Abstract

The object of this research is to compare ultimate attainment in L2 between child,

adolescent, and adult near-native speakers of Spanish, specifically their semantic interpretations

of L2 grammar, and whether or not the age of L2 onset affects these interpretations in a way that

approximates or distances them from the interpretations of native speakers. The feature being

examined in this research is the semantic interpretation of contrasts in the preterite and imperfect

verb tense use, pre-nominative and post-nominative adjective placement, and the use of definite

and indefinite articles by L2 near-native speakers of Spanish whose L1s are either English,

Arabic or Korean.

I Introduction

It has been claimed that native speakers (NS) and near native speakers (NNS) ultimately

attain different grammatical systems for the same given language (Coppieters, 1987), one

potentially different area being semantic interpretation. Coppieters (1987) claims that NLA and

SLA could be quite different in that the analytical process by which children establish relations

between forms and functions of words, ultimately leading to the development of the complex and

abstract linguistic units of adult language cannot be replicated in SLA, as it has already been

established by NLA. Similarly, DeKeyser (2000), citing Bley-Vroman’s (1988) Fundamental

Difference Hypothesis, states that “adults can no longer rely on the innate mechanisms for

implicit language acquisition and must, therefore, rely on alternative, problem-solving

mechanisms;” he further concludes that the implication is that “only adults with a high level of

verbal ability are expected to succeed fully at second language acquisition.” In an attempt to

replicate Coppieter’s study, Birdsong (1992) obtained very different results and concluded that

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NNS and NS do not differ dramatically in their judgments, and that for some ultimate attainment

in L2 and L1 can be congruent.

One of the challenges in conducting studies on near-native L2 speakers is the selection of

participants deemed as NNS. The selection criteria for the different studies mentioned varies

from subjective interpretation of surface representations, to grammaticality judgments, to

standardized proficiency tests, and even minimum length of residence in the L2 country. Given

these differences, it is not surprising that the end results and conclusions should not coincide.

Arriving at a clear definition of what near-native competence means seems in itself to be a

daunting task. L2 competence is generally tested by eliciting L2 production, as in language

proficiency tests like the ACTFL, TOEFL, and MLA exams. These tests do not access the

internal grammatical representations that L2 learners have arrived at; thus, L2 native-like

performance may in fact not correspond to L2 native-like competence.

The research proposed in this paper aims at exploring L2 ultimate attainment. How does

the ultimate attainment of near-native speakers with early L2 learning exposure, and near-native

speakers with late L2 learning exposure compare? Are their grammars and semantic

interpretations similar? Does one group fare better than the other in approximating their semantic

interpretations to those of native speakers?

II Preterite and Imperfect Aspect Differences in Spanish

In Spanish, the preterite and imperfect tenses of the indicative form contrast semantically

in that one, preterite, refers to a completed action, while the other, imperfect, refers to an action

that does not necessarily have an end point either due to it not being completed or to the

occurrence of repeated instances of that action in the past. The same meaning can be conveyed in

the L1s in question by resorting to other verb forms and/or adding information to the overall

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sentence as in the examples below. What is under examination in this study is the ability to

understand the implied semantic differences of the two aspects in the L2.

Ana hizo las asignaciones. (preterite) Ana hizo las asignaciones (ayer).

Ana did the homework. Ana did the homework (yesterday.)

Ana hacía las asignaciones. (imperfect) Ana hacía las asignaciones (todos los días).

Ana did the homework. Ana did the homework (every day.)

Ana had the habit of doing (the) homework.

Ana was doing (the) homework.

Ana hacía (imperfect) las asignaciones cuando su mamá la llamó (preterite).

Ana was doing the homework when her mother called her. (implied: Her doing the

homework was interrupted, we don’t know whether it was completed afterwards or not.)

Pablo fue un hombre muy famoso. (preterite)

Pablo was a very famous man. (implied: He is no longer alive or he is no longer famous)

Pablo era un hombre muy famoso. (imperfect)

Pablo was a very famous man. (implied: Pablo was and continues to be a very famous

man.)

L1s past verb tenses:

Arabic Past tense – perfective (completed action)

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 Present tense – imperfect (unfinished action)

No equivalent to the imperfect in the past

Korean Past tense – perfective (completed action)

Distant past – perfective (completed action)

No equivalent to the imperfect in the past

English Simple past – perfective (completed action)

No equivalent to the imperfect in the past

III Pre-nominative and post-nominative adjective placement

Androutsopoulou et al. (2008) state that evaluative adjectives (EA) in Spanish “are

equipped with an interpretable Focus/Degree feature, which triggers EA movement to a

pronominal position” thereby altering the typical postnominal adjective placement. This

alternation results in different semantic interpretations, the postnominal placement has a more

concrete nature focusing on the noun as a physical/material object, whether the prenominal

placement has a more subjective nature referring to the noun both as a physical object and its

psychological/immaterial qualities. This adjective placement alternation is common, though not

identical, in all Romance languages. The contrast is very evident for native Spanish speakers but

not so to Spanish learners who have not yet attained proficiency in the language.

Una bella persona. Una persona bella.

A beautiful person. A pretty person.

Un viejo amigo. Un amigo viejo.

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 An old friend. An old friend.

(has been a friend for a long time) (old agewise)

Un gran libro. Un libro grande.

A great book. A big book.

Adjective placement in the L1s are as follows:

Arabic noun adjective

Korean adjective noun

English adjective noun

IV Definite and indefinite articles

Article usage is subject to extensive variation among the languages involved in this study.

The abbreviated rules for using articles in Spanish are as follows, according to Dozier and Iguina

in Manual de Gramática, Grammar Reference for Students of Spanish. For a more detailed

explanation on article usage in Spanish please see Appendix A.

Definite articles, el (masc. sing.), la (fem. sing.), los (masc. pl.), and las (fem. pl.), have two

functions: referring to a specific item or group of specific items, and referring to a generalized

concept.

La conferencia le gustó al público. The audience liked the speech.

Las conferencias de ese tipo son muy buenas para la gente, portque aumentan los

conocimientos humanos.

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 ___ Speeches of that type are very good for ___ people, because they increase ___human

knowledge.

Indefinite articles, un (masc. sing.), una (fem. sing.), unos (masc. pl.), unas (fem. pl.), in

Spanish have more the meaning of the number one in the singular and of some in the plural.

They are more frequently used in English than in Spanish.

Articles in the L1s are represented as follows:

Arabic definite article al- (prefix)

indefinite article -un (suffix)

Korean no articles

English definite article the

Indefinite articles singular a, an

Indefinite article plural (none)

V. Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be investigated in this paper:

1. L2 learners develop semantic interpretations identical to those of native speakers

overtime.

2. Age of L2 onset has no bearing on whether L2 learners’ end state grammar is similar

to the grammar of native-speakers.

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VI. Method

1. Participants

This experiment will require three separate groups of participants for each of the four L1s

involved, Spanish, English, Arabic, and Korean; comprising a total of 12 separate groups. The

three groups would be distributed as follows:

Near-native L2 Spanish Speakers

Group 1: 20 L2 Spanish learners with L2 learning onset between 2 and 8 years of age.

Group 2: 20 L2 Spanish learners with L2 learning onset between 8 and 14 years of age.

Group 3: 20 L2 Spanish learners with L2 learning onset after the age of 15.

Native Spanish Speakers (Control Groups)

Same group distribution as described above.

Participants would be selected from k-12 Spanish immersion programs who have

demonstrated near-native competence in the L2 for the two younger groups. Participants for the

older group would be selected from university Spanish language programs, and would also have

to obey the criteria for the near-native category. For the purposes of this study, syntactic and

semantic competence are more relevant than Spanish pronunciation. Criteria for selection would

be based on scores and overall performance of the students in their respective language learning

programs.

Given the local demographics of the DC Metropolitan area and the availability of k-12

Spanish immersion programs in many of the local public school districts, as well as a multitude

of universities offering Spanish language programs, finding adequate participants should not be a

challenge, with the exception perhaps of near-native speakers in the youngest age bracket.

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2. Tests

Three different types of tests will be used to analyze the different features being

examined. A language production test will be used to check semantic and syntactic competence

of preterite and imperfect use. Participants will be required to respond orally in Spanish to the

following question, presented in English:

What did you do when you were younger? What were your favorite activities, pastimes,

holidays, and so on? Did you have any television shows, movies, books or toys you liked? Which

ones? What did you like about them?

Participants will be instructed to speak freely for at least two minutes and their responses

will be recorded. The recordings will be analyzed later for correct use of the two verb tenses,

preterite and imperfect, within the context of their speech. No other language features will be

taken into account in the results of this test.

To test for semantic interpretation of the difference between prenominal and postnominal

adjective placement, participants will be asked to write in their own words in English, the

younger group could answer orally if necessary and have their answers recorded, what they think

the sentences mean. I will provide a total of twenty sentences, as in the examples below.

a. El Principito es un gran libro.

b. El diccionario es un libro grande.

c. Pedro es mi viejo amigo.

d. Pablo es un amigo viejo.

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 e. Cristina es una pobre niña.

f. Cristina es una niña pobre.

g. El Presidente es un alto funcionario del gobierno.

h. Shaquille O’Neal es un deportista alto.

The third portion of the test is comprised of a grammaticality judgment of article usage in

Spanish. Participants will be given a set of forty sentences and will be asked to check C for

correct or I for incorrect. Ten sentences will be distractors with features other than articles being

misused. Ten sentences will be correct, and twenty will have incorrect article use. Some

examples follow below.

Amor es eterno. ___ C ___ I ¡Hasta lunes! ___ C ___ I

Esta tarea es para viernes. ___ C ___ I Ana no está en la casa ahora. ___ C ___ I

Pesa cinco quilos y un medio. ___ C ___ I Hay mucha plumas. ___ C ___ I

¡Qué un problema! ___ C ___ I Dáme libro, por favor. ___ C ___ I

VII. Discussion

The results of this proposed study could have significant impact in the field of second

language acquisition both from a research standpoint, leading to further investigations in

possibly untapped areas of cognitive and linguistic development, and from the applied linguistics

perspective, perhaps indicating more efficient methods for language instruction.

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VIII. References

An Introduction to Korean, J. David Eisenberg, January 2003, 16 March 1010,

<http://langintro.com/kintro/index.htm>.

Arabic Online, Hāni Deek, 15 March 2010, <http://arabic.tripod.com>.

Birdsong, D. (1992). Ultimate attainment in SLA. Language, 68, 706-755.

Bley-Vroman, R.W., Felix, S.W. and Ioup, G.L. (1988). The accessibility of Universal Grammar

in adult language learning. Second Language Research 4, 1-32.

Coppieters, R. (1987). Competence differences between native and near-native speakers.

Language, 63, 544-573.

DeKeyser, R. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition.

Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499-534.

DeKeyser, Robert M. Grammatical Development in Language Learning. Malden: Blackwell

Publishing, 2005.

Dozier, Eleanor, and Zulma Iguina. Manual de gramática Grammar Reference for Students of

Spanish. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1995.

Flege, J.E., Yeni-Komshian, G, and Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second language learning.

Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78-104.

Hawkins, R., and Chan, C. (1997). The partial availability of Universal Grammar in second

Language acquisition: The “failed functional features hypothesis.” Second Language

Research, 13, 187-226.

Johnson, J., and Newport, E. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The

influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language.

Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99.

Johnson, J., and Newport, E. (1991). Critical period effects on universal properties of language:

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 The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language. Cognition, 39, 215-258.

Joyce Bruhn de Garavito, and Elena Valenzuela, eds., Selected Proceedings of the 10th

Hispanic Linguistics Symposium, October 19-22, 2006: On the Acquisition of the Prenominal

Placement of Evaluative Adjectives in L2 Spanish (Somerville: Cascadilla Proceedings Project,

2008).

Lardiere, D. (1998). Case and tense in the ‘fossilized’ steady state. Second Language Research

14, 1-26.

McDonald, J.L. (2000). Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influences of age of

acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 395-423.

Montrul, S., and Slabakova, R. (2003). Competence similarities between native and near-native

speakers: An investigation of the preterite-imperfect contrast in Spanish. Studies in Second

Language Acquisition, 25, 351-398.

Prévost, P., and White, L. (2000). Missing surface inflection or impairment in second language

Acquisition? Evidence from tense and agreement. Second Language Research, 16, 103-133.

White, L., and Genesee, F. (1996). How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment

in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research 12, 233-265.

White, Lydia. Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2003.

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Appendix A

Definite and indefinite articles in Spanish

According to Dozier and Iguina in Manual de Gramática, Grammar Reference for Students of

Spanish , these are the rules for article use in Spanish.

Definite articles, el (masc. sing.), la (fem. sing.), los (masc. pl.), and las (fem. pl.), have two

functions: referring to a specific item or group of specific items, and referring to a generalized

concept.

La conferencia le gustó al público. The audience liked the speech.

Las conferencias de ese tipo son muy buenas para la gente, portque aumentan los

conocimientos humanos.

___ Speeches of that type are very good for ___ people, because they increase ___human

knowledge.

Subject nouns must be preceded by an article.

La gente es así. People are like that.

El amor es eterno. Love is eternal.

Titles, with the exception of don, doña, san, santo, and santa, require a definite article when

talking about the person not to the person.

La señora Gómez le explicó a la profesora Ruiz por qué su hijo había faltado.

___ Mrs. Gómez explained to ___ Professor Ruiz why her son had missed class.

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The names of languages, except when followed by en or the verb hablar, must be preceded by a

definite article.

Escribe el español con facilidad. She/he writes in Spanish easily.

Hablo español. I speak Spanish.

Omit the article after de when two nouns are used, one to modify the other.

mi profesora de español my Spanish professor/teacher

el libro de ruso the Russian book

With aprender, entender, comprender, enseñar, leer, and other verbs relating to activities with

language, the article is optional.

Aprendí (el) español a los seis años. I learned Spanish when I was six.

The article is necessary if an adverb is used between the verb and the name of the language.

Aprendí fácilmente el español cuando tenía seis años.

I learned Spanish easily when I was six.

Possessives vs. articles: with parts of the body, articles of clothing, and anything that pertains to

the person in situations where there could be no ambiguity, the possessive is not necessary; a

definite article is most frequently used.

El estudiante levantó la mano. The student raised his hand.

In sentences where the part of the body, article of clothing, etc., is the direct object of the verb,

and the indirect object indicates the possessor, an article is used instead of a possessive.

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 El dentista me arrancó el diente. The dentist pulled out my tooth.

With reflexive verbs, the definite article is used with parts of the body and articles of clothing.

Me lavé las manos. I washed my hands.

In most cases, the definite article accompanies a prepositional object.

Lo llevaron a la cárcel. They took him to ___ jail.

When casa, clase, or misa are objects of a, de or en, omit the article.

Voy a clase a las ocho. I go to class at eight.

No está en casa ahora. She/he is not ___ home now.

With days of the week, always use the article, even after hasta and para.

El lunes tenemos una prueba. On Monday we have a test.

¡Hasta el lunes! See you on Monday!

Exception: with ser, except when the sentence translates into English with on.

Hoy es miércoles. Today is Wednesday.

La prueba es el lunes. The test is on Monday.

Indefinite articles, un (masc. sing.), una (fem. sing.), unos (masc. pl.), unas (fem. pl.), in

Spanish have more the meaning of the number one in the singular and of some in the plural.

They are more frequently used in English than in Spanish.

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Omit the indefinite article after ser when an unmodified noun referring to profession, religion,

nationality, or marital status is used.

Es estudiante. She/he is a student. Es mexicana. She is (a) Mexican.

Soy católico. I am (a) Catholic. Eres soltero. You are a bachelor.

Omit the indefinite article before or after cierto, cien, mil, otro, medio, semejante, tal, and

¡qué…!

Había cierta duda en su voz. There was a certain doubt in her voice.

Hay cien invitados. There are a hundred guests.

Necesito mil dólares. I need a thousand dollars.

Omit the indefinite article in negative sentences after haber used impersonally and tener.

No hay respuesta. There is no answer.

No tiene coche. He has no car.

If you use the singular article, it has the meaning of the number “one.”

No tiene un coche – tiene dos. He does not have one car – he has two.

No tengo ni un centavo. I do not have a single cent.

Omit the indefinite article after sin.

Salió sin abrigo. She went out without a coat.

Omit the indefinite article after con when the object is being referred to as a type of object.

Escriban con pluma, por favor. Please write with a pen.

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If the object is specific or the number “one” is present, use the article.

Pudo hacerlo con una mano. He was able to do it with one hand.

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