Exam 1 - Essential questions

Chapter 2

1. What are the cellular mechanics of chromosome transmission? Know what

happens at each step of cell division? – The cellular mechanics of chromosome
transmission are achieved through Mitosis and Meiosis which both involve cell division.

Cell Division or the Cell Cycle is made up of 4 stages:

Interphase
- The cell spends 90% of it's life in this stage.
1. Grows
2. Copies its DNA
3. Prepares for division
G1:
- Cell Prepares to divide
- Reaches restriction point
- Cell is growing rapidly to full size and carries out routine functions (making
organelles and enzymes)
S:
- Accumulates material necessary for the nuclear membrane and cell division.
- DNA (chromosomes) are copied. Chromosomes consist of two chromatids that
are identical (homologous chromosomes) attached at the centromere
G2:
- Preparations are made for the nucleus to divide. Microtubules are assembled -
these will become the spindle fibers
Mitosis (M):

2. How can chromosomes be visualized?

Chromosomes can be visualized by using a Karyotype and microscope.
To do to this:
1. Stop somatic cell in the M phase
2. Stain them, which gives them a pattern to identify them
3. Line up, organize, and number each chromosome.

3. What are the phases of the cell cycle and what is the significance of each?
G1:
- Cell Prepares to divide
- Reaches restriction point
- Cell is growing rapidly to full size and carries out routine functions (making
organelles and enzymes)
S:
- Accumulates material necessary for the nuclear membrane and cell division.
- DNA (chromosomes) are copied. Chromosomes consist of two chromatids that
are identical (homologous chromosomes) attached at the centromere
G2:
- Preparations are made for the nucleus to divide. Microtubules are assembled -
these will become the spindle fibers
Mitosis (M):

4.What is mitosis? Why is mitosis important? In what cell types does it occur and
what are its products?
Mitosis is the transferring of the parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. These two
cells are identical and do not differ in any way from the original parent cell. Mitosis
occurs in our heart, liver, brain, skin, blood and more.

It involves 6 stages:
Interphase
- Chromosomes are copied. Chromosomes appear as threadlike coils at the start,
but each chromosome and its copy change to sister chromatids at the end of this
phase.
Prophase
- centrioles appear and begin to move to opposite ends of the cell. Spindle fibers
form between the poles.
Metaphase
- Chromatids attaches to the spindle fibers. The chromosomes line up along the
middle of the cell.
Anaphase
- Chromatids separate and begin to move to opposite ends of the cell, pulled along
by the spindle fibers
Telophase
- Cell membrane moves inward to create two daughter cells - each with its own
nucleus with identical chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
- Two new nuclei form. Chromosomes appear as chromatin. Mitosis ends.

5. What is meiosis? Why is meiosis important? In what cell types does it occur
and what are its products? How is similar/different for egg production and sperm
production?
Meiosis is involved in the reproduction of gamete cell. It has two divisions of the nucleus-
meiosis I and meiosis II. 4 haploid cells are created as a result.

Meiosis includes all the process of Mitosis: Prophase, Prometaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/
Cytokinesis.

Spermatogenesis
 Meiosis 1 yields two haploid secondary spermatocytes
 Meiosis 2 yields four haploid spermatocytes
Oogenesis
 Unlike spermatogenesis the division in oogenesis are asymmetric (Primary, secondary
oocyte)
 During oocyte maturation, meiosis produces only one cell that is destined to become an
egg.

6. What is crossing over, when does it occur and why is it important?

- Crossing over, or recombination, is the exchange of chromosome segments between non-
sister chromatids in meiosis.
- its important because Crossing over creates new combinations of genes in the gametes that
are not found in either parent, contributing to genetic diversity.
Chapter 3
1.Who was Mendel and why did he choose the pea plant to study inheritance?
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) was an Austrian monk who discovered the basic principles of
heredity through experiments in his garden.
He chooses pea plants because:
 They were easy to grow
 They have true-breeding
 Control mating
 Observable characteristics

2. What laws of inheritance did he propose?

 Unit factors in pair are passed from generation to generation
 Dominance/Recessiveness
 Segregation – separate independently during gamete formation

3. What are the Principle of Segregation and the Principle of independent assortment?
Law of Segregation: allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation, and
randomly unite at fertilization
Law of Independent Assortment - when two genes assort independently (randomyly
during gamete production.

4. What is the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

The chromosomal theory of Inheritance - identifies chromosomes as the carriers of
genetic material during Meiosis and Fertilization

5. Be able to predict progeny from mono- and dihybrid crosses using

Punnett Squaresor the forked lined method

6. Identify individuals and patterns in a human pedigree and predict

outcomes

https://www3.nd.edu/~dseverso/Class03/pedigree.pdf
Chapter 4
What contains the genetic information that controls sex determination and sexual
differentiation?
many species, the process of sex determination relies on differences in genomes
– X and Y

Other mechanisms exist as well

– Environmental
– Behavior interactions

What are sex chromosomes? Autosomes?

What are different modes of sex determination in animals?

 X-0 = insects
 Z-W = Birds
What determines maleness in humans?
Zygotes with one X and one Y chromosome (heterogametic) result in male
offspring
A single gene on the Y chromosome is responsible for male development

How is the expression of X-chromosome linked genes balanced in males

and females?
Chapter 5
What are some of the extensions of Mendelian inheritance?
How can protein function explain dominant and recessive alleles?
What is incomplete dominance? Codominance?
Multiple alleles? Lethal alleles? Epistatis?
How are patterns of inheritance influenced by the sex of an organism?
Sex influenced vs sex limited
How do two or more genes influence phenotype?

Chapter 6
What is epigenetics?
What is genomic imprinting and how does it occur?
Understand material effect inheritance
What is extranuclear inheritance?