Heat Transfer

A Shortcut to Determine
Optimal Steam Pipe
Diameter

Srbislav Genić
Branislav Jaćimović
Univ. of Belgrade

Existing models for calculating pipeline diameter are complicated

and provide inconsistent and, therefore, unreliable outputs.
This model simplifies the calculations to optimize
the pipeline diameter and reduce overall plant cost.

S
team distribution pipelines are the necessary link
between the steam boiler/generator and the steam
user. An efficient steam distribution system is essen-
tial to deliver steam of the appropriate quality and pressure
to the proper equipment. Installation and maintenance of the
steam system are important issues that must be considered
at the design stage. Both oversized and undersized pipelines
can have operational problems. Pipes, valves, fittings, etc.,
in oversized pipelines will be more expensive than neces-
sary, with higher capital and installation costs, and more
support work and insulation. Additionally, in a system with
oversized pipes, higher heat loss will produce a larger vol-
ume of condensate, which requires more steam trapping to
avoid the delivery of wet steam.
The larger pressure drop of an undersized pipeline may
limit the availability of lower-pressure steam to only the
point of use, increasing the risk of erosion, water hammer,
and noise due to the inherent increase in steam velocity.
Mathematically rigorous methods for selecting pipe
diameters are time-consuming because they involve itera-
tive procedures to determine the minimum total capital and
operating costs. Simple equations can provide reasonably

22  www.aiche.org/cep  August 2018  CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
accurate estimates of optimum pipe diameters in the initial
stages of a design, which can serve as a good starting point
for a more rigorous procedure.
The first pipeline optimization model based on econom-
ics initially applied to turbulent flowing fluids in hydrauli-
cally smooth pipes, and it was later broadened to accommo-
date laminar flow; a new model was recently developed for
hydraulically rough pipes. All of these models were devel-
oped for fluids that receive energy from pumps, compres-
sors, blowers, or fans that are powered by electric motors,
so none of them can be used for steam pipelines (1–3).
This article presents a simple optimization model to
estimate the diameter of steam pipelines, and discusses the
role of parameters such as plant location and fuel type. Two
example calculations compare the recommended steam
velocities in the literature and the solutions obtained from
the proposed model.
A model based on economic criteria
Economic criteria are crucial for plant design in various
engineering fields. Optimizing the size of plant equipment
ensures the lowest lifecycle cost of any project. The cost of
piping can represent up to 35% of plant capital cost. There-
fore, it is useful to optimize piping systems to reduce capital
and pumping costs.
Determining pipe cost requires considering both the
capital and operational costs. Although the capital cost
is the primary consideration for most projects, engineers
should be aware that the most economic pipe diameter
will be the one with the lowest total cost throughout the
lifetime of the project, which incorporates annual mainte-
nance costs. Although there are steam pipelines more than a
century old that are still operating, most are predicted to last
about 20 years.
Capital cost of a pipeline
For pipe with an internal diameter D (m) and length
L (m), purchase cost, CP, can be expressed by (1):
where m and n are parameters based on the type of pipe
material and pipe wall thickness (pipe schedule), respec-
tively; market prices determine the values of m and n for
each country. Pipe cost is theoretically proportional to
pipe diameter per square area. This is not true for real
pipe prices.
The annual maintenance cost of a pipeline, b, is com-
monly expressed as a fraction of capital costs, so with an
amortization rate of a, the annualized capital cost, Cc, of a
pipeline can be calculated by:
Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
where F is the factor that includes the cost of valves, fit-
tings, and construction.
Pipeline operating cost
The operating cost of a pipeline depends on the energy
consumption necessary to achieve fluid flow through
the pipeline.
The energy balance of any flow system includes specific
energies calculated at the system inlet and outlet. A general
form of the energy balance equation is:
For steady-state processes, the accumulation of energy
is zero, and for insulated pipelines, heat loss through pipe
walls is negligible, so the energy balance equation for a
pipeline is simplified to:
where h (J/kg) is specific enthalpy, g (m/sec2) is gravita-
tional acceleration, z (m) is height above an arbitrary datum,
u (m/sec) is velocity, Δp (Pa) is pressure drop, ρ (kg/m3) is
fluid density, and in and out are indices denoting inlet and
outlet conditions of the pipeline. The term Δp/ρ denotes the
energy lost due to fluid friction.
In steam pipelines, the steam is usually superheated or
saturated. If the change in fluid expansion due to a pressure
drop is neglected, the horizontal pipeline transport from
Eq. 3 becomes:
The boiler duty, Q (W), is:
where G (kg/s) is the mass flowrate of steam, W (kg/hr) is
fuel consumption, K (J/kg) is the lower heating value of
fuel, and E is boiler efficiency.
Pressure drop is calculated as the sum of frictional pres-
sure drop, Δpfr (Pa), and minor pressure losses, Δpml (Pa):
The Weisbach equation for friction pressure drop is:
CEP  August 2018  www.aiche.org/cep  23
Heat Transfer

where ξ is the Darcy friction factor.

Nomenclature Minor pressure losses can be estimated either as
head losses or by using equivalent lengths. In further
A = simplifying term in Eq. 11 that incorporates analysis, minor pressure losses will simply be taken into
operational variables account by:
a = amortization, yr–1
B = simplifying term in Eq. 11 that incorporates fric-
tion factor and pipe diameter where J is the ratio of minor pressure losses to frictional
b = fractional annual cost of maintenance, yr–1 pressure drop.
C = total annualized cost of pipeline, $/yr Equations 7 and 8 apply to incompressible isothermal
Cc = annualized capital cost of pipeline, $/yr fluid (liquid) flow. In engineering practice, this equation is
Ce = operational cost of pipeline, $/yr acceptable for compressible fluid (gas) flow if the total pres-
CF = cost of fuel, $/kg of fuel sure drop is less than 10% of the initial pressure.
CP = purchase cost, $ If the plant operates Y hr/yr, the annual operational cost
D = internal pipe diameter, m (Ce) of the steam line is:
E = boiler efficiency
F = factor accounting for the cost of valves, fittings,
and construction (Eq. 2)
G = mass flowrate of steam, kg/sec which can be written as:
g = gravitational acceleration, m/sec2
h = specific enthalpy, J/kg
J = ratio of minor pressure losses to friction
pressure drop
K = lower heating value of fuel, J/kg
L = pipe length, m
m = material-dependent parameter for calculating
purchase cost in the country of interest (Eq. 1) where CF ($/kg of fuel) is the cost of fuel.
n = wall-thickness-related parameter for calculating
purchase cost in the country of interest (Eq. 1) Optimizing annualized pipeline cost
Q = boiler heat duty, W Capital and operating costs are defined by Eqs. 2 and 10,
Re = Reynolds number in which the independent variable is the pipeline diameter.
Rr = relative pipe roughness The total annualized pipeline cost is C = Cc + Ce, so the opti-
u = velocity, m/sec mum economic pipe diameter, Dopt, can be found by solving
W = fuel consumption, kg/hr dC/dD = 0. After differentiating Eqs. 2 and 10 for capital
Y = plant operating rate, hr/yr and operational costs, respectively, the general form of a
z = height above an arbitrary datum, m solution is:

Greek Letters
Δp = pressure drop, Pa
Δpfr = pressure loss due to friction, Pa
Δpml = minor pressure loss, Pa where A is a simplifying term that combines values specific
ε = absolute pipe roughness, m to individual pipelines:
η = viscosity, Pa-sec
ξ = Darcy friction factor
ρ = density, kg/m3
and B is a simplifying term that incorporates the pipe diam-
Indices eter and the friction factor:
in = inlet
opt = optimal
out = outlet
The pipeline friction factor, in general, depends on Reyn-
olds number:

24  www.aiche.org/cep  August 2018  CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)

where η (Pa-sec) is the fluid viscosity and ε (m) is the abso-
lute roughness of the internal pipe surface. The relative pipe
roughness is Rr = ε/D. Pipe relative roughness, according to
open literature data, ranges from 0 to 0.0333.
Like many other gases and vapors, steam is almost
always transported in the turbulent regime due to its den-
sity and viscosity. Nevertheless, to complete the model,
Eqs. 15a–c calculate the friction factors for laminar, transi-
tion, and turbulent flow (4):
capital costs, so 0.01 ≤ b ≤ 0.05. It is common for process
plants to operate 90–95% of the time, so Y = 8,000 hr/yr.
The factor that incorporates the cost of valves, fittings,
and construction, F, is the most difficult to evaluate because
it varies significantly from one application to another. For
short pipelines with smaller diameters and without fittings
and supports, F is as low as 3, while for larger pipelines
with fittings, F may be as high as 11. When no other data
are available, it is safe to assume a value of F around 6 or 7.
The coefficient J for minor pressure losses is 5–10% for
very large pipelines, but it can be 100%, or even more, for
shorter pipelines with many fittings (10).
Boiler efficiency, E, is usually around 0.88 for oil fuel
and 0.92 for natural gas systems.

Example calculations
These two examples illustrate the calculations involved
in the proposed model. Results are compared to the litera-
ture recommendations (5–9). The parameters needed to
calculate A depend strongly on the local market conditions,
boiler efficiency, and fuel type; these examples use the
data presented in Table 1 to calculate A. Table 2 shows the
Equation 15a is used for laminar flow, when Re < 2,000. values of (AB)1/(5+n) used to find the optimal diameter based
Equation 15b is used for transition flow, 2,000 < Re < 4,000. on flow regime and fuel type.
Equation 15c is used for turbulent flow, Re > 4,000. Example 1. A carbon steel steam pipeline transports
For laminar flow, the explicit solution of Eq. 13 is low-pressure saturated steam. The steam flowrate is
B = 3.24. For the other flow regimes, the mean value of B 1,000 kg/hr and the pipe’s absolute roughness through its
should be estimated after integration. lifecycle is ε = 0.5 mm.
Solving Eq. 13 for transition flow:
Table 1. Parameters for calculating the simplifying term A.
Source: Ref 3.
Parameter Example 1 Example 2
Y 8,000 hr/yr 8,000 hr/yr
CF 0.16 $/Nm3 0.29 $/kg
For turbulent flow (with an upper limit on the integral
J 0.5 0.5
of Re = 108):
m 330 330
n 1.5 1.5
E 0.92 0.88
K 36 MJ/ Nm3 40 MJ/kg
F 6.5 6.5
The friction factor must be known to obtain the optimal
pipe diameter, so an iterative procedure is needed to solve a+b 0.2 0.2
Eq. 11. One way to solve Eq. 11 is to assume a friction fac- A 281×10–6 479×10–6
tor and apply the iterative procedure. Since steam typically
flows in the turbulent regime, a single iteration is sufficient Table 2. Values of (AB)1/(5+n) for
to solve the problem. laminar, transition, and turbulent flow.
The working life of an energy plant in a chemical Flow Regime Example 1 Example 2
process industries (CPI) facility is at least five years, but Laminar, B= 3.24 0.341 0.370
may be as long as 20 years. Usually a value of a between
Transition, B= 3.86 0.350 0.380
0.2 yr–1 and 0.05 yr–1 is acceptable for most plants. Mainte-
Turbulent, B= 4.34 0.356 0.387
nance costs of a pipeline are usually assumed to be 1–5% of
Article continues on next page

Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP  August 2018  www.aiche.org/cep  25
Heat Transfer

Table 3. Comparison of saturated steam velocities calculated by Eq. 18 and literature recommendations for Example 1.
Superheated Dopt, mm Velocity, m/sec
Steam Pressure, (from Eq. 18)
Eq. 18 Ref. 5 Ref. 6 Ref. 7 Ref. 8 Ref. 9
bar
1 122.6 37.0 28.6 16.0
2 103.2 28.6 23.0 14.1

5 79.6 20.2 17.2 11.9

8 69.6 16.8 14.8 10.8 35–60 30–50 15–25

10 65.3 15.4 13.8 10.4

15 58.1 13.2 12.1 9.6
20 53.4 11.7 11.0 9.0

Use the values in Tables 1 and 2 for a natural-gas-fired to calculate Rr = 1.55×10–3.

boiler in the U.S. and rewrite Eq. 11 as:
To find the optimal diameter:
1. Use the steam tables to determine that at a pressure of
10 bar, the saturated steam temperature is 180°C, its density
is ρ = 5.38 kg/m3, and its viscosity is η = 15.1×10-6 Pa-sec.
2. Assume the friction factor ξ = 0.02 to begin the
calculations.
3. Evaluate Eq. 18 to find a preliminary value of the
optimal pipe diameter, Dopt = 0.0644 m = 64.4 mm.
4. Use Eq. 14 to calculate a Reynolds number of
Re = 365×106 and the definition of relative pipe roughness
5. Use Eq. 17 to recalculate the value of the friction fac-
tor, ξ = 0.0219.
6. Based on Eq. 18, Dopt = 0.0653 m = 65.3 mm. This
deviates from the value used in the previous iteration by
1.4% and the calculation is complete.
Table 3 and Figure 1 present the results of calculations
for absolute pressures ranging from 1 bar to 20 bar, as well
as the recommended velocities from the literature.
Example 2. Superheated steam is transported through
carbon steel piping with absolute pipe roughness
ε = 0.2 mm at 100 m.t./hr. The steam is produced in an
oil-fired boiler in Europe. The absolute pressure is
20–40 bar and the steam is superheated at 50°C. In this
case, Eq. 11 becomes:

60
20 bar 10 bar
15 bar The procedure is the same as in the previous example.
8 bar
50
5 bar
Table 4 presents the results based on Eq. 19 and recom-
mended velocities (5–9). Figure 2 plots annualized cost as
a function of pipe diameter at a pressure of 30 bar. Only in
40
the vicinity of the minimum diameter of 437 mm is it pos-
Annual Cost, ($/yr)/m

2 bar
1 bar sible to achieve annualized costs under $200/yr per meter
30 of pipeline.
Comparing the examples. In Example 1, velocities
recommended in the literature yield results that match
20
those obtained by Eq. 11 reasonably well. However,
in Example 2, the steam velocities recommended in the lit-
10
erature produce results that deviate significantly from those
Optimal Velocity obtained by Eq. 11, and they cannot be recommended for
engineering purposes (6–8). Although the recommendations
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 obtained from the literature are in everyday use by many
Velocity, m/sec engineers and are published in well-known books,
p Figure 1. Annualized cost per meter of pipeline as a function of steam it has to be noted that they cannot be linked to an
velocity. The red line connects the optimized results for Example 1. economic criterion.

26  www.aiche.org/cep  August 2018  CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
 Table 4. Comparrison of saturated steam velocities calculated by Eq. 19 and literature recommendations for Example 2.

Superheated Temperature, Dopt, mm Velocity, m/sec

Steam Pressure, °C (from Eq. 19)
Eq. 19 Ref. 5 Ref. 6 Ref. 7 Ref. 8 Ref. 9
bar
20 262 486 17.2 54.6 9.4
30 284 433 14.7 48.0 8.7 35–60 35–75 25–40

40 300 398 13.1 43.7 8.2

Closing thoughts
Since pipeline capital and operating costs can signifi-
cantly influence total plant expenses, fluid transportation is
always a significant economic factor in a plant’s design.
The simple optimization model of pipe diameter for
steam pipelines can be applied to both superheated and
saturated steam pipelines and includes the cost of fuel for
the boiler operation. The values calculated by the proposed
model differ significantly from methods and data recom-
mended in the literature.
Optimal pipeline diameters in any particular project
must be determined by a profitability study that includes the
optimization of various pipeline parameters. Other con-
siderations when designing a steam piping system include
the piping’s material of construction, the thickness of the
piping, the efficiency of the system, and any other financial
incentives or penalties that might be imposed upon plant
construction. The simple model proposed here can be used
as a guideline in early stages of design for quick estima-
tions, so it should be treated as just a small piece of
the design puzzle. CEP
4,000
Operational Cost
Literature Cited
1. Genereaux, R. P., “Fluid–Flow Design Methods,” Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, 29, pp. 385–388 (1937).
2. Sarchet, B. R., and A. P. Colburn, “Economic Pipe Size in the
Transportation of Viscous and Nonviscous Fluids,” Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, 32, pp. 1249–1252 (1940).
3. Genić, S., et al., “Economic Optimization of Pipe Diameter for
Complete Turbulence,” Energy and Buildings, 45, pp. 335–338
(2012).
4. Genić, S., and B. Jaćimović, “Reconsideration of the Friction
Factor Data and Equations for Smooth, Rough, and Transi-
tion Pipe Flow” presented at the 1st International Conference
on Computational Methods and Applications in Engineering,
Timisoara, Romania (May 2018).
5. Tube Turns, Inc., “Piping Engineering,” 6th Ed., Louisville, KY,
(1986).
6. Simpson, L. L., “Sizing Piping for Process Plants,” Chemical
Engineering, 75 (14), pp. 192–193 (1968).
7. Walas, S. M., “Chemical Process Equipment — Selection and
Design,” Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, MA (1990).
8. Ludwig, E. E., “Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petro-
chemical Plants,” Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX (1991).
9. “VDI Heat Atlas,” 2nd Ed., Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
Berlin (2010).

2,000 Capital Cost

Total Cost

1,000 Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technological
600 Development of Serbia for partial support of this study through the Project
of Energy Efficiency.
Annual Cost, ($/yr)/m

200

100 SRBISLAV GENIĆ, PhD, is a professor in the Dept. of Process Engineering at

60 the Univ. of Belgrade (Kraljice Marije 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; Email:
sgenic@mas.bg.ac.rs). His research interests include heat and mass
transfer processes and equipment. He holds BS, MS, and PhD degrees
in mechanical engineering from the Univ. of Belgrade. He serves as a
court expert and is a registered professional engineer in Serbia.
20
BRANISLAV JAĆIMOVIĆ, PhD, is a retired mechanical engineering professor
10 from the Univ. of Belgrade (Kraljice Marije 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia).
180 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 He has over 40 years of experience in the fields of separation processes
Pipe ID, mm (especially distillation) and heat exchanger design. He is a registered
professional engineer in Serbia and holds BS, MS, and PhD degrees in
p Figure 2. Annualized costs per meter of pipeline as a function of pipe mechanical engineering from the Univ. of Belgrade.
inside diameter for Example 2.

Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP  August 2018  www.aiche.org/cep  27