Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)

3rd Year

CHAPTER 3
Types of Relays according to their function
1. Directional Relays

Directional relays are used where it is desirable to trip the circuit breaker for current flow in
one direction. That is, the direction is made responsive to the directional flow of power. This
is achieved by making the relay distinguish certain differences in phase angle between
current and reference voltage or current. The directional relay has a current winding and
directional winding. The current winding is connected to the current transformer, whereas
the directional winding is connected to the potential transformers to provide the circuit
voltage for polarizing the unit. Therefore, the pick-up of the relay is dependent on the
magnitude of current and voltage and the phase relationship between them. The directional
relay thus establishes one boundary of the protected zone; that is, it protects the circuit only
in one direction. Directional relaying is often used where coordination becomes a problem,
such as in tie lines between two supply substations or to provide protection against the
motoring of a generator.

Directional relay responds to the flow of power in a definite direction or the flow of current in
a particular direction. They can be directional power relays, directional over-current relays or
directional earth relays. In these relays, the induction type Whatthour construction can be
modified to sense the direction. This can be done by using two actuating coils called current
coil and voltage coil as shown in figure.

19
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

When fault takes place, the fault current flows in the current coil and produces a flux in the
upper magnet (I) and the voltage coil produces a flux in the lower v . The two fluxes
produce a torque = KVI sin ( + )
Where  is the angle between V & I ( leading )
 is the angle between V & v ( lagging )
when  = 1 then (  +  ) = 90o and the torque becomes maximum . When  +  = 0 or
180o , the torque = zero. When  +  between 180o and 360o, the relay will restrain .

2. Over Current Protection

Over current protection is that protection which the relay picks up when the magnitude of the
current exceeds the pickup level. Over current protection includes the protection from
overloads, which means that equipment takes more current than its rated current. This is
usually protected by thermal relays. Overload and maximum permissible temperature rise
have limits based on insulation class.

When excessive current flows in a circuit, it is necessary to trip the circuit breaker protecting
that circuit. This type of protection is usually provided by either time-delay or instantaneous
overcurrent relays. The instantaneous relay, although inherently fast, requires a short time to
operate, whereas time-delay relays have intentional time delay built into them to provide
coordination with other overcurrent relays for selectivity. The selectivity is obtained by
adjustment of current setting (sensitivity) and time, using the most applicable of several
time-characteristics. The relay time characteristics differ by the rate at which the time of
operation of the relay decreases as the current increases. The time characteristics for each
family of overcurrent relay consist of inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse, definite time,
short time, and long time. The application of overcurrent relay is generally more difficult and
less permanent than that of other types of relaying. This is because the operation of
overcurrent relays is affected by variations of short-circuit current magnitudes. These
magnitude variations in short-circuit current are caused by changes in system operation and
system configuration.

Short circuit protection is provided using fuses or circuit breakers fitted with or tripped by
over current relays or series connected trip coils operating switching devices.

Overcurrent protection is the most basic form of short circuit protection, but in many parts of
the system it is not adequate to provide the level of protection (dependability, security,
selectivity, etc.) that is demanded of the modern electric power system protective relaying
system.

Nevertheless, in some areas it still finds application, especially on radial feeders that serve
only loads, on small and medium sizes of motors, and on certain transformer primaries.
Each of these, and other, applications will be covered in detail later, but we will find it helpful
to review the fundamental basis for overcurrent relays now. Besides introducing an
important topic, it will allow some more concrete examples of the philosophical issues
previously discussed.

Instantaneous overcurrent relays

20
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

To protect against very severe short circuits, such as a bolted three-phase short circuit close
to the source end of a line, the overcurrent relay may be used to instantaneously trip the
circuit breaker. Here instantaneous means with no intentional time delay. Obviously, this is
an example of a pure magnitude type relay, which lacks flexibility to protect against low-level
short-circuit currents, such as a line-to-line short circuit at the far end of a long line.
However, the most damaging faults may be detected much more quickly by instantaneous
overcurrent than any other type of relay. Consequently, this relay is often used with relatively
high settings to detect very severe faults, in conjunction with other types of relays to detect
the other faults.

Time-overcurrent current relays

A more or less obvious improvement is to introduce time as a variable, producing the time-
overcurrent relay. This device will trip its breaker if a short-circuit current exists for a certain
time, but not if the same current exists for a shorter time. This allows much more flexibility in
coordination between adjacent relays on a line, or between line and transformer protection.

The over current protection should not operate for starting current, permissible over current
or current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided or high-set instantaneous relay
is used.

Over current protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protections for
discrimination.

Over current protection is used for motors and transformers. For small motors, thermal
relays and HRC fuses are employed. Thermal relays are used for overload and HRC fuses
for short circuits. For large motors (larger than 1200 HP) relays are used. Also, for
transformers less than 500 KVA, fuses are usually used. For large transformers, differential
relays or O.C. relays are used.

3. Earth Fault Protection (ground fault protection)

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called earth fault. The
following are some methods of earth fault protection.

a- Residually connected earth fault relay

21
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

In the absence of earth fault Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 = IR

In case of fault IR  0 then the relay operates

b- Neutral to earth protection

c- Core balance current transformers

d- Frame leakage protection

22
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

4. Reverse Power Protection

In directional over current relay, the directional element does not measure the magnitude of
power. It senses only direction of power flow. The over current protection responds to over
current for a particular direction flow. If power flow is in the opposite direction, the directional
over current protection does not operate. Reverse power protection operates when the
power direction is reversed in relation to the normal working direction. It senses both the
magnitude and direction of power flow.

5. Differential Protection

Differential protection responds to vector difference between two or more similar electric
quantities. It is used for protection of large transformers, generators, motors, feeders and
bus bars.

a- Circulating current differential (Merz - Prize)

This relay may operate even for external faults or may loose its stability for through faults
due to C.T. Ratio errors during short circuit or saturation of C.T. magnetic circuits during
short circuit conditions. Also, magnetizing current ( in rush current ) during switching or
changing the tap changer may cause the relay to trip at normal conditions. To overcome
these problems we may use the percentage differential relay or biased differential relays.

b- Biased or percent differential relay

In this relay, the operating coil is connected to
the mid point of the restraining coil. The total
number of ampere turns in the restraining coil =

I1N + I2N = ( I1 + I2 ) N
2 2 2

For external faults, I1 & I2 increases and there by

the restraining torque increases which prevents
the mal- operation.

c- Balanced voltage differential protection

23
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

6. Distance Relays

Distance relays differ in principle from other forms of protection in that their performance is
not governed by magnitude of the current or voltage but rather on the ratio of these two
quantities. In impedance relays, there is a balance between voltage and current the ratio of
which can be expressed in terms of impedance which represents a measure of distance
along a transmissions line.

a- Impedance relay
In impedance relays, the torque produced by a current element is balanced against the
torque of a voltage element. The current element produces positive ( pickup ) torque
proportional to I2 whereas voltage element produces negative ( reset ) torque proportional to
V2. The torque equation is
T = K1I2 – K2V2 – K3
where K3 is the control spring effect
At the balance point, T = 0 then K1I2 = K2V2 + K3 or K2V2 = K1I2 – K3

V2 = K1 - K3 or V = Z = √ K1 - K3  √ K1
I2 K2 K2I2 I K2 K2I2 K2

Then Z = √ K1 = constant
K2
The operating characteristic in terms of voltage and current is shown in fig.1, where the
effect of the control spring is shown as causing a noticeable bend in the characteristic only
at the low-current band. For all practical purposes, the dished line, which represents a
constant value of Z, may be considered the operating characteristic.

Z= 1
Slope of the line

24
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

A much more useful way of showing the operating characteristic of distance relay is by
means of “Impedance diagram” or the “ R – X diagram “. The numerical value of the ratio V
to I is shown as the length of a radius vector Z and the phase angle between V and I
determines the position of the vector. Any value of Z less than the radius of the circle will
result in the production of a positive torque and any value of Z greater than Z will produce
negative torque regardless of the phase angle V & I .

OY represents the feeder on the RX diagram. If fault occurs within distance OZ, the relay
operates. For faults beyond Z, the relay does not operate.

25
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

b- Directional Impedance Relay

Directional feature senses the direction in which the fault power flows with respect to the
location of CT and VT. This means that the directional unit will permit tripping only in its
positive torque region. The net result is that the tripping will occur only for points that arc
both within the circle (characteristic impedance) and above the directional unit
characteristic. This means that the relay will operate only when faults occur on one side of
the relay.

c- Modified ( shifted ) characteristic

The modified impedance relay is like the impedance type except that the impedance
characteristic is shifted by a “ current bias “ which merely consists of introducing into the
voltage supply an additional voltage proportional to the current ( I 2 ), then
T = K1I2 – K2 ( V + cI )2

d- Reactance type distance relay

The reactance type is an over current relay with directional restraint. The directional element
is arranged to develop maximum negative torque when its current lags the voltage by 90 o.

26
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

T = K1I2 – K2VI sin - K3

Or V sin = Z sin = X = constant

I
which is a straight line on the R-X
diagram. In other words the relay
operates only on the reactance.

e- Mho type distance relay

It is also called the admittance relay. This relay is similar to the impedance relay but is made
inherently directional by the addition of a voltage
winding known as the polarizing winding.

The characteristic equation of this relay is

Z = K cos ( - )
K1

This equation represents a circle of diameter K = ZR

K1

This is the ohmic setting of relay which passes through the origin. This means that the
characteristic equation of a Mho relay is a circle passing through the origin.

C A B

We consider the two lines AB and AC, with mho relay located at (A), it will only operate for
faults occurring in the line AB but not for faults in the line AC. This relay does not need a
directional relay (separate) because it is inherently directional.
Notice: Any fixed setting such as 30 o, 45o, 60o or 75o can be given to (  ) which is called
the characteristic angle of the relay.

27
 Protection Systems & Devices (Relays)
3rd Year

Example: A line section has an impedance of 2.8 +J5 ohms. Show this on R-X diagram as
impedance vector. If the relay is adjusted to just operate for a zero impedance short circuit
at the end of the line section. Show the operating characteristic of: 1. an impedance
relay. 2. a reactance relay. 3. a mho relay ( assume that the centre of the mho relay
operating characteristic lies on the line impedance vector.
If the arcing short circuit occurs having an impedance of 1.5 + j 0 ohms anywhere along the
line. Find for each type the maximum protected portion of the line.

Solution :

OA = 2.8 + J 5

The circle with O as centre & OA as

radius represents the characteristic of the
impedance relay. The circle with OA is the
diameter and passing by the origin is the
mho relay characteristic. The line parallel
to OB and passing by A is the
characteristic of the reactance relay.

The impedance of the S.C. = 1.5 + J 0 represented by the line OD. The total impedance of
the line & the S.C. is the line from D and parallel to OA. i.e. DFE. This line cuts the mho
circle in F and the impedance circle in E. Drawing FN and EM parallel to OD, then the
protected part of the line in the mho relay id ON and for the impedance relay is OM. The
percentage protected zones are ON / OA = 82 % for the mho relay and OM / OA = 85 % for
the impedance relay. The reactance relay is unaffected and the percentage protected zone
= 100 %.

28