the state in which the temperatures of two
bodies are equal.
• Consider three systems A, B and C that initially are not in
thermal equilibrium as shown in figure.
Insulator

System A System B

System C

Conductor Conductor

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• From the experiment, we get
• System A and B are in thermal equilibrium with system C.
• Therefore, system A also in thermal equilibrium with system
B.
• Two systems in thermal contact are in thermal equilibrium if
• there is no nett energy exchange between the two systems,
• their temperatures are identical.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states:
“If two systems A and B are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.”

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 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
• The study of physical processes involving the transfer of
heat (in physics) is referred as thermodynamics.
• The laws of thermodynamics provide us with a relationship
between heat flow, work and the internal energy.
• The most basic and straightforward law is the ZEROTH
LAW which states that
if objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third object, C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other if placed in thermal contact.

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 An Illustration of the
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

It is determined
by a single
physical
quantity -
Temperature

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Temperature Scales
• The equations below show the conversion between the temperature scales
:


F C 5

TC  TF  32
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
9

C F
TF  TC  32
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
C K TK  TC  273.15

where TC : temperature in degree celsius (centigrade)

TF : temperature in degree fahrenheit
TK : temperature in kelvin
• Temperature in kelvin is called absolute temperature.

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• Figure shows the relation between kelvin, celsius and fahrenheit
temperature scales.
 
K C F
Steam point 373.15 100.0 212.0

Normal temperature of 98.6

the human body
310.20 37.0
Ice point 273.15 0.0 32.0
Boiling point
77.40  195.8  320.4
of nitrogen

Absolute zero 0  273.15  459.67

• Absolute zero of temperature

• is defined as the lowest temperature on the thermodynamic
scale at which the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules is
minimal.

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 Kelvin Scale
• It based on the behavior of a
gas pressure, which increases
or decreases with temperature.
• The gas (helium) is placed in a
constant volume container and
its pressure is measured by a
constant-volume-gas
thermometer.

Pgas  Pat  gh

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• By adjusting the height of mercury in the
RH-tube, the level in LH-tube can be set
at reference level to ensure that the gas
occupies a constant volume. Its pressure
is
Pgas  Pat  gh
where  is a density of mercury.
• As the temperature of the gas changed,
the mercury level can be readjusted.
• The gas pressure is determined again and
the process is repeated.

• As the gas is cooled, its pressure decreases linearly. The pressure

versus temperature is plotted.

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• At low temperature, the gas liquefies and its behavior changes.
• Extrapolated the line it reaches zero pressure at -273 C, which is
zero Kelvin (0 K) or absolute zero.
• 0 K is a temperature at which there is no movement and all
particles are at rest. The Kelvin scale is absolute positive.

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 Linear Thermal Expansion
• The overall thermal expansion of a body is a consequence of the
change in the average separation between its constituent atoms
or molecules.
• At ordinary temperatures, the atoms vibrate about their
equilibrium positions.
• As the temperature of the solid increases, the atoms vibrate
with larger amplitudes and the average separation increases.
Consequently the solid expands.
• Most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled.

L  T
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CONCEPTUAL CHECKPOINT

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L  L0

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The equation relating all the relevant parameters are given below:

L =  Lo T

L  Lo =  Lo T
L
Lo
L = Lo   Lo T

L = Lo (1   T )
At To At T
where  = coefficient of
T = To + T linear expansion

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Coefficients of linear Expansion, 
Substance  (K–1)
Lead 29 x 10–6
Aluminum 24 x 10–6
Brass 19 x 10–6 L
17 x 10–6

Copper
L0 T
Iron (Steel) 12 x 10–6
Concrete 12 x 10–6
Window glass 11 x 10–6
Pyrex glass 3.3 x 10–6
Quartz 0.50 x 10–6

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 Example
• A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is exactly
50.000 m long at a temperature of 20 C. What is its
coefficient of thermal expansion if its length is increased to
50.009 m at temperature of 35 C.
• Solution:
• T = 35 – 20 = 15 C = 15K, and
L = 50.009 m – 50.000 m = 0.009 m

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Exceptional Behavior of Water Below 4oC

• Liquids generally increase in volume with increasing temperature and

have average volume-expansion coefficients about ten times greater
than those of solids.

m 1
  , V  T   
V T

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Exceptional Behavior of Water Below 4oC

Water is an
exception to
this rule, as
we can see
from its
density verses
temperature
curve.

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• As the temp. increases from 0 oC to 4 oC, water contracts (volume
decreases not increases) thus its density increases.
• Above 4 oC, water expands with increasing temp., returning back to
normal behavior.
• In other words, the density of water reaches a maximum value of 1000
kg/m3 at 4 oC.
• This property of water has significant consequences for the ecology of
lakes in northern latitudes.
• When the temperature drops in the winter the surface waters of a lake
cool first and sink, allowing warmer water to rise to the surface to be
cooled in turn, until it reaches below 4 oC whereby the density
decreases and rises to the top.
• Thus lake freezes on the top surface with warmer water that help fish
and other creatures to survive below the ice.

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 HEAT
• Heat is energy that is transferred from one body to another
because of the difference in temperature.
• Heat is obviously transferred from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature.
• Energy transfer that takes place solely because of a temperature
difference is called heat flow or heat transfer.
• The sum total of the energy of all total molecules in an object is
called its thermal energy or internal energy:- the total sum of
microscopic kinetic and potential energy.
• One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat, Q, required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C.
• 1 cal=4.186 Joule ; 1 kcal=4186 J

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 Specific Heat
• It takes 4186 J to increase the temp. of 1 kg of water by one degree, it take twice
that much to make the same temp. change for 2 kg of water.
• The heat capacity varies not only with the type of substance but also with amount
of substance.
• The specific heat, c, of a substance is the heat capacity per unit mass.

Q
c , SI unit : J/(kg  K)  J/(kg  C)
mT
• cwater= 4186 J/(kg K) is the largest of any common materials.
• It means that water can give off or take in large quantity of heat with little change
in temperature. Q is positive if T is positive, i.e. heat is added to the system.
• Q is negative if T is negative, i.e. heat is removed from the system.

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Specific Heats at Atmospheric Pressures

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 Latent Heat
• When a substance changes from one phase to another (solid to
liquid, or liquid to gas, or vice versa), heat must be added or
removed from the substance.
• The amount of heat depends on the type of material and the nature
of the phase change.
• The heat per kilogram for needed for the phase change is referred
to as latent heat.
• The heat Q that must be supplied or removed to change the phase of
a mass of a substance, without a change in temperature, is
Q  mL
where L is the latent heat of the substance.

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 Latent Heat
The latent heat of fusion, Lf, refers to the change between
solid and liquid phases.
The latent heat of vaporization, Lv, refers to the change
between liquid and gas phases,
and the latent heat of sublimation, Ls, refers to the change
between solid and gas phases.
The unit of latent heat is J/kg.
Note: There is no change in temperature during the phase
change.

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Temperatures of Phase Changes and Latent Heats

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 CALORIMETRY
It is important to realise that the conservation of energy
plays an important role in the determination of the specific
heat capacity by means of CALORIMETRY.
“The heat lost by one part of the system is equal to the
heat gained by the other part”.
Suppose a block of mass mb and specific heat cb and initial
temp. Tb is dropped in a container flask containing water,
with mass mw, specific heat cw and initial temp. Tw. Find
the final temp. of the block and the water.

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 CALORIMETRY
There are two basic ideas:
The final temperatures of the block and the water are equal.
The energy of the system is conserved.
Amount of heat lost by the block is equal to that gain by the water.
Qb  Qw  0, energy conserved
• If we write the heat Q in terms of specific heat and temperature and
letting the final temp. be T, thus we have

mb cb ( T  Tb )  mw cw ( T  Tw )  0
mb cbT b mwcwTw
Thus T 
mb cb  mwcw

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 Heat Transfer
• Heat is transferred from one place to another in three
different modes : conduction, convection and radiation.
• Conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in
contact.
• Convection depends on the motion of the mass from one
region to another.
• Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation,
such as sunshine, with no need for matter to be present in
the space between the bodies.

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 Conduction
• Heat conduction in many materials can be visualized as
the results of atomic collisions.
• As one end of an object is heated, the atoms gains more
kinetic energy and vibrates vigorously, colliding with
the neighboring atoms and causing the energy to be
distributed.
• In metals, free electrons are said to be involved in the
transfer of thermal energy from the hotter to the cooler
region.

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 Conduction

• It found that the amount of heat Q that flow through this rod is:
• Increase in proportion to cross-sectional area, A.
• Increase in proportion to temp. difference T= T2-T1.
• Increase steady with time, t.
• Decrease with the length of the rod, L.
• Thus the heat flow by conduction is
 T 
Q  kA t
 L 
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 Conduction
• The constant k, known as thermal conductivity, is the
characteristic of the material, while the (T/L) is temperature
difference per unit length, is called temperature gradient.
• The equation given only caters for steady state flow in one
direction, where in reality, the flow in all directions occurs.
• Materials with a high value of k are said to be good conductors
and the ones with very low k are normally regarded as insulators.
• When a quantity of heat dQ is transferred in a time dt, the rate of
heat flow is dQ/dt, is called the heat current, H or power. That is
H=dQ/dt.
 dQ   T 
H    kA 
 dt   L 

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Substance Thermal Conductivity, k
Silver [W/(m•K)]
417
Copper 395
Gold 291
Aluminum 217
Steel, low carbon 66.9
Lead 34.3
Stainless steel—alloy 302 16.3
Ice 1.6
Concrete 1.3
Glass 0.84
Water 0.60
Asbestos 0.25
Wood 0.10
Wool 0.040
Air 0.0234
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Why does metal feel colder than wood, if they are
both at the same temperature?

Metal is a conductor, wood is an insulator. Metal

conducts the heat away from your hands. Wood
does not conduct the heat away from your hands as
well as the metal, so the wood feels warmer than
the metal.
CONCEPTUAL CHECKPOINT

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 Convection
• Although fluids are generally not very good conductors of heat,
they can transfer heat quite rapidly by convection.
• Convection is the process whereby heat is transferred by the mass
movement of molecules from one place to another, hot-air, and
hot water, cooling system of car engine.
• Convection involves the movement of molecules over large
distances.
• Convection normally can be categorized as natural, if the flow
caused by differences in density, such as the hot-air rising.
• Forced convection, if the fluid is circulated by a blower or pump.

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Convection occurs when heat flows by the mass
movement of molecules from one place to another. It
may be natural or forced; both these examples are
natural convection.
 Radiation
• Radiation do not require the presence of matter as medium to transfer
heat.
• One good example of this mode would be the heat transferred from the
Sun to the surface of the earth.
• STEFAN-BOLTZMANN EQUATION :
• Net flow-rate of heat radiation :

Q  eT At 4

•  is known as Stefan-Boltzmann constant has a value of

5.6705 x 10-8 W/m2K4, and e is the emissivity constant.

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Radiation

The most familiar

example of radiation
is our own Sun, which
radiates at a
temperature of almost
6000 K.
 Radiation
• e is the emissivity constant, has the value between 0 & 1 and
is a characteristic of the material. Very black surfaces have e
close to 1 whereas shiny surfaces have e close to zero.
• A material that is a good absorber is also a good emitter like
blackbody.
• A material that is a poor absorber is also a poor emitter like
silver coated object (mirror).
• If the absolute temperature of a radiator is doubled, the
radiated power does a change by a factor of 16.

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