ECOSYSTEMS

Environment
Studies (BITS F225)
Suman Kapur
Ecosystem Services
 The human economy depends upon the services
performed for free by ecosystems.
 The ecosystem services supplied annually are worth
many trillions of dollars.
 Economic development that destroys habitats and
impairs services can create costs to humanity over the
long term that may greatly exceed the short-term
economic benefits of the development.
 These costs are generally hidden from traditional
economic accounting, but are nonetheless real and are
usually borne by society at large.
http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/pdf/issue2.pdf
Connections: Matter and Energy Laws
and Environmental Problems

 High-throughput (waste) economy

 Matter-recycling economy

 Low-throughput
economy
Ecosystems:
Fundamental Characteristics

Structure:
 Living (biotic)
 Nonliving (abiotic)
 Process:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter (chemicals)
 Change:
 Dynamic (not static)
 Succession, etc.
A system is a group of parts that
work together as a unit.

OPEN SYSTEMS CLOSED SYSTEMS

Most systems are Very few systems are
open systems. They truly closed. Most
take in things from systems receive
outside the system. inputs and give off
For example, a outputs.
terrarium takes in A diver in a
energy from the sun. submarine is in an
almost completely
closed system.
 Stability

Stability in systems means that over time the

changes in a system cancel each other out. For
example if something is added, it is later taken
out.
The system remains in balance.
Ecosystems include forests, ponds, streams and
human settlements.
 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

POPULATIONS COMMUNITIES
A group of the same A community of an
species living in the ecosystem is made up
same place at the same of all the populations
time is a population. that live in the same
Population Density area.
Populations live in The plants and
environments to which animals that live
they are adapted. together depend on
each other to survive.
 LIVING THINGS IN
ECOSYSTEMS

HABITATS NICHES
The environment that A niche is an
meets the needs of organism’s role or job
an organism is called in the environment
a habitat.

As organisms carry out their roles, they can affect

both living and nonliving parts of that ecosystem
Biotic Factors
Abiotic Factors
 Abiotic factors affect living organisms in an ecosystem
Fires destroy forests, but can sometimes help a forest community by allowing
new organisms to thrive

Early or unexpected Wind can affect

frost can kill plants and the way an
an entire food chain. organism grows
 Biotic factors affect the abiotic
factors in an ecosystem

Lichens on rocks help break them Dead organisms and animal

down into soil. Lichens are made waste contribute to soil nutrients
up of algae and fungi. (with the help of decomposers,
of course)
 The Biosphere
• All the ecosystems of
the planet put
together, form the
biosphere.
 If all mankind were to disappear,
The world would regenerate back to the rich state of equilibrium
That existed ten thousand years ago.
If insects were to vanish,
The environment would collapse into chaos.

Edward O Wilson
Physical factors that determine
weather, climate
Heat

Wind

Precipitation

Topography
 Modifiers

• Rotation of the
globe

• Geologic
features
Chemicals Essential for Life

• Elements and
compounds

• Recycled
between biotic
and abiotic parts
 Nutrient cycles
• Nitrogen cycle
• Carbon cycle
• Water Cycle

These are some of the nutrient cycles on

Earth.
Nitrogen Cycle
Carbon cycle
 Limiting Factors

• Any abiotic factor that

limits the survivability of
organisms in a particular
ecosystem is called a
limiting factor
Examples:
• Water in a desert
• light in the deepest parts of
the ocean (abyssal and
benthic zones), etc.
Pyramid of Biomass or Numbers
Just like energy, biomass decreases at each level, because there is only
enough energy at that level to support the biomass found there.
 Trophic Structure Reminder

• Eltonian pyramids
• Number of individuals per species
• Is this pyramid stable?
 Trophic Structure Reminder
• What if we transformed each species into
biomass instead of absolute numbers?
 Energy is eventually lost as heat on the top of the pyramid

The last level contains secondary,

tertiary consumers – heterotrophs,
carnivores, omnivores

The second level has

primary consumers –
heterotrophs, herbivores.
10% of the energy from the 1st
trophic level is available to the
2nd trophic level
The first level always
has autotrophs

90% of the energy at any given trophic level is used for growth
and reproduction, and is eventually lost as heat.
 Symbiosis
• Organisms of different kinds living together
in the same ecosystem
• Any of the following relationships are
considered to be symbiotic:
- Predator – prey
- Parasite – host
- Commensalism
- Mutualism
- Pathogen - host
 Predator - Prey
• Lions and zebras, for example
• One hunts and kills, the other gets killed and eaten
 Parasite - Host
• Fleas and dogs for example
• The parasite harms the host
and benefits from the
relationship. The host is
harmed, but not usually
killed
 Pathogen - Host

• A pathogen is a disease-causing agent, like a

bacterium or a virus

E.coli H.I.V.
 Mutualism
• A symbiotic relationship where
two organisms are in a
mutually beneficial relationship
• Examples: Lichens are not one
organism but two – an algae
and a fungus living as one.
The algae provides the fungus
with glucose in return for
moisture from the fungus.
Clown Fish are protected from predator
fish by the stinging tentacles of the
anemone. The anemone receives
protection from polyp-eating fish, like
Butterfly Fish, which the Clown Fish
chases away. The anemone also gets
fertilizer from the feces of the Clown Fish.
 Commensalism
• In this relationship, one organism benefits but
the other is neither harmed nor benefited
• Examples: Shark and remora,
 Factors that affect population size

• Mortality
• Natality
• Emigration
• Immigration
 Measuring the size of a population

• Census
• Sampling
• Tag and release
 Carrying Capacity
• The maximum number of individuals of a particular species
that an ecosystem can support without depleting its resources
• These are two types of population growth curves – one shows
exponential growth (unrestricted) and the other logistic growth
(restricted)
Predator-Prey cycle
 Boom-and-bust cycle

In species that reproduce rapidly, the population can grow exponentially

and for a brief period it can exceed the carrying capacity. After that, there
is a period of rapid decline in the population due to reduced reproductive
rate and increased death rates.
 Ecology
is
The study of the distribution and
abundance of organisms,
AND
the flows of energy and materials
between abiotic and biotic
components of ecosystems.