Introduction

Earthquakes are one of the most powerful natural forces that can disrupt our daily lives.
One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severe earthquake
and its terrible aftereffects. An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth, caused by
the abrupt release of strain that has accumulated over a long time. For hundreds of
millions of years, the forces of plate tectonics have shaped the Earth as the huge plates
that form the Earth's surface slowly move over, under, and past each other. Sometimes
the movement is gradual. At other times, the plates are locked together, unable to release
the accumulating energy. When the accumulated energy grows strong enough, the plates
break free. If the earthquake occurs in a populated area, it may cause many deaths and
injuries and extensive property damage. Through careful study, geologists are slowly
learning more about such questions as these:

Why do earthquakes occur?

Why do some locations such as California and Japan receive so many
earthquakes?
Can earthquakes be predicted?
Can we design a city to better withstand an earthquake?
Can we stop earthquakes before they occur? Should we try?

An earthquake is the vibration, sometimes violent, of the Earth's surface that follows a
release of energy in the Earth's crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden
dislocation of segments of the crust, by a volcanic eruption, or event by manmade
explosions. Most destructive quakes, however, are caused by dislocations of the crust.
The crust may first bend and then, when the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks,
break and "snap" to a new position. In the process of breaking, vibrations called "seismic
waves" are generated. These waves travel outward from the source of the earthquake
along the surface and through the Earth at varying speeds depending on the material
through which they move. Some of the vibrations are of high enough frequency to be
audible, while others are of very low frequency. These vibrations cause the entire planet
to quiver or ring like a bell or tuning fork.

Mechanism of Earthquake:

Plate Tectonics, the Cause of Earthquakes

A geological theory which holds that the crust of the earth (the lithosphere) is divided
into a small number of large separate plates which float and move slowly around on the
more plastic asthenosphere, breaking apart and moving away from each other at points
where magma upwells from below, and, driven by such upwellings and other currents on
the asthenosphere, sliding past each other, colliding with each other, and in some cases
being submerged (subducted) one below the other. This theory explains many geological
phenomena such as the clustered locations of earthquakes, mountain building, volcanism,
and the similarities observed between the geology of continents, such as The motions of
such tectonic plates are very slow, typically only several centimeters per year, but over

Page EQ-1 of 22
tens and hundreds of millions of years, cause very large changes in the relative positions
of the continents. On the surface of the Earth, lie on the 10 pieces of the hard board,
called plate, just like a jigsaw puzzle, they are almost unchangeably, but subducting in
different direction in a few cm to over 10 cm of speed, by the movement of mantle, they
hitting and deepening. According to a theory, this is called as “Plate-tectonics", and they
are effecting to each other, forming mountain range, trench and submarine mountain
range, and cause to occur earthquake and vocanical activities.

Earthquake occurrence in different plate tectonic settings:

The map below of Earth's solid surface shows many of the features caused by plate
tectonics. The oceanic ridges are the asthenospheric spreading centers, creating new
oceanic crust. Subduction zones appear as deep oceanic trenches. Most of the continental
mountain belts occur where plates are pressing against one another. The white squares
locate examples given here of the different tectonic and earthquake environments.

A fault is a fracture in the Earth's crust along which two blocks of the crust have slipped
with respect to each other. Faults are divided into three main groups, depending on how
they move. Normal faults occur in response to pulling or tension; the overlying block
moves down the dip of the fault plane. Thrust (reverse) faults occur in response to
squeezing or compression; the overlying block moves up the dip of the fault plane.
Strike-slip (lateral) faults occur in response to either type of stress; the blocks move
horizontally past one another. Most faulting along spreading zones is normal, along
subduction zones is thrust, and along transform faults is strike-slip.

Geologists have found that earthquakes tend to reoccur along faults, which reflect zones
of weakness in the Earth's crust. Even if a fault zone has recently experienced an
earthquake, however, there is no guarantee that all the stress has been relieved. Another
earthquake could still occur.

There are three main plate tectonic environments: extensional, transform, and
compressional. Plate boundaries in different localities are subject to different inter-plate
stresses, producing these three types of earthquakes. Each type has its own special
hazards.

Transform faults
are found where

Page EQ-2 of 22
plates slide past one another. An example of a transform-fault plate boundary is the San
Andreas fault, along the coast of California and northwestern Mexico. Earthquakes at
transform faults tend to occur at shallow depths and form fairly straight linear patterns.

Subduction zones are found where one plate overrides, or subducts, another, pushing it
downward into the mantle where it melts. An example of a subduction-zone plate
boundary is found along the northwest coast of the United States, western Canada, and
southern Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. Subduction zones are characterized by deep-
ocean trenches, shallow to deep earthquakes, and mountain ranges containing active
volcanoes.

Elastic Rebound Theory

After the devastating 1906 San Francisco, California earthquake, a fault trace was
discovered that could be followed along the ground in a more or less straight line for 270
miles. It was found that the earth on one side of the fault had slipped compared to the
earth on the other side of the fault by up to 21 feet (7 m). This fault trace drew the
curiosity of a number of scientists, especially since nobody had yet been able to explain
what was happening within the earth to cause earthquakes. Up until this earthquake, it
had generally been assumed that the forces leading to the occurrence of earthquakes must
be close to the locations of the earthquakes themselves.

The long term effects of the plate motions can be observed in the geologic record. As
relative movements of the plates occur elastic strain energy is stored in the material near
the boundaries as shear stresses increase on the fault planes that separates the plates.
When the shear stress reaches the shear strength of the rock along the fault, the rock fails
and the accumulated strain energy is released. The effect of failure depends on the nature
of the rock along the fault. If it is weak and ductile, the energy will be released slowly
and aseismic movements shall occur. If rock is strong and brittle, the failure will be rapid.
Rupture of the rock shall release the stored energy.

Page EQ-3 of 22
Earthquake terminologies

Focus: That point within the earth from which originates the first motion of an
earthquake and its elastic waves.

The focal depth of an earthquake is the depth from the Earth's surface to the region where
an earthquake's energy originates (the focus). Earthquakes with focal depths from the
surface to about 70 kilometers (43.5 miles) are classified as shallow. Earthquakes with
focal depths from 70 to 300 kilometers (43.5 to 186 miles) are classified as intermediate.
The focus of deep earthquakes may reach depths of more than 700 kilometers (435
miles). The focuses of most earthquakes are concentrated in the crust and upper mantle.

Hypocenter: The calculated location of the focus of an earthquake.

Determining the Depth and Location of an Earthquake

Earthquakes can occur anywhere between the Earth's surface and about 700 kilometers
below the surface. For scientific purposes, this earthquake depth range of 0 - 700 km is
divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and deep.

Shallow earthquakes are between 0 and 70 km deep; intermediate earthquakes, 70 - 300

km deep; and deep earthquakes, 300 - 700 km deep. In general, the term "deep-focus
earthquakes" is applied to earthquakes deeper than 70 km. All earthquakes deeper than 70
km are localized within great slabs of shallow lithosphere that are sinking into the Earth's
mantle.

The most obvious indication on a seismogram that a large earthquake has a deep focus is
the small amplitude, or height, of the recorded surface waves and the uncomplicated
character of the P and S waves. Although the surface-wave pattern does generally
indicate that an earthquake is either shallow or may have some depth, the most accurate
method of determining the focal depth of an earthquake is to read a depth phase recorded
on the seismogram.

Location of an earthquake is initially specified in terms of location of its epicenter.

Preliminary location is based on the relative arrival times of P & S waves at a set of at
least three seismographs located at three record stations. Since P waves travel faster than
S waves, they arrive first at a given seismograph. The difference in arrival times will
depend on the difference between P & S Waves velocities and on the distance between
the seismographs and focus of earthquake. Distance shall be given by

D = Δtp – s where Δtp – s = difference in time between P & S arrival

1/Vs – 1/Vp Vp and Vs are P & S wave velocities

Page EQ-4 of 22
The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the
focus. The location of an earthquake is commonly described by the geographic position
of its epicenter and by its focal depth.

Figure: Determination of the epicenter from arrival times of seismic waves at three
observation centres A,B and C.

Page EQ-5 of 22
Measuring Earthquakes
The vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured by
instruments call seismographs. The zig-zag line made by a seismograph, called a
"seismogram," reflects the changing intensity of the vibrations by responding to the
motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data expressed in
seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the epicenter, the focal depth, and the
type of faulting of an earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released.

The two general types of vibrations produced by earthquakes are surface waves, which
travel along the Earth's surface, and body waves, which travel through the Earth. Surface
waves usually have the strongest vibrations and probably cause most of the damage done
by earthquakes.

Body waves are of two types, compressional and shear. Both types pass through the
Earth's interior from the focus of an earthquake to distant points on the surface, but only
compressional waves travel through the Earth's molten core. Because compressional
waves travel at great speeds and ordinarily reach the surface first, they are often called
"primary waves" or simply "P" waves. P waves push tiny particles of Earth material
directly ahead of them or displace the particles directly behind their line of travel.

Shear waves ( S waves) or transverse waves cause shearing deformation as they travel
through a material. The motion of an individual particle is perpendicular to the direction
of S Wave travel. The direction of particle movement can be used to divide S waves into
ywo components, SV ( Vertical plane movement) and SH ( horizontal plane movement).
The speed at which body waves travel varies with the stiffness of the materials they travel
through.. Since geologic materials are stiffest in compression, p-waves travel faster than
other seismic waves and are therefore the first to arrive at a particular site. Fluids, which
have no shearing stiffness, cannot sustain s-waves. These do not travel as rapidly through
the Earth's crust and mantle as do compressional waves, and because they ordinarily
reach the surface later, they are called "secondary" or "S" waves. Instead of affecting
material directly behind or ahead of their line of travel, shear waves displace material at
right angles to their path and therefore sometimes called "transverse" waves.

Page EQ-6 of 22
Surface waves results from the interaction between the body waves and the surface and
sacrificial layers of the earth. They travel along the earth surface with amplitudes that
decrease roughly exponentially with depths. Because of the nature of the interactions
required to produce them, surface waves are more prominent at distances farther from the
source of earthquake at distances greater than about twice the thickness of the earth’s
crust, surface waves rather than body waves, will produce peak ground motion. The most
important surface waves for engineering purpose are rayleigh waves and love waves.

Love Waves

The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911.
It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side in a Horizontal plane
at right angles to the direction of travel. Most destructive in an earthquakes as they have
large amplitudes producing horizontal shearing in the foundation of structures

Page EQ-7 of 22
Rayleigh Waves

The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt,
Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885.
A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

The first indication of an earthquake is often a sharp thud, signaling the arrival of
compressional waves. This is followed by the shear waves and then the "ground roll"
caused by the surface waves. A geologist who was at Valdez, Alaska, during the 1964
earthquake described this sequence: The first tremors were hard enough to stop a moving
person, and shock waves were immediately noticeable on the surface of the ground.
These shock waves continued with a rather long frequency, which gave the observer an
impression of a rolling feeling rather than abrupt hard jolts. After about 1 minute the
amplitude or strength of the shock waves increased in intensity and failures in buildings
as well as the frozen ground surface began to occur ... After about 3 1/2 minutes the
severe shock waves ended and people began to react as could be expected.

The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an

earthquake, usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the
seismic waves. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of
energy released - an amount that can be estimated from seismograph readings. The
intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli Scale, is a subjective measure that
describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.

Peak Acceleration

The most commonly used amplitude of a particular ground motion is the peak
horizontal acceleration (PHA) The PHA for a given component of motion is simply the
largest (absolute) value of horizontal acceleration obtained from the accelerogram of that
component. By taking the vector sum of two orthogonal components, the maximum

Page EQ-8 of 22
resultant PHA (the direction of which will usually not coincide with either of the
measured components) can be obtained.

Horizontal accelerations have commonly been used to describe ground motions

because of their natural relationship to inertial forces; indeed the largest dynamic forces
induced in certain types of structures (i.e. very stiff structures) are closely related to the
PHA. The PHA can also be correlated to earthquake intensity (e.g. Trifunac and Brady,
1975a; Murphy and O’ Brien, 1977; Krinitzksy and chang, 1987). Although this
correlation is far from precise, it can be very useful for estimation of PHA when only
intensity information is available, as in the cases of earthquakes that occurred before
strong motion instruments were available ( pre instrumental earthquakes). A number of
intensity – acceleration relationships have been proposed. The use of intensity-attenuation
relationships also allows estimation of the spatial variability of peak acceleration from the
isoseismal maps of historical earthquakes.

Richter Magnitude
Seismologists use a Magnitude scale to express the seismic energy released by each
earthquake. Here are the typical effects of earthquakes in various magnitude ranges:

Earthquake Severity
Richter Earthquake
Magnitudes Effects

Less than 3.5 Generally not felt, but recorded.

3.5-5.4 Often felt, but rarely causes damage.

Under 6.0 At most slight damage to well-designed buildings.

Can cause major damage to poorly constructed buildings
over small regions.

6.1-6.9 Can be destructive in areas up to about 100 kilometers

across where people live.

7.0-7.9 Major earthquake. cause serious damage over larger areas.

8 or greater Great earthquake. Can cause serious damage in areas several

hundred kilometers across.

Each earthquake has a unique amount of energy, but magnitude values given by different
seismological observatories for an event may vary. Depending on the size, nature, and
location of an earthquake, seismologists use several different methods to estimate
magnitude. The uncertainty in an estimate of the magnitude is about plus or minus 0.3
units, and seismologists often revise magnitude estimates as they obtain and analyze
additional data.

Page EQ-9 of 22
One of Dr. Charles F. Richter's most valuable contributions was to recognize that the
seismic waves radiated by all earthquakes can provide good estimates of their
magnitudes. He collected the recordings of seismic waves from a large number of
earthquakes, and developed a calibrated system of measuring them for magnitude.

Richter showed that, the larger the intrinsic energy of the earthquake, the larger the
amplitude of ground motion at a given distance. He calibrated his scale of magnitudes
using measured maximum amplitudes of shear waves on seismometers particularly
sensitive to shear waves with periods of about one second. The records had to be obtained
from a specific kind of instrument, called a Wood-Anderson seismograph.

The diagram below demonstrates how to use Richter's original method to measure a
seismogram for a magnitude estimate in Southern California:

The scales in the diagram above form a nomogram that allows you to do the
mathematical computation quickly by eye. The equation for Richter Magnitude is:

ML = log10A(mm) + (Distance correction factor)

Page EQ-10 of 22
Here A is the amplitude, in millimeters, measured directly from the photographic paper
record of the Wood-Anderson seismometer, a special type of instrument. The distance
factor comes from a table that can be found in Richter's (1958) book Elementary
Seismology. The equation behind this nomogram, used by Richter in Southern California,
is:

Thus after you measure the wave amplitude you have to take its logarithm, and scale it
according to the distance of the seismometer from the earthquake, estimated by the S-P
time difference. The S-P time, in seconds, makes .

Seismologists will try to get a separate magnitude estimate from every seismograph
station that records the earthquake, and then average them. This accounts for the usual
spread of around 0.2 magnitude units that you see reported from different seismological
labs right after an earthquake. Each lab is averaging in different stations that they have
access to. It may be several days before different organizations will come to a consensus
on what was the best magnitude estimate.

Fig: Simple mass-spring type seismograph recording relative displacement between mass
and ground on the rotating drum.

Page EQ-11 of 22
Another measure of an earthquake
Seismologists use a separate method to estimate the effects of an earthquake, called its
intensity. Intensity should not be confused with magnitude. Although each earthquake
has a single magnitude value, its effects will vary from place to place, and there will be
many different intensity estimates. You can read about the Mercalli Intensity Scale, one
popular way to characterize earthquake effects.

The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given
locality in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the
range of intensity from the condition of "I -- Not felt except by a very few under
especially favorable conditions," to "XII -- Damage total. Lines of sight and level are
distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation of earthquake intensity can be

Page EQ-12 of 22
made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations are studied and
interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964 was X;
damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum
intensity of XI.

Isoseismal line: A line connecting points on the earth's surface at which earthquake
intensity is the same. It is usually a closed curve around the epicenter.

Earthquakes of large magnitude do not necessarily cause the most intense surface effects.
The effect in a given region depends to a large degree on local surface and subsurface
geologic conditions. An area underlain by unstable ground (sand, clay, or other
unconsolidated materials), for example, is likely to experience much more noticeable
effects than an area equally distant from an earthquake's epicenter but underlain by firm
ground such as granite. In general, earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains affect a
much larger area than earthquakes west of the Rockies.

An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and

the local geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the
epicenter, and the design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also
depends on the density of population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

Seismic Moment:
Seismologists have more recently developed a standard magnitude scale that is
completely independent of the type of instrument. It is called the moment magnitude,
and it comes from the seismic moment.

To get an idea of the seismic moment, we go back to the elementary physics concept of
torque. A torque is a force that changes the angular momentum of a system. It is defined
as the force times the distance from the center of rotation. Earthquakes are caused by
internal torques, from the interactions of different blocks of the earth on opposite sides of
faults. After some rather complicated mathematics, it can be shown that the moment of an
earthquake is simply expressed by:

The formula above, for the moment of an earthquake, is fundamental to seismologists'

understanding of how dangerous faults of a certain size can be.

Again it is helpful to use scientific notation, since a dyne-cm is really a puny amount of
moment.

Seismic Energy:

Page EQ-13 of 22
Both the magnitude and the seismic moment are related to the amount of energy that is
radiated by an earthquake. Richter, working with Dr. Beno Gutenberg, early on
developed a relationship between magnitude and energy. Their relationship is:

logES = 11.8 + 1.5M

giving the energy ES in ergs from the magnitude M. Note that ES is not the total
``intrinsic'' energy of the earthquake, transferred from sources such as gravitational
energy or to sinks such as heat energy. It is only the amount radiated from the earthquake
as seismic waves, which ought to be a small fraction of the total energy transfered during
the earthquake process.

Let's take a look at the seismic wave energy yielded by our two examples, in comparison
to that of a number of earthquakes and other phenomena. For this we'll use a larger unit
of energy, the seismic energy yield of quantities of the explosive TNT (We assume one
ounce of TNT exploded below ground yields 640 million ergs of seismic wave energy):

Richter TNT for Seismic Example

Magnitude Energy Yield (approximate)

-1.5 6 ounces Breaking a rock on a lab table

1.0 30 pounds Large Blast at a Construction Site
1.5 320 pounds
2.0 1 ton Large Quarry or Mine Blast
2.5 4.6 tons
3.0 29 tons
3.5 73 tons
4.0 1,000 tons Small Nuclear Weapon
4.5 5,100 tons Average Tornado (total energy)
5.0 32,000 tons
5.5 80,000 tons Little Skull Mtn., NV Quake, 1992
6.0 1 million tons Double Spring Flat, NV Quake, 1994
6.5 5 million tons Northridge, CA Quake, 1994
7.0 32 million tons Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan Quake, 1995;
Largest Thermonuclear Weapon
7.5 160 million tons Landers, CA Quake, 1992
8.0 1 billion tons San Francisco, CA Quake, 1906
8.5 5 billion tons Anchorage, AK Quake, 1964
9.0 32 billion tons Chilean Quake, 1960
10.0 1 trillion tons (San-Andreas type fault circling Earth)
12.0 160 trillion tons (Fault Earth in half through center,
OR Earth's daily receipt of solar energy)

160 trillion tons of dynamite is a frightening yield of energy. Consider, however, that the
Earth receives that amount in sunlight every day.

Liquefaction, which happens when loosely packed, water-logged sediments lose their
strength in response to strong shaking, causes major damage during earthquakes. During

Page EQ-14 of 22
the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, liquefaction of the soils and debris used to fill in a
lagoon caused major subsidence, fracturing, and horizontal sliding of the ground surface
in the Marina district in San Francisco.

Predicting Earthquakes
The goal of earthquake prediction is to give warning of potentially damaging earthquakes
early enough to allow appropriate response to the disaster, enabling people to minimize
loss of life and property. The U.S. Geological Survey conducts and supports research on
the likelihood of future earthquakes. This research includes field, laboratory, and
theoretical investigations of earthquake mechanisms and fault zones. A primary goal of
earthquake research is to increase the reliability of earthquake probability estimates.
Ultimately, scientists would like to be able to specify a high probability for a specific
earthquake on a particular fault within a particular year. Scientists estimate earthquake
probabilities in two ways: by studying the history of large earthquakes in a specific area
and the rate at which strain accumulates in the rock.

Scientists study the past frequency of large earthquakes in order to determine the future
likelihood of similar large shocks. For example, if a region has experienced four
magnitude 7 or larger earthquakes during 200 years of recorded history, and if these
shocks occurred randomly in time, then scientists would assign a 50 percent probability
(that is, just as likely to happen as not to happen) to the occurrence of another magnitude
7 or larger quake in the region during the next 50 years.

But in many places, the assumption of random occurrence with time may not be true,
because when strain is released along one part of the fault system, it may actually
increase on another part. Four magnitude 6.8 or larger earthquakes and many magnitude 6
- 6.5 shocks occurred in the San Francisco Bay region during the 75 years between 1836
and 1911. For the next 68 years (until 1979), no earthquakes of magnitude 6 or larger
occurred in the region. Beginning with a magnitude 6.0 shock in 1979, the earthquake
activity in the region increased dramatically; between 1979 and 1989, there were four
magnitude 6 or greater earthquakes, including the magnitude 7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake.
This clustering of earthquakes leads scientists to estimate that the probability of a
magnitude 6.8 or larger earthquake occurring during the next 30 years in the San
Francisco Bay region is about 67 percent (twice as likely as not).

Another way to estimate the likelihood of future earthquakes is to study how fast strain
accumulates. When plate movements build the strain in rocks to a critical level, like
pulling a rubber band too tight, the rocks will suddenly break and slip to a new position.
Scientists measure how much strain accumulates along a fault segment each year, how
much time has passed since the last earthquake along the segment, and how much strain
was released in the last earthquake. This information is then used to calculate the time
required for the accumulating strain to build to the level that results in an earthquake.
This simple model is complicated by the fact that such detailed information about faults
is rare. In the United States, only the San Andreas fault system has adequate records for
using this prediction method.

Page EQ-15 of 22
Scientific understanding of earthquakes is of vital importance to the Nation. As the
population increases, expanding urban development and construction works encroach
upon areas susceptible to earthquakes. With a greater understanding of the causes and
effects of earthquakes, we may be able to reduce damage and loss of life from this
destructive phenomenon.

Parameters used for Seismic Zoning or “Seismic Potential”

 Repeat Periods
 Locations of epicenters from the instrumental data.
 Intensities of the past earthquakes and the damages caused.
 Magnitudes of the past earthquakes.
 Frequency of the seismic events in the particular area.
 Lithology of the area.
 Structural set up of the stratigraphic units of an area.
 Physical characteristics.
 Tectonic maps delineating the fault systems currently active.
 Neotectonic Movements in regions of earthquake activity.
 Detailed micro-level analysis of foundations and basements.

Indian Situation

Earthquake is a natural even which may cause tremendous loss of life and property
damage. One of the major challenges facing our country is to reduce the vulnerability to
this uncontrollable and unpredictable hazard by having a greater understanding about its
causes and effects.

As per the latest seismic zoning map of India brought out by the Bureau of Indian
Standards, over 65% land area of the country is prone to seismic intensity of MSK VII or
more during damaging earthquakes. Some of the most intense earthquakes of the world
have occurred in India, but fortunately none of these have occurred in the vicinity of the
major cities. India has highly populous cities including the national capital of New Delhi,
Located in the zones of high seismic risk.

Typically, majority of the constructions in these cities are not earthquake resistant. Thus
any earthquake striking in one of these cities would turn into a major disaster.

It is most important in the medium and long term to formulate strategies to reduce the
vulnerability to and losses arising from a possible earthquake striking any of these cities.
Six significant earthquakes have struck different parts of India over a span of the last 15
years. Five of them occurred in rural or semi-urban areas and hence the damage in terms
of human lives and property were relatively small. On the other hand, the 2001 Bhuj
earthquake struck both rural and urban areas and reiterated the scale of vulnerability. If

Page EQ-16 of 22
any of these earthquakes strike the populous urban centres, the damages would be
colossal.

Seismic Zones in India

The issue of seismic hazard in India has been addressed by scientists as early (2) as 1956
when a 3 zone; Severe, Moderate, Minor hazard map of India was produced (Tandon,
1956). This map was based on a broad concept of earthquake distribution and
geotectonics. The severe hazard zones are roughly confined to plate boundary regions i.e
the Himalayan Frontal Arc in the north, the Chaman fault region in the north west and the
Indo-Burma border region in the north east. The lower hazard zone is confined to Indian
shield region in the south and the moderate hazard zone confined to the transitional zone
in between the two.

Since then, many versions of the seismic zoning map of India have been brought out. The
Bureau of Indian Standards which is the official agency for publishing seismic hazard
maps and codes in India, produced a six zone map in 1962, a seven zone map in 1966, a
five zone map in 1984 and a four zone map in 2000 which is currently valid. Khattri et al.
adapting a probabilistic hazard computational approach published a map of seismic
hazard in units of ‘g’, for 10% probability of exceedence in 50 years (3). This map was
created on the basis of the maximum MM intensities recorded in various parts of the
country, in historic times. This map has been redrawn a couple of times since and now
has 4 hazard zones.

BIS 2000 Seismic Zones

The latest map was released by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) in 2000 and consists
of four zones. Zones I and II have been merged in the new map and new regions have
been included in Zone III such as the Marathwada region of Maharashtra and the Chennai
area in Tamil Nadu.

Zone V is the most vulnerable to earthquakes, where historically some of the country's
most powerful shock have occurred. This region included the Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, all of North-Eastern India, parts of north-western Bihar, eastern sections of
Uttaranchal, the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, near the Srinagar area in Jammu &
Kashmir and the Rann of Kutchh in Gujarat. Earthquakes with magnitudes in excess of
7.0 have occurred in these areas, and have had intensities higher than IX.

Much of India lies in Zone III, where a maximum intensity of VII can be expected. New
Delhi lies in Zone IV whereas Mumbai and Chennai lie in Zone III.

The Indian subcontinent is among the world’s most disaster prone areas with a population
of more than 10,00,000,000. Th geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of
the land is vulnerable to earthquake, 21% of the land is vulnerable to drought, 8% of the
land is vulnerable to cyclones and 5% of the land is vulnerable to floods. Further

Page EQ-17 of 22
classification of the earthquake prone land reveals that 12% of land is prone to very
severe earthquake (MSK IX or more), 18% of land is prone to severe earthquake (MSK
VIII) and 25% of land is prone to damageable earthquake (MSK VII).

The earthquake-zoning map of India has divided India into 5 zones with zone 5 being the
worst prone zone in the country. The zone 5 is the highest risk zone that suffers an
intensity of MSK IX or more.

The state of Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, the North-East Indian region
and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the Rajasthan
region fall in Zone 4 which a high risk zone (MSK VIII). The zone 3 which is a moderate
damage risk zone ( MSK VII) comprises the Andaman-Nicobar Island, parts of Kashmir,
Western Himalayas and Punjab. The zone 1 which is the lowest damage risk zone (MSK
V or low) includes the peninsular India and the Lakshdweep islands. Thus, it is evident
that almost the entire country is prone to earthquakes of varying intensity.

Maharashtra

Earthquake History

Page EQ-18 of 22
In peninsula India the state of Maharashtra, along with Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, has suffered
from frequent earthquakes, both deadly and damaging, although not located on or near any plate
boundaries. All the earthquakes here, as in all of peninsula India, are intraplate events. In the 20th
century alone, three earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 6.0 were recorded here. The west
coast along with the major cities of Mumbai and Pune have both been strongly shaken in the past
in 1618 and 1764 respectively. Several faults have been identified in this region out of which
many show evidence of movement during the Holocene epoch. The north-south trending West
Coast and Chiplun Faults, run along the coast and the Sahyadri range. The West Coast fault runs
along the eastern shore of the Thane Creek in the Mumbai area, along the flanks of the Parsik
Hills (Belapur-Vashi region). The Chiplun Fault runs from the mouth of Bombay Harbour to the
Sangammeshwar area in Ratnagiri district. The southeast-northwest trending Upper Godavari
Fault runs along the Godavari River from near Trimbakeshwar towards Marathwada. The Ghod
River Fault trends in the same direction and runs from the Jawhar area in Thane district towards
Bhigwan in eastern Pune district. The Vidharbha region is intersected by a prominent fault called
the Kadam fault which runs from Bhusawal into northern Andhra Pradesh. The northern section
of the state is affected by east-west faults belonging to the Narmada Fault Zone. However, it must
be stated that proximity to faults does not necessarily translate into a higher hazard as compared
to areas located further away, as damage from earthquakes depends on numerous factors such as
subsurface geology as well as adherence to the building codes. The earthquake at Koyna in 1967
is the largest known case of Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS) in the world. RIS has also been
noted at other dams in the state such as Bhatsa, Ghirni and Mula.

Largest Instrument Earthquake in Maharashtra

10 December 1967 - Koyna area, Maharashtra, Mw 6.6

17.450 N, 73.850 E, D=027.0 kms, OT=06:48:25 UTC

200 people were killed and many villages in the Koynanagar area were severely affected. The
Koyna Dam suffered some structural damage and leaks were observed in the face of the dam.
Tremors were felt strongly in many towns and cities in western Maharashtra, including, Mumbai
and Pune. Also felt in Goa and other parts of western and southern India.

Seismic Hazard

The seismic hazard map of India was updated in 2000 by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
The new map includes the central districts of Beed (Bir), Dharashiv (Osmanabad) and Latur,
along with eastern sections of Ahmednagar, Pune, Satara and Sangli districts in Zone III. All of
these areas lay in Zone I or II in the BIS 1984 map. The zones in the rest of the state are the same
as in the previous map. The districts of Raigad, Ratnagiri and Satara are the only districts to lie in
Zone IV, where the maximum expected intensity is VIII (MSK). The remaining western and
north-western districts all lie in Zone III. The central and eastern districts lie in Zone II. The entire
state of Goa also lies in Zone III.

In 1999, the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Programme (GSHAP) published a map (3)

Page EQ-19 of 22
displaying areas that could expect to have a peak ground acceleration (PGA) with a 10%
probability of exceedance in 50 years. According to this map, the northern sections of the districts
of Amravati, Akola, Dhule and Jalgaon in north Maharashtra, can expect a maximum PGA value
upto 0.05g. The rest of the state as well as the neighbouring state of Goa can expect PGA values
below 0.03g. In Marathwada, a maximum PGA value in the range of 0.05g to 0.13g can be
expected. Western (Konkan and Madhya Maharashtra) parts of the state have the highest hazard.
A maximum PGA in the range of 0.05g to 0.2g can be expected in the districts of western
Maharashtra, with the highest values expected in the districts of Ratnagiri and Satara. The cities
of Pune, Pimpri-Chinchwad and Satara can expect a maximum PGA in the range of 0.05g to
0.08g. The city of Mumbai, along with the cities of Bhiwandi, Kalyan, Nashik, Panvel and Thane
can expect maximum PGA values in the neighbourhood of 0.06g. Special mention has be made of
cities in western Maharashtra due to the high population density of this region. A major
earthquake in this region would put nearly 25 million people at risk in the large urban centres
alone (population 0.5 million or more).

It must be noted that both, BIS and GSHAP estimate the hazard, based in part, on previous known
earthquakes. Since the earthquake database in India is still incomplete, especially with regards to
earthquakes prior to the historical period (before 1800 A.D.), these zones offer a rough guide of
the earthquake hazard in any particular region and need to be regularly updated.

Gujarat Earthquake Impacts

The Gujarat earthquake which occurred on the 26th January,2001 measuring 6.9 on the Richter
scale (7.7 as per US Geological Survey) had its epicenter 20 kms north-east of Bhuj and 110
kms north-east of Jamnagar. The shocks were felt upto Nepal in East, Chennai in South and
J&K in North and it was one of the worst to have occurred in the country during the last 180
years for which seismological records are available.

Almost 21 districts were affected in this earthquake and 6 of the districts (Kutch, Patan,
Ahmedabad, Jamnagar, Rajkot and Surendranagar) were severely affected. 18 towns and 182
talukas were affected out of which 17 talukas were severely affected. This earthquake affected a
huge population base of 15.8 million and almost 20086 lives were lost.

TABLE 2.1. Casualties in the Gujarat earthquake

Affected cities / towns Deaths recorded

Ahmedabad 752
Anand 1
Banaskantha 32
Bharuch 9
Gandhinagar 8
Jamnagar 119
Junagarh 8
Total casualties 20086

Page EQ-20 of 22
Seriously injured 20717
Damages to physical infrastructure in the Gujarat earthquake

The state of Gujarat suffered an unprecedented damage to its physical infrastructure in this
earthquake. The incurred damages under various sectors of physical infrastructure are
represented in the following tables.

TABLE 2.2. Damage to housing stock in the Gujarat earthquake

Pucca houses destroyed 159960

Pucca houses damaged 399346
Kachcha houses destroyed 148339
Kachcha houses damaged 295061
Huts destroyed 13889
Huts damaged 31395

Total houses damaged 1.2 million

TABLE 2.3. Damage to telecommunication in the Gujarat earthquake

Affected districts No. of damaged telephone exchanges

Kutch 47
Rajkot 25
Jamnagar 4
Surendranagar 3

The earthquake left almost 45 substation of Kutch and 255 feeders adversely affected. 9 towns
and 925 villages were completely blacked out. The water supply in 10 towns of Kutch and 8
other towns of Rajkot, Jamnagar, Ahmedabad and Surendranagar was severely affected.

The road and railway links in Gujarat were also severely disrupted. The railway tracks between
Dhrangardhra and Nalia (330 kms.) was seriously damaged. The Surajbari bridge linking
Kutch district to Rajkot was also severely affected.

This earthquake was a major set back for the industries as almost 10000 small and medium
industrial units went out of production. The famous handicraft of Kutch district suffered
enormously and almost 50000 artisans lost their livelihood. The tiles and ceramic units in the
district underwent severe losses.

Education suffered a major set back in the area as almost 1500 schools were completely
destroyed.

Page EQ-21 of 22
Page EQ-22 of 22