6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous - GMF Form R PDF

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 6 – Materials and Hardware
Module 6
Materials and Hardware
6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous
Manual No. : BCT-0011/M6 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant Copyright by GMF Learning Services
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Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.
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Upon completion of this chapter, you will have a basic working knowledge of aircraft construction, structural stress, characteristics, properties and
identification of common materials used in aircraft.
Recognize and identify the properties of the various types of metallic and nonmetallic materials used in aircraft construction.
INTRODUCTION
One of the requirements of an Aircraft Maintenance Technicians is to be familiar with the various terms related to aircraft construction.
Aircraft maintenance is the primary responsibility of the Aircraft Maintenance Technician ratings. Therefore, you should be familiar with the
principal aircraft structural units and flight control systems of fixed and rotary-wing aircraft.
Each aircraft is built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must be selected in such a way that they can be built into
one machine. It is not possible for one aircraft to have all characteristics. The type and class of an aircraft determine how strong it will be
built. To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly powered and has a very strong structure.
The importance of aircraft hardware is oftenoverlooked because of the small size of most items.However, the safe and efficient operation of
any aircraftdepends upon the correct selection and use of aircrafthardware. The various types ofthreaded fasteners, quick-release fasteners,
rivets,electrical hardware, and other miscellaneous hardware.You must make sure that items of aircraft hardwareremain tightly secured in
the aircraft.
Therefore, wewill discuss proper safetying methods in this chapter.Aircraft hardware is identified for use by itsspecification number or trade
name. Threaded fastenersand rivets are identified by Air Force-Navy (AN),National Aircraft Standard (NAS), and MilitaryStandard (MS)
numbers. Quick-release fasteners areidentified by factory trade names and size designations.When aircraft hardware is ordered from supply,
thespecification numbers and the factory part numbers arechanged into stock numbers (SN). This change isidentified by using a part-
number cross-reference.
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How is aircraft hardware identified for use?
An aircraft requires materials that must be both light and strong. Early aircraft were made of wood. Lightweight metal alloys with strength
greater than wood were developed and used on later aircraft. Materials currently used in aircraft construction maybe cl assified as either
metallic or nonmetallic.
Common Metallic Materials
The most common metals in aircraft construction are aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and their alloys. Aluminum alloy is widely used
in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because the alloy has a high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminum alloys are
corrosion-resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its lightweight.
Magnesium, the world’s lightest structural metal, is a silvery-white material weighing only two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is
used in the manufacture of helicopters. Magnesium’s low resistance to corrosion has limited its use in conventional aircraft.
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion-resistant metal. It was discovered years ago, but only recently has it been made suitable for use
in aircraft. Recent developments make titanium ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too heavy.
In addition, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.
An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest portion is called the base metal. All other metals
added to the alloy are called alloying elements. Alloying elements, in either small or large amounts, may result in a marked change in the
properties of the base metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively soft and weak. When small amounts of other elements such as
copper, manganese, and magnesium are added, aluminum’s strength is increased many times. An increase or a decrease in an alloy’s
strength and hardness may be achieved through heat treatment of the alloy. Alloys are of great importance to the aircraft industry. Alloys
provide materials with properties not possessed by a pure metal alone.
Alloy steels that are of much greater strength than those found in other fields of engineering have been developed. These steels contain
small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum. High-tensile steels will stand stresses of 50 to 150 tons per
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square inch without failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires. Another type of steel that is used extensively is stainless steel.
This alloy resists corrosion and is particularly valuable for use in or near salt water.
Common Nonmetallic Materials
In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft construction. Transparent plastic is found in canopies,
windshields, and other transparent enclosures. Handle transparent plastic surfaces with care, because this material is relatively soft and
scratches easily. At approximately 225°F, transparent plastic becomes soft and very pliable.
Reinforced plastic is made for use in the construction of radomes, wing tips, stabilizer tips, antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced
plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew and rot. Its ease of fabrication makes it equally suitable for other parts
of the aircraft.
Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material. See figure 1.1. It is made up of two outer facings and a center layer. The facings are made up
of several layers of glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material (center layer) consists of a honeycomb structure made
of glass cloth. Reinforced plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell sizes.
High-performance aircraft require an extra high strength-to-weight ratio material. Fabrication of composite materials satisfies the special
requirement. This construction method uses several layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron epoxy). These materials are
mechanically fastened to conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction consists of thin graphite epoxy skins bonded
to an aluminum honeycomb core.
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Figure 1.1 Reinforce Plastic
AIRCRAFT METALLIC MATERIALS – FERROUS MATERIALS
Identify properties, characteristic and identification of metallic materials used in aircraft construction
Metallurgists have been working for more than a half century improving metals for aircraft construction. Each metal has certain properties
and characteristics that make it desirable for a particular application, but it may have other qualities that are undesirable. For example, some
metals are hard, others comparatively soft; some are brittle, some lough; some can be formed and shaped without fracture; and some are so
heavy that weight alone makes them unsuitable for aircraft use.
The metallurgist’s objectives are to improve the desirable qualities and tone down or eliminate the undesirable ones. This is done by
alloying (combining) metals and by various heat-treating processes.
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You do not have to be a metallurgist to be a good Aircraft Maintenance, but you should possess a knowledge and understanding of the
uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of aircraft structural metals. Such knowledge and understanding is vital to properly
construct and maintain any equipment, especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even as light deviation from design
specifications or the substitution of inferior materials may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitable materials can
readily erase the finest craftsmanship. The selection of the specific material for a specific repair job demands familiarity with the most
common properties of various metals.
Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of structural metals is vital to properly construct
and maintain any equipment, especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specification,or
the substitution of inferior materials, may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitable materials can readily erase the
finestcraftsmanship. The selection of the correct material for a specifc repair job demands familiarity with the most common physical
properties of various metals.
PROPERTIES MATERIALS
The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on sample pieces. The terminology, associated with these
properties, is outlined in the following paragraphs. Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are such general properties of metals and
their alloys as hardness, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, brittleness, fusibility, conductivity contraction and expansion,
and so forth. These terms are explained to establish a basis for further discussion of structural metals.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows little bending or deformation without shattering. The tendency of the metal to shatter
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without significant deformation. It will shatter under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load.A brittle metal is apt to
break or crack without change of shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable
property. Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity)
and electricity. Silver and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors. The heat conductivity of a metal is especially important in
welding because it governs the amount of heat that will be required for proper fusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent,
determines the type of jig to be used to control expansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical con-ductivity must also be considered in
conjunction with bonding, to eliminate radio interference.
Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking. The
property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount
of stretch (elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metal's ductility. This property is essential for metals used in
making wire and tubing. Ductile metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure under
shock loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for cowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs,
spars, and bulkheads. Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed into desired shapes. Ductility is similar to malleability.
A ductile metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by tension before it fractures. While all ductile metals are malleable, it does not
mean that malleable metals are ductile. Some metals although soft, are also weak in tension and tear apart while being stretched. The
ductility of all metals increases as the temperature rises, because they are weaker at high temperatures.
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Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original size and shape when the force which causes the change of shape is
removed. The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the removal of any distorting force. The 'Elastic Limit' is the
greatest force that can be applied without permanent distortion.
This property is extremely valuable because it would be highly undesirable to have a part permanently distorted after an applied load was
removed. Each metal has a point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded without causing permanent distortion. In
aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed that the maximum loads to which they are subjected will not stress them beyond
their elastic limits. This desirable property is present in spring steel.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or permanent distortion. Hardness may be
increased by cold working the metal and, in the case of steel and certain aluminum alloys, by heat treatment. The ability of a metal to resist
wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metal's surface. The diameter or depth of
the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metal's hardness. Structural parts are often formed from metals in their soft state and
are then heat treated to harden them so that the fnished shape will be retained. Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of
metals.
Malleability
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without cracking, breaking, or leaving some other detrimental
effect, is said to be malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings, fairings, or
wingtips. Copper is an example of a malleable metal.
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The ease, with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming
processes, have to be subsequently relieved by heat treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool metal.
A malleable metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by compression before it shows signs of cracking. Malleable metals can be
rolled, forged or extruded, since these are all processes where the metal is shaped under pressure. Malleability usually increase with
temperature, so processes involving pressure are usually hot working processes i.e. they are carried out on heated pieces of metal.
Plasticity
The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed. Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.
Strength
One of the most important properties of a material is strength. Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is also the
ability of a material to resist stress without breaking. The type of load or stress on the material affects the strength it exhibits.
There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be seen from the following sub-paragraphs
Tensile Strength
The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.
Yield Strength
The ability to resist deformation, after the metal yields, it is said to have passed its yield point.
Shear Strength
The ability to resist side-cutting loads - such as those, imposed on the shank of a rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt to move apart
in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the rivet.
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Bearing Strength
The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.
Toughness
The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metal's toughness is tested by impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass. A
material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking.
Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals.
Density
Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the specifiedweight of a material per cubic inch is preferred since this
figurecan be used in determining the weight of a part before actual manufacture. Density is an important consideration when choosing a
material to be used in the design of a part in order to maintain the proper weight and balance of the aircraft.
Fusibility
Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse around 2,600 °F and
aluminum alloys at approximately 1,100 °F.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansion that are reactions produced in metals as the result of heating or cooling. Heat
applied to a metal will cause it to expand or become larger. Cooling and heating affect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerances
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necessary for hot rolled material.
QUALITIES OF METALS
The selection of proper materials is a primary consideration in the development of an airframe and in the proper maintenance and repair of
aircraft. Keeping in mind the general properties of metals, it is now possible to consider the specific requirements that metals must meet to
be suitable for aircraft purposes.
Strength, weight, and reliability determine the requirements to be met by any material used in airframe construction and repair. Airframes
must be strong and as light in weight as possible. There are very definite limits to which increases in strength can be accompanied by
increase in weight. An aircraft so heavy that it could not support more than a few hundred pounds of additional weight would be of little
use. All metals, in addition to having a good strength/weight ratio, must be thoroughly reliable, thus minimizing the possibility of
dangerous and unexpected failures. In addition to these general properties, the material selected for definite application must possess
specific qualities suitable for the purpose.
Strength
The material must possess the strength required by the demands of dimensions, weight, and use. There are six basic stresses that metals
may be required to withstand. These are tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion.
Weight
The relationship between the strength of a material and its weight per cubic inch, expressed as a ratio, is known as the strength/weight
ratio. This ratio forms the basis of comparing the desirability of various materials for use in airframe construction and repair.
Neither strength nor weight alone can be used as a means of true comparison. In some applications, such as the skin of monocoque
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structures, thickness is more important than strength; and in this instance, the material with the lightest weight for a given thickness or
gauge is best. Thickness or bulk is necessary to prevent buckling or damage caused by careless handling.
Corrosive Properties
Corrosion is the eating away or pitting of the surface or the internal structure of metals. Because of the thin sections and the safety factors
used in aircraft design and construction, it would be dangerous to select a material subject to severe corrosion if it were not possible to
reduce or eliminate the hazard. Corrosion can be reduced or prevented by using better grades of base metals by coating the surfaces with a
thin coating of paint, tin, chromium, or cadmium or by an electrochemical process called “anodizing.”
Working Properties
Another significant factor to consider in the selection of metals for aircraft maintenance and repair is the ability of material to be formed,
bent, or machined to required shapes. The hardening of metals by cold-working or forming is called work hardening. If a piece of metal is
formed (shaped or bent) while cold, it is said to be cold-worked. Practically all the work you do on metal is cold-work. While this is
convenient, it causes the metal to become harder and more brittle.
If the metal is cold-worked too much (that is, if it is bent back and forth or hammered at the same place too often), it will crack or break.
Usually, the more malleable and ductile a metal is, the more cold-working it can withstand.
Tensile Testing
Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a steadily increasing load to a test specimen, causing it to
stretch until it eventually fractures. Accurate measurements are taken of the load and extension, and the results are used to determine the
strength of the material. To ensure uniformity of test results, the test specimens used must conform to standard dimensions and finish as lay
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down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc).
The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the relationship between the cross-sectional area and a specified
"gauge length", of each specimen, is constant. The gauge length, is that portion of the parallel part of the specimen, which is to be used for
measuring the subsequent extension during and/or after the test.
Tensile Stress (Strength)- Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load, which the test piece is able to sustain,
and dividing that figure by the original cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of the specimen. The value derived from this simple calculation is called
STRESS.
Note:
The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British Imperial (and American) units of Ibf/in 2, tonf/in2 (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI
units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Example
A steel rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with a force of 400 N. Calculate the tensile stress
Note:
When calculating stress in large structural members, it may be more convenient to measure load in Mega-Newtons (MN, or N6) and the area
in square metres (m2). When using such units, the numerical value is identical to that if the calculation had been made using Newtons and
mm2.
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i .e. A Stress of 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2
Example
A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0.5m2, is subjected to a load of 10 MN.
Calculate the stress in the member in;(a) N/mm2 =1 MN/m2 (b) MN/m2 and (b) N/mm2.
(a)
(b) 1N/mm2 = 1MN/m2 so stress = 20N/mm2
Strain - As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum value, the material extends in length. The amount of extension,
produced by a given load, allows the amount of induced strain to be calculated. Strain is calculated by measuring the extension and
dividing by the original length of the material.
Note:
Both measurements must be in the same units, though, since Strain is a ratio of two lengths, it has no units
Example
An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to tensile load until its length becomes 21.15 mm. Calculate
the induced strain.
Extension = 21.15 - 20 = 1.15 mm
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Load/Extension Diagrams
If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece while the load and extension are continuously measured, the results can be
used to produce a Load/Extension diagram or graph (refer to figure 1.2). Obviously a number of different forms of graph may be obtained,
depending on the material type and condition, but the example shows a Load/Extension diagram which typifies many metallic materials
when stressed in tension.
The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions. Between points 0 and A, the material is in the Elastic region (or phase), i.e.
when the load is removed the material will return to its original size and shape. In this region, the extension is directly proportional to the
applied load.
This relationship is known as 'Hooke's Law', which states:
Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to the stress causing it.
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Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the material continues to extend until the maximum load is reached (at point B).
In this region the material is in the plastic phase. When the load is removed, the material does not return to its original size and shape, but
will retain some extension. After point B, the cross-sectional area reduces and the material begins to 'neck'. The material continues to extend
under reduced load until it eventually fractures at point C.
Aircraft structural designers' interest in materials does not extend greatly beyond the elastic phase of materials. Production engineers,
however, are greatly interested in material properties beyond this phase, since the forming capabilities of materials are dependent on their
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properties in the plastic phase.
It is normal to consider the relationship of Stress and Strain, rather than Force and Extension, as this makes it easier to compare metals
regardless of the cross sectional area of the test piece and regardless of neither the length of the test piece, nor how the test piece changes
in cross section as it is stretched. Stress is the Force per unit area; Strain is the extension per unit length of test piece.
An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results

of a tensile test on mild steel (refer to figure 1.3), shows that
considerable plastic extension occurs without any increase in load
shortly after the elastic limit is reached. The onset of increasing
extension, without a corresponding increase in load, at point 'A',
is known as the yield point' and, if this level of stress is reached,
the metal is said to have 'yielded'. This is a characteristic of mild
steel and a few other, relatively ductile, materials.
If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it
may be seen that mild steel is capable of withstanding this
increase until the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is reached (point
'B'). Severe necking then occurs and the material will fracture at a
reduced load. The unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more
loads after yielding is due to strain-hardening of the material.
Work-hardening of many materials is often carried out to increase
their strength.
As previously stated, various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed for other materials (refer to figure 1.4), and their slopes will
depend on whether the materials are brittle, elastic or plastic.
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(a) Represents a brittle material (e.g. glass)
(b) Represents a material with some elasticity and limited plasticity(e.g. high-carbon steel).
(c) Represents a material with some elasticity and good plasticity (e.g.soft aluminium).
Figure 1.3 Load/Extension Diagram some of Figure 1.2 Load/Extension

Figure 1.2. Load/Extension Diagram
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Figure 1.4 Load/Extension graph for Brittle, Elactic and Plastic
Tensile Properties
Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. A tensile test is a fundamental mechanical test
where a carefully prepared specimen is loaded in a very controlled manner while measuring the applied load and the elongation of the
specimen over some distance. Tensile tests are used to determine the modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit,
reduction in area, tensile strength, yield point, yield strength and other tensile properties.
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The main product of a tensile test is a load versus elongation curve which is
then converted into a stress versus strain curve. Since both the engineering
stress and the engineering strain are obtained by dividing the load and
elongation by constant values (specimen geometry information), the load-
elongation curve will have the same shape as the engineering stress-strain
curve. The stress-strain curve relates the applied stress to the resulting
strain and each material has its own unique stress-strain curve. A typical
engineering stress-strain curve is shown below. If the true stress, based on
the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is used, it is found that the
stress-strain curve increases continuously up to fracture.
Linear-Elastic Region and Elastic Constants
As can be seen in the figure 1.5, the stress and strain initially increase with a
linear relationship. This is the linear-elastic portion of the curve and it
indicates that no plastic deformation has occurred. In this region of the
Figure 1.5 Stress – Strain Curve
curve, when the stress is reduced, the material will return to its original
shape. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as Hooke's Law where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant.
The slope of the line in this region where stress is proportional to strain and is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus. The
modulus of elasticity (E) defines the properties of a material as it undergoes stress, deforms, and then returns to its original shape after the
stress is removed. It is a measure of the stiffness of a given material. To compute the modulus of elastic , simply divide the stress by the
strain in the material. Since strain is unitless, the modulus will have the same units as the stress, such as kpi or MPa. The modulus of
elasticity applies specifically to the situation of a component being stretched with a tensile force. This modulus is of interest when it is
necessary to compute how much a rod or wire stretches under a tensile load.
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Yield Point
In ductile materials, at some point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line relationship and Law no longer applies as the strain
increases faster than the stress. From this point on in the tensile test, some permanent deformation occurs in the specimen and the material
is said to react plastically to any further increase in load or stress. The material will not return to its original, unstressed condition when the
load is removed. In brittle materials, little or no plastic deformation occurs and the material fractures near the end of the linear-elastic
portion of the curve.
With most materials there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the exact point at which plastic deformation begins to
occur is hard to determine. Therefore, various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending on the sensitivity of the strain
measurements and the intended use of the data. For most engineering design and specification applications, the yield strength is used. The
yield strength is defined as the stress required to produce a small, amount of plastic deformation. The offset yield strength is the stress
corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line parallel to the elastic part of the curve offset by a specified strain (in
the US the offset is typically 0.2% for metals and 2% for plastics).
Some materials such as gray cast iron or soft copper exhibit essentially no linear-elastic behavior. For these materials the usual practice is to
define the yield strength as the stress required to produce some total amount of strain.
 True elastic limit is a very low value and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations. Micro strain measurements are
required to detect strain on order of 2 x 10 -6 in/in.
 Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is obtained by observing the deviation from
the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve.
 Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete
release of load. It is determined using a tedious incremental loading-unloading test procedure. With the sensitivity of strain
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measurements usually employed in engineering studies (10 -4in/in), the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit. With
increasing sensitivity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit decreases until it eventually equals the true elastic limit
determined from micro strain measurements.
 Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic deformation. The yield strength obtained by an
offset method is commonly used for engineering purposes because it avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or
proportional limit.
Ultimate Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or, more simply, the tensile strength, is the maximum engineering stress level reached in a tension test.
The strength of a material is its ability to withstand external forces without breaking. In brittle materials, the UTS will at the end of the linear-
elastic portion of the stress-strain curve or close to the elastic limit. In ductile
materials, the UTS will be well outside of the elastic portion into the plastic
portion of the stress-strain curve.
On the stress-strain curve above, the UTS is the highest point where the line is
momentarily flat. Since the UTS is based on the engineering stress, it is often not
the same as the breaking strength. In ductile materials strain hardening occurs
and the stress will continue to increase until fracture occurs, but the engineering
stress-strain curve may show a decline in the stress level before fracture occurs.
This is the result of engineering stress being based on the original cross-section
Figure 1.6 Elongation and Reduction
area and not accounting for the necking that commonly occurs in the test
specimen. The UTS may not be completely representative of the highest level of stress that a material can support, but the value is not
typically used in the design of components anyway. For ductile metals the current design practice is to use the yield strength for sizing static
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components. However, since the UTS is easy to determine and quite reproducible, it is useful for the purposes of specifying a material and
for quality control purposes. On the other hand, for brittle materials the design of a component may be based on the tensile strength of the
material.
Measures of Ductility (Elongation and Reduction of Area)
The ductility of a material is a measure of the extent to which a material will deform before fracture see figure 1.6. The amount of ductility is
an important factor when considering forming operations such as rolling and extrusion. It also provides an indication of how visible
overload damage to a component might become before the component fractures. Ductility is also used a quality control measure to assess
the level of impurities and proper processing of a material.
The conventional measures of ductility are the engineering strain at fracture (usually called the elongation ) and the reduction of area at
fracture. Both of these properties are obtained by fitting the specimen back together after fracture and measuring the change in length and
cross-sectional area. Elongation is the change in axial length divided by the original length of the specimen or portion of the specimen. It is
expressed as a percentage. Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic deformation will be concentrated in the necked region of the
tensile specimen, the value of elongation will depend on the gage length over which the measurement is taken. The smaller the gage
length the greater the large localized strain in the necked region will factor into the calculation. Therefore, when reporting values of
elongation , the gage length should be given.
One way to avoid the complication from necking is to base the elongation measurement on the uniform strain out to the point at which
necking begins. This works well at times but some engineering stress-strain curve are often quite flat in the vicinity of maximum loading and
it is difficult to precisely establish the strain when necking starts to occur. Reduction of area is the change in cross-sectional area divided by
the original cross-sectional area. This change is measured in the necked down region of the specimen. Like elongation, it is usually
expressed as a percentage.
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As previously discussed, tension is just one of the way that a material can be loaded. Other ways of loading a material include compression,
bending, shear and torsion, and there are a number of standard tests that have been established to characterize how a material performs
under these other loading conditions.
Ductility
After fracture of a specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of material ductility is arrived at, by establishing the amount of plastic
deformation which occurred. The two indicators of ductility are:
• Elongation
• Reduction in area (at the neck)
Elongation is the more reliable, because it is easier to measure the extension of the gauge length than the reduction in area. The standard
measure of ductility is to establish the percentage elongation after fracture.
Example
In a tensile test, on a specimen with 150.5 mm gauge length, the length over the gauge marks at fracture was 176.1 mm. What was the
percentage elongation?
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Proof Stress
Many materials do not exhibit a yield point, so a substitute value must be employed. The value chosen is the `Proof Stress', which is defined
as:
The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional

elongation, equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge length.
Usually a value of 0.1 % or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress is then
referred to as the 0.1 % Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively.
The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer to
figure 1.7) as follows:
If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on the
extension axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is drawn until it
intersects the nonlinear portion of the curve. The corresponding load is then read from
the graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this load by the original cross-sectional
area.
Figure 1.7 Determining proof stress
0.1 % Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of the specimen's original length.
0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of the original length.
Stiffness
Within the elastic range of a material, if the Strain is compared to the Stress causing that extension, it will provide a measure of
stiffness/rigidity or flexibility.
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Young’s Modulus,
This value, which is of great importance to designers, is known as `the Modulus of Elasticity, or Young's Modulus', and is signified by use
of the symbol E.
Thus E = Stress divided by Strain and, since Strain has no units, the unit for 'E' is the same as Stress.
i.e. Ibf/in2, tonf/in2 (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Bearing Properties
Bearing properties are used when designing mechanically fastened joints. The purpose of a bearing test is to determine the the deformation
of a hole as a function of the applied bearing stress. The test specimen is basically a piece of sheet or plate with a carefully prepared hole
some standard distance from the edge. Edge-to-hole diameter ratios of 1.5 and 2.0 are common. A hardened pin is inserted through the
hole and an axial load applied to the specimen and the pin. The bearing stress is computed by dividing the load applied to the pin, which
bears against the edge of the hole, by the bearing area (the product of the pin diameter and the sheet or plate thickness). Bearing yield and
ultimate stresses are obtained from bearing tests. BYS is computed from a bearing stress deformation curve by drawing a line parallel to the
initial slope at an offset of 0.02 times the pin diameter. BUS is the maximum stress withstood by a bearing specimen.
Shear Properties
A shearing stress acts parallel to the stress plane, whereas a tensile or compressive stress acts normal to the stress plane. Shear properties
are primarily used in the design of mechanically fastened components, webs, and torsion members, and other components subject to
parallel, opposing loads. Shear properties are dependant on the type of shear test and their is a variety of different standard shear tests that
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can be performed including the single-shear test, double-shear test, blanking-shear test, torsion-shear test and others. The shear modulus of
elasticity is considered a basic shear property. Other properties, such as the proportional limit stress and shear ultimate stress, cannot be
treated as basic shear properties because of “form factor” effects.
The Tensile Test Machine
Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of applying forces up to 1 MN are in use. The small
Hounsfield tension-meter has a capacity of 20 kN.
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29
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials

science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an
application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under
other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are
ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From
these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.
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IRON PRODUCTION
Iron is a very important metal in engineering. Little used in its pure form it is however the main constituent of steel. Iron ore (magnetite and
hematite) is quarried or mined from the earth's crust and converted by a series of processes into pig iron.
Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. The most common ferrous metal, in aircraft constru ction is steel,
which is an alloy of iron with a controlled amount of carbon added.
Pig iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The iron ore is first washed and then added to the blast furnace together with
high quality coke, low in sulphur content and limestone, which combines with impurities and forms a slag. During charging, the double bell
arrangement prevents gases escaping. These gases are later cleaned and used to heat the air entering the blast main, to about 800°C,
reducing the amount of coke required by half. The oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn fiercely, generating heat and producing carbon
monoxide gas which reduces the ore to metal.
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Iron which is the heaviest product drips to the bottom of the furnace. The lighter slag floats on top of the iron. When the i ron reaches the
level of the slag tapping hole, the slag is run off. The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the furnace.
The molten pig iron may be cast into small mould known as pigs. If the blast furnace is situated close to a steel works, the molten iron is
conveyed direct to the steel making furnaces. Among the common materials used are ferrous metals. The term “ferrous” applies to the
group of metals having iron as their principal constituent.
Iron
If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 %, the product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as
carbon steel. Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon steel with other elements known to improve
the properties of steel. A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have been added is called an alloy. The addition
of other metals changes or improves the chemical or physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.
Pig iron is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore. It is the molten iron from the blast furnace, which is a large and cylinder-shaped
furnace charged with iron ore, coke, and limestone. Charcoal and anthracite have also been used as fuel. Pig iron has very high carbon
content, typically 3.5–4.5%,along with silica and other constituents of dross, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material
except for limited applications.
The traditional shape of the molds used for pig iron ingots was a branching structure formed in sand, with many individual ingots at right
angles to a central channel or runner. Such a configuration resembles a litter of piglets being suckled by a sow. When the metal had cooled
and hardened, the smaller ingots (the pigs) were simply broken from the much thinner runner (the sow), hence the name pig iron. As pig
iron is intended for remelting, the uneven size of the ingots and the inclusion of small amounts of sand caused only insignificant proble ms
considering the ease of casting and handling them.
The pig-iron is produced in a blast-furnace which typically consists of a cylindrical steel hull and a refractory lining on the inside. The lower
part of the furnace (crucible) has openings (tuyeres) through which hot air is injected. Two openings closer to the bottom are used to tap
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the iron and an opening above that is used to tap the slag. To tap the iron the refractory clay plug is pulled out of the hole. The raw
materials are charged through two openings. The blast-furnace gas is released through another opening.
Inside the furnace layers of coke and iron ore with flux follow each other subsequently. The flux converts the impurities in the iron to easily
meltable slag. The limestone for example combines with the silicates in the iron ore and forms melt able calcium silicate. Calcium silicate
forms slag which collects on top of the molten iron. The air which is injected through the tuyeres (wind) is pre-warmed to about 800°C – 1
200°C and injected with slight pressure (more than 1.6 bars or 160 kPa).
Coke releases carbon monoxide when it is burned:
(1) C + O2 -> CO2 and
(2) CO2 + C -> 2 CO.
These reactions increase the temperature in the lower part of the furnace to about 1600°C. The hot carbon monoxide rises into the iron ore
layer above and reduces the contained iron oxide to metallic iron. This chemical reaction can be represented by the following equation:
Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 3 CO2 + 2 Fe.
In the following coke layer the carbon dioxide is re-converted to carbon monoxide: CO2 + C -> 2 CO which can react to reduce the iron oxide
in the next layer of iron ore. In the higher and cooled layers the carbon monoxide partly decays to carbon dioxide and carbon – this
equilibrium reaction is called Boudouard reaction.
The produced carbon also reduces iron oxide to metallic iron. In addition the carbon dissolves in the iron which reduces the melting point
to about 1,100 to 1,200°C (pure iron 1,539°C). The “cooler” metal drips through the coke and collects at the bottom of the furnace, below the
liquid slag.
The carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide mixture (blast furnace gas) pre-warms the fresh raw materials in the upper part of the furnace and
escapes through the openings. Then it is cleaned and re-used for other industrial purposes.
A blast-furnace always works continuously. The raw material is refilled in small amounts every ten to fifteen minutes. Slag is removed
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approximately every two hours and the pig-iron is tapped about five times a day.
To tap the pig-iron the refractory clay plug is removed from one of the openings in the crucible. The liquid metal flows through a clay
channeling and a skimmer which separates the slag from the iron, into a basin with refractory lining, for example on a railcar. Some of these
basins can hold up to 100 tons of metal. The pig-iron is then brought to the steel mill either in liquid form or as cast iron slabs.
Common pig-iron usually consists of: about 92 % iron, three to four percent carbon, and varying amounts of silicon (0.5 to three percent),
manganese (0.5 to six percent), phosphorous (0.1 to two percent) and traces of sulfur (0.01 to 0.05 %).
Grey pig-iron is produced when the pig-iron is cooled slowly and the carbon settles out as graphite on the raw material. This type of carbon
deposition needs specific amounts of silicon (more than two percent) and manganese (less than 0.2 %).
White pig-iron in comparison is produced when the pig-iron is cooled rapidly and the dissolved carbon forms iron carbide. The right amount
of manganese (more than four percent) and silicon(less than 0.5 %) is very important to support this process. In this case the higher amount
of manganese prevents the forming of graphite. The grey pig-iron is usually used as cast-iron whereas the white pig-iron is used for steel
production.
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with carbon content greater than 2%.The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white
cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passin g crack
and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount ranging
from 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes these base
alloys ternary Fe–C–Si alloys, the principle of cast iron solidification is understood from the binary iron–carbon phase diagram. Since the
compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the iron–carbon system, the melting temperatures closely correlate, usually
ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 °C (2,100 to 2,190 °F), which is about 300 °C (572 °F) lower than the melting point of pure iron.
Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent
machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of
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applications and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and
gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation (rust).
Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of scrap iron, scrap steel, lime stone, carbon (coke) and
taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the molten iron, but this also burns
out the carbon, which must be replaced. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, which
may be anywhere from 2–3.5% and 1–3%, respectively. Other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by
casting.
Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons:
1. It is a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition ofordinary pig iron.
2. Rigidity and strength under compression are good.
3. It is easy to machine.
4. It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.
5. Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.
The Composition of Cast Iron
Ordinary cast iron contains the following elements:
 Carbon 3.0 to 4%
 Silicon 1.0 to 3.0%
 Manganese 0.5 to 1.0%
 Sulphur up to 0.1% (Induce Brittleness)
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 Phosphorous up to 1.9%.
 Also Chromium 0.5 - 1.00% for Stainless Steel
Iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola, but more often melted in electric induction furnaces or
electric arc furnaces. After melting is complete, the molten iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle.
Grey cast iron is characterized by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the
most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of
2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel, but its
compressive strength is comparable to low- and medium-carbon steel.
White cast iron displays white fractured surface due to the presence of cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and
faster cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite.
The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a eutectic mixture, where the other phase is
austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation hardening
(as in some steels, where cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the
ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial
volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of
toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet.
White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it
finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and
autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's digging bucket (although cast medium-carbon
martensitic steel is more common for this application).
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon (less than 0.08%) content in contrast to cast iron (2.1% to 4%), and has fibrous
inclusions known as slag up to 2% by weight. It is a semi-fused mass of iron with slag inclusions which gives it a "grain" resembling wood,
36
that is visible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily
welded. Before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the
most common form of malleable iron. A modest amount of wrought iron was used as a raw material for refining into steel, which was used
mainly to produce swords, cutlery, chisels, axes and other edged tools as well as springs and files. However, as properties such as brittleness
of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined.
Many items, before they came to be made of mild steel, were produced from wrought iron, including rivets, nails, wire, chains, rails, railway
couplings, water and steam pipes, nuts, bolts, horseshoes, handrails, wagon tires, straps for timber roof trusses, and ornamental ironwork.
Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale. Many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture
and gates, are made of mild steel. They retain that description because in the past they were wrought (worked) by hand. Ingot iron a type of
steelcontaining a smallamount of carbonandverysmallquantities of otherelements
An ingot is a piece of material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step
among semi-finished casting products. Ingots usually require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting, or milling
to produce a useful final product. Non-metallic and semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots,
particularly when cast by mold based methods. Precious metal ingots can be used as currency (with or without being processed into other
shapes), or as a currency reserve, as with gold bars.
Ingots are manufactured by the freezing of a molten liquid (known as the melt) in a mold. The manufacture of ingots has several aims.
Firstly, the mold is designed to completely solidify and form an appropriate grain structure required for later processing, as the structure
formed by the freezing melt controls the physical properties of the material. Secondly, the shape and size of the mold is designed to allow
for ease of ingot handling and downstream processing. Finally the mold is designed to minimize melt wastage and aid ejection of the ingot,
as losing either melt or ingot increases manufacturing costs of finished products.
A variety of designs exist for the mold, which may be selected to suit the physical properties of the liquid melt and the solidification process.
Molds may exist in top, horizontal or bottom-up pouring and may be fluted or flat walled. The fluted design increases heat transfer owing to
37
a larger contact area. Molds may be either solid "massive" design, sand cast (e.g. for pig iron) or water-cooled shells, depending upon heat
transfer requirements. Ingot molds are tapered to prevent the formation of cracks due to uneven cooling. Crack or void formation occurs as
the liquid to solid transition has an associated volume change for a constant mass of material. Formation of these ingot defects may render
the cast ingot useless, and may need to be re-melted, recycled or discarded.
STEELMAKING
Steelmaking is the process for producing steel from iron and ferrous ores and scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such as nitrogen, silicon,
phosphorus, sulfur and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and
vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel. Limiting dissolved gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, and entrained impurities
(termed "inclusions") in the steel is also important to ensure the quality of the products cast from the liquid steel.
There are commonly processes for making steel, namely Open Hearth Process, BasicOxygen Steelmaking, which has liquid pig-iron from
the blast furnace and scrap steel as the main feed materials, and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking, which uses scrap steel or direct
reduced iron (DRI) as the main feed materials. Oxygen steelmaking is fuelled predominantly by the exothermic nature of the reactions inside
the vessel where as in EAF steelmaking, electrical energy is used to melt the solid scrap and/or DRI materials. In recent times, EAF
steelmaking technology has evolved closer to oxygen steelmaking as more chemical energy is introduced into the process.
Open hearth furnaces (figure 1.8) are one of a number of kinds of furnace where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig
iron to produce steel. Since steel is difficult to manufacture due to its high melting point, normal fuels and furnaces were insufficient and
the open hearth furnace was developed to overcome this difficulty.
Compared to Bessemer steel, which it displaced, its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which
would cause the steel to become brittle), was easier to control, and it permitted the smelting and refining of large amounts of scrap iron and
steel.
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The open hearth process is a batch process and a batch is called a "heat". The furnace is first inspected for possible damage. Once it is ready
or repaired, it is charged with light scrap, such as sheet metal, shredded vehicles or waste metal. The furnace is heated using burning gas.
Once it has melted, heavy scrap, such as building, construction or steel milling scrap is added, together with pig iron from blast furnaces.
Once all the steel has melted, slag forming agents, such as limestone, are added. The oxygen in iron oxide and other impurities decarburize
the pig iron by burning excess carbon away, forming steel. To increase the oxygen contents of the heat, iron ore can be added to the heat.
The process is far slower than that of Bessemer

converter and thus easier to control and sample for
quality assessment. Preparing a heat usually takes 8 h to
8 h 30 min to complete into steel. As the process is slow,
it is not necessary to burn all the carbon away as in
Bessemer process, but the process can be terminated at
given point when desired carbon contents has been
achieved.
The furnace is tapped the same way a blast furnace is

tapped; a hole is drilled on the side of the hearth and
the raw steel flows out. Once all the steel has been
tapped, the slag is skimmed away. The raw steel may be
cast into ingots; this process is called teeming, or it may
be used on continuous casting for the rolling mill.
Figure 1.8 Basic Steel making process (Blast Furnace)
The regenerators are the distinctive feature of the
furnace and consist of fire-brick flues filled with bricks set on edge and arranged in such a way as to have a great number of small passages
between them. The bricks absorb most of the heat from the outgoing waste gases and return it later to the incoming cold gases for
combustion
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In the Open Hearth Process, the heat required to melt the pig iron and scrap is obtained by burning a mixture of gas and air over the metal.
The gas and air is pre-heated to a high temperature in regenerators.
Lime is added to the charge, in order to form a basic slag and so remove the phosphorus which is present in most pig irons. The slag floats
on the surface of the molten steel and is run off. Carbon is then added in the form of anthracite which dissolves in the molten steel. Finally
the molten steel is transferred to a large ladle which in turn pours the steel into mould to produce ingots each of several tones mass.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking a typical basic oxygen furnace (figure 1.9) consists of a steel
cased converter lined with dolomite holding up to 400 tones of metal. The charge
consists of up to 40% of scrap steel, lime and molten pig iron, a method of primary
steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen
through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy and changes it into low-
carbon steel. The process is known as basic because fluxes of burnt lime or dolomite,
which are chemical bases, are added to promote the removal of impurities and protect
the lining of the converter.
Basic oxygen steelmaking is a primary steelmaking process for converting the molten
pig iron into steel by blowing oxygen through a lance over the molten pig iron inside
the converter. Exothermic heat is generated by the oxidation reactions during blowing.
The basic oxygen steel-making process is as follows:
Figure 1.9 Basic Oxygen Converter 1. Molten pig iron (sometimes referred to as "hot metal") from a blast furnace is poured
into a large refractory-lined container called a ladle;
2. The metal in the ladle is sent directly for basic oxygen steelmaking or to a pretreatment stage. High purity oxygen at a pressure of 100-
150 psi (pounds per inch square) is introduced at supersonic speed onto the surface of the iron bath through a water-cooled lance,
which is suspended in the vessel and kept at few feet above the bath. Pretreatment of the blast furnace hot metal is done externally to
40
reduce sulphur, silicon, and phosphorus before charging the hot metal into the converter. In external desulphurising pretreatment, a
lance is lowered into the molten iron in the ladle and several hundred kilograms of powdered magnesium are added and the sulphur
impurities are reduced to magnesium sulphide in a violent exothermic reaction. The sulfide is then raked off. Similar pretreatments are
possible for external desiliconisation and external dephosphorisation using mill scale (iron oxide) and lime as fluxes. The decision to
pretreat depends on the quality of the hot metal and the required final quality of the steel.
3. Filling the furnace with the ingredients is called charging. The BOS process is autogenous, i.e. the required thermal energy is produced
during the oxidation process. Maintaining the proper charge balance, the ratio of hot metal, from melt, to cold scrap, is therefore very
important. BOS vessel can be tilted up to 360° and is tilted towards the deslagging side for charging scrap and hot metal. The BOS
vessel is charged with steel or iron scrap (25%-30%) if required. Molten iron from the ladle is added as required for the charge balance.
A typical chemistry of hotmetal charged into the BOS vessel is: 4% C, 0.2–0.8% Si, 0.08%–0.18% P, and 0.01–0.04% S all of which can be
oxidised by the supplied oxygen except sulphur (requires reducing condition).
4. The vessel is then set upright and a water-cooled, copper tipped lance with
3-7 nozzles is lowered down into it and high purity oxygen is delivered at
supersonic speeds. The lance "blows" 99% pure oxygen over the hot metal,
igniting the carbon dissolved in the steel, to form carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide, and causing the temperature to rise to about 1,700 °C. This melts the
scrap, lowers the carbon content of the molten iron and helps remove unwanted
chemical elements. It is this use of pure oxygen instead of air that improves upon
the Bessemer process, as the nitrogen (a particularly undesirable element) and
other gases in air do not react with the charge.
5. Fluxes (burnt lime or dolomite) are fed into the vessel to form slag, to
Figure 1.10 Electric Arc Furnace maintain basicity more than 3 and absorbs impurities during the steelmaking
41
process. During "blowing", churning of metal and fluxes in the vessel forms an emulsion, that facilitates the refining process. Near the
end of the blowing cycle, which takes about 20 minutes, the temperature is measured and samples are taken. A typical chemistry of the
blown metal is 0.3–0.9% C, 0.05–0.1% Mn, 0.001–0.003% Si, 0.01–0.03% S and 0.005–0.03% P.
6. The BOS vessel is tilted towards the deslagging side and the steel is poured through a tap hole into a steel ladle with basic refractory
lining. This process is called tapping the steel. The steel is further refined in the ladle furnace, by adding alloying materials to give it
special properties required by the customer. Sometimes argon or nitrogen is bubbled into the ladle to make the alloys mix correctly.
7. After the steel is poured off from the BOS vessel, the slag is poured into the slag pots through the BOS vessel mouth and dumped.
An electric arc furnace (EAF) is a furnace (figure 1.10) that heats charged material by means of an electric arc.
Industrial arc furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity (used in foundries for producing cast iron products)
up to about 400 ton units used for secondary steelmaking. Arc furnaces used in research laboratories and by dentists may have a capacity of
only a few dozen grams. Industrial electric arc furnace temperatures can be up to 1,800 °C (3,272 °F), while laboratory units can exceed
3,000 °C (5,432 °F).
Arc furnaces differ from induction furnaces in that the charge material is directly exposed to an electric arc, and the current in the furnace
terminals passes through the charged material. An electrical arc furnace is shown. The heat required to melt the charge is produced by
electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel.
The impurities are oxidized from the charge by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the oxidized impurities and may then be
run off by tilting the furnace. The charge consists of scrap, iron ore, blast furnace pig iron and limestone.
The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is no gas, fumes or impurities which are present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow
impurities into the molten metal. Electrical furnaces are used to make high quality steels.
NOTE:
When the impurities are oxidized, they combine with oxygen and form an oxide which floats on top of the molten steel, together with the
slag.
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Steel
Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon. Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the
steel making process. The manganese helps reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorus are harmful impurities
causing brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of either of these elements. High quality steels would contain no
more than 0.04% of each element. The manganese dissolves in the solid steel, slightly increasing its strength and hardness.
The relative density of steel is 7.9.Steel is 2/3 the weight of lead, 3 times the weight of aluminum.
Annealed steel with low carbon concentration (e.g. 0.2%) can have a tensile strength of 345 MPa (50,000 ibf/in2). Annealed high-carbon
steel (0.4%) may have tensile strengths of almost 700 MPa (about 100,000 Ibf/in2 ). Cold working, alloying and heat treatment can boost
strength up to around 1000 MPa.
Plain carbon steel owes its properties to the presence of carbon. The effects of carbon in iron are best understood by first c onsidering pure
iron. Pure iron is very ductile, and has a tensile strength of 18 tons/sq.in (28 Hbar). The addition of carbon to the iron increases the tensile
strength, hardness and brittleness, and at the same time decreases the ductility. The tensile strength of 0.8% carbon steel is a approximate
55 tons/sq.in (85 Hbar). The strength of steel will increase with carbon content but is limited to the amount of carbon which will remain
combined with the iron after any normal heat treatment. Above 1.7% carbon, the excess carbon is in the form of free (uncombined) carbon
or graphite, which has very low strength. The carbon content of plain carbon steel does not often exceed 1.5%.
The internal structure of steel may be varied by heating and cooling. To produce certain properties in the steel, it is heat treated. It is not
always possible to produce all the desired properties in the metal and a compromise has to be made. For ease of manufacture the metal
may require to be soft. In use, great strength and considerable hardness may be required.
Thus if a steel is required to be hard and tough, the maximum degree of hardness and toughness cannot be obtained together. Maximum
hardness makes the metal brittle and maximum toughness generally reduces hardness.
A numerical index, sponsored by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is used to
identify the chemical compositions of the structural steels. In this system, a four-numeral series is used to designate the plain carbon and
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alloy steels; five numerals are used to designate certain types of alloy steels.
The first two digits indicate the type of steel, the second digit also generally (but not always) gives the approximate amount of the major
alloying element, and the last two (or three) digits are intended to indicate the approximate middle of the carbon range. However, a
deviation from the rule of indicating the carbon range is sometimes necessary.
Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels that are not specifed as required. These elements are considered as incidental
and may be present to the maximum amounts as follows: copper, 0.35 %; nickel, 0.25 %; chromium, 0.20 %; molybdenum, 0.06 %.The list of
standard steels is altered from time to time to accommodate steels of proven merit and to provide for changes in the metallurgical and
engineering requirements of industry.
A small extract from the SAE classification system is shown in Table, where it can be seen, for example, that one common steel alloy is
identified by the designation SAE1030. The first digit identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second digit shows that it is a Plain Carbon-
Steel. The last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel (0.30%).It should be noted that the British Standards Institute (BS) has
a different classification system.
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45
46
47
PROPERTIES WORKED BY USEFUL QUALITY USES REMARKS
Properties unaffected
Cast Iron (up to Brittle weak, fairly soft Casts easily wears to
Casting and Machine frames by heat lubricating
4.7% and (very hard surface if good surface, resists
cutting only piston rings owing to graphite
impurities) "chilled) " crushing.
carbon
Wrought Iron
Ductile, Malleable All methods Easily magnetized Cores of dynamos, Cannot be hardened
(about 0.02% and
fairly strong, soft except casting easily welded lifting chains by quenching
fewer)
Bolt tubes, rivet,

Mild Steel (low Ductile, less malleable Easily forged Cannot be hardened
plates, all part where
carbon) , strong harder and welded machined by quenching: for
All methods great strength or
(up to 0.003% and more uniform than or stamped to surface hardening see
hardness is not
few impurities) wrought iron shape “case hardening”
required
Rather strong and

Medium carbon Shafts, rods, bolts,
harder but less ductile All methods Not quite so easily
Steel (0.3% to 0.6% tubes. Rather strong
and malleable than (rarely cast) worked as mild steel
and few impurities) parts.
mild steel
High carbon Steel Strong, less ductile, Can be made very

Forging and Cutting tools of all See“ Hardening
(0.6% to 1.5% and hardness and hard without undue
cutting kinds. Tempering”
few impurities) toughness depend of brittleness
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heat treatment
Types of Steel, their Properties and Uses
METAL PROPERTIES USES
Cast Iron Brittle, weak, casts easily, resists crushing. Good anti-friction Machine beds, frames and details. General
properties, self-lubricating. Good vibration damping qualities. castings, bearings.
(up to 4.5% carbon)
Wrought Iron Ductile, malleable, fairly strong, soft, easily magnetized, easily Cores of dynamos, lifting chains, crane hooks.
welded.
(0.02% carbon)
Mild Steel Ductile, less malleable, stronger and harder than wrought iron. Machines bolts and nuts.
Easily forged, welded, machined or stamped to shape
(Low carbon) General workshop machined components,
structural girders forgings, car body panels.
Medium Carbon Steel Higher strength than mild steel and responds to heat Leaf springs, wire ropes, hammer heads,
treatment to further increase its toughness and hardness hacksaw frames, cold chisels, wood saws,
axles, crankshaft forgings
High Carbon Steel More costly than med. carbon steel. Mainly used where its Cutting tools, such as files, drills, knives,
properties of hardness and toughness after heat treatment can wood chisels, etc. Coil springs.
be exploited.
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Alloy Steels By adding other metals in sufficient quantity, the properties of Adding chromium gives greater hardness for
carbon steel can be altered. the manufacture of ball bearings. Adding
nickel gives greater strength and toughness
and resistance to fatigue. Adding tungsten it
retains its hardness at high temperatures.
Uses of common steels
Metal stock is manufactured in several forms and shapes, including sheets, bars, rods, tubing, extrusions, forgings, and castings. Sheet metal
is made in a num-ber of sizes and thicknesses. Specificationsdesignate thicknesses in thousandths of an inch. Bars and rods are supplied in a
variety of shapes, such as round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal. Tubing can be obtained in round, oval, rectangular, or
streamlined shapes. The size of tubing is generally specifiedby outside diameter and wall thickness.
The sheet metal is usually formed cold in such machines as presses, bending brakes, drawbenches, or rolls. Forgings are shaped or formed
by pressing or hammering heated metal in dies. Castings are produced by pouring molten metal into molds. The casting is finished by
machining. Spark testing is a common means of identifying various ferrous metals. In this test the piece of iron or steel is held against a
revolving grinding stone and the metal is identifiedby the sparks thrown off. Each ferrous metal has its own peculiar spark ch aracteristics.
The spark streams vary from a few tiny shafts to a shower of sparks several feet in length. (Few nonferrous met-als give off sparks when
touched to a grinding stone. Therefore, these metals cannot be successfully identi-fied by the spark test.
Identificationby spark testing is often inexact unless performed by an experienced person, or the test pieces differ greatly in their carbon
content and alloying constituents.
Wrought iron produces long shafts that are straw col-ored as they leave the stone and white at the end. Cast iron sparks are red as they
leave the stone and turn to a straw color. Low carbon steels give off long, straight shafts having a few white sprigs. As the carbon content of
the steel increases, the number of sprigs along each shaft increases and the stream becomes whiter in color. Nickel steel causes the spark
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stream to contain small white blocks of light within the main burst.
Alloying Elements in Steel
As discussed earlier, iron has few practical uses in its pure state. Adding small amounts of other materials to molten iron, however,
dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more common alloying elements include carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, nickel and
chromium (also referred to as chrome).
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Carbon
Carbon is a constituent part of steel and therefore is not normally considered to be an alloying element. When mixed with iron, compounds
of iron carbide form and it is the carbon in steel that allows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength and
toughness. The greater the carbon content, then the more receptive the steel becomes to heat-treatment and, while its strength and
hardness increases, its malleability and weld ability decreases.
Low Carbon Steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 % is classed as low carbon steel. The equivalent SAE numbers range from
1010 to 1030. Steels of this grade are used for making such items as safety wire, certain nuts, cable bushings, or threaded rod ends. This steel
in sheet form is used for secondary structural parts and clamps, and in tubular form for moderately stressed structural parts.
Medium Carbon Steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.30 to 0.50 % is classed as medium carbon steel. This steel is especially adaptable for
machining or forging, and where surface hardness is desirable. Certain rod ends and light forgings are made from SAE 1035 steel.
High Carbon Steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.50 to 1.05 % is classed as high carbon steel. The addition of other elements in
varying quantities adds to the hardness of this steel. In the fully heat-treated condition it is very hard, will withstand high shear and wear,
and will have little deformation. It has limited use in aircraft. SAE 1095 in sheet form is used for making flat springs and in wire form for
making coil springs.
Sulphur
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it must be removed during the refining process. If it proves impossible to
remove all of the sulphur, then manganese, which is harmless to the steel can be added to the metal (to form manganese sulphide). The
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manganese also improves forging by making the steel less brittle during the forming processes.
Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener and, used in small quantities, it also improves ductility.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus raises the yield strength of steel and improves low-carbon steel's resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The steel tends to be
brittle when cold, so no more than 0.05 % phosphorus is normally used in steel production.
Nickel
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows:
 In the range of 1% - 5% there is a marked improvement in strength (and hardness) without lowering ductility. This high-strength, tough
steel is widely used for highly stressed parts.
 At about 25% nickel, the steel becomes highly corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant and non- magnetic.
 At 36% nickel, a unique steel (known under its trade name as `Invar') is created. This has the lowest coefficient of expansion of any metal
(1/20th that of steel) and is excellent for master gauges and instruments.
 Because of the effect of such amounts of nickel on the expansion properties of steel, a range of nickel-steels can be purpose-made, to
trim the coefficient of expansion to specific needs. These alloys are used in thermostats, spark plug electrodes etc.
With varying percentage of nickel, the following effects are produced:
 Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels
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 Increases strength and toughness

 Improves resistance to corrosion
 Lowers the critical temperatures so that hardening requires a less sever quench
 With 25% nickel added, the steel is austenitic at room temperature and thus non- magnetic
 With 35% nickel added, the steel will have a coefficient of expansion of nearly zero
 A high percentage of nickel gives higher magnetic permeability than obtained with soft iron.
Nickel Alloys
When the amount of nickel present is predominant, then the material becomes known as a Nickel Alloy, many of which are widely used in
industry.
One of the most important nickel-based alloy groups is the nimonics. These are a family of alloys, containing 50% - 80% nickel, with the
balance being mainly chromium (chrome) with some titanium and aluminium.
Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas turbine engine combustion chambers and turbine blades because of their
extremely low coefficient of expansion at elevated temperatures.
Other ranges of nickel-based alloys come under the trade names of Inconel and Hastelloy, which are also temperature-resistant and
corrosion-resistant. Another common nickel alloy is Monel. This metal (68% nickel and 29% copper, with iron, manganese, silicon and
carbon) has excellent resistance to both corrosion and chemical attack, is tough, ductile, reasonably strong (equivalent to mild steel) and is
non-magnetic. It is used in many marine applications, for surgical apparatus and for aircraft rivets. Normally Monel does not res pond to heat
treatment but, when alloyed with a small amount of aluminium (2% - 4%), it can be hardened to double its strength. This version is known
as `K-Monel'.
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Monel
Monel, the leading high nickel alloy, combines the properties of high strength and excellent corrosion resistance. This metal consists of 68 %
nickel, 29 % copper, 0.2 % iron, 1 % manganese, and 1.8 % of other elements. It cannot be hardened by heat treatment.Monel, adaptable to
casting and hot or cold working, can be successfully welded. It has working properties similar to those of steel. When forged and annealed,
it has a tensile strength of 80,000 psi. This can be increased by cold working to 125,000 psi, sufficientfor classification among the tough
alloys.
Monel has been successfully used for gears and chains to operate retractable landing gears, and for structural parts subject to corrosion. In
aircraft, Monel is used for parts demanding both strength and high resistance to corrosion, such as exhaust manifolds and carburetor needle
valves and sleeves.
K-Monel
K-Monel is a nonferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper, and aluminum. It is produced by adding a small amount of aluminum to the
Monel formula. It is corrosion resistant and capable of being hardened by heat treatment.K-Monel has been successfully used for gears, and
structural members in aircraft which are subjected to corrosive attacks. This alloy is nonmagnetic at all tem-peratures. K-Monel sheet has
been successfully welded by both oxyacetylene and electric arc welding.
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel as well as increasing its yield strength. By slowing the rate of hardening during heat-treatment,
the depth of hardening can be increased and the steel's grain structure made finer. SAE 2330 steel, containing 3.0 % nickel and 0.3 %
carbon, is used in the manufacture of bolts, nuts, rod ends and pins.
There are basically two nickel alloys used in aircraft. They are Monel and Inconel. Monel contains about 68 % nickel and 29 % copper, plus
small amounts of iron and manganese. Nickel alloys can be welded or easily machined. Some of the nickel Monel, especially the nickel
Monels containing small amounts of aluminum, are heat-treatable to similar tensile strengths of steel. Nickel Monel is used in gears and
parts that require high strength and toughness, such as exhaust systems that require high strength and corro-sion resistance at elevated
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temperatures.
Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance and are frequently found in the same areas of the engine. Sometimes it is important to
identify the difference between the metal samples. A common test is to apply one drop of cupric chloride and hydrochloric acid solution to
the unknown metal and allow it to remain for 2 minutes. At the end of the soak period, a shiny spot indicates the material is nickel Inconel,
and a copper colored spot indicates stainless steel.
Inconel alloys of nickel produce a high strength, high temperature alloy containing approximately 80 % nickel, 14 % chromium, and small
amounts of iron and other elements. The nickel Inconel alloys are frequently used in turbine engines because of their abil-ity to maintain
their strength and corrosion resistance under extremely high temperature conditions.
Inconel is a family of austenite nickel-chromium-based superalloys. Inconel alloys are oxidation and corrosion resistant materials well suited
for service in extreme environments subjected to pressure and heat. When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer
protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high temperature
applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally induced crystal vacancies. Inconel’s high
temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy. Inconel alloys
are typically used in high temperature applications. It is sometimes referred to in English as "Inco" (or occasionally[not verified in body]
"Iconel"). Common trade names for Inconel Alloy 625 include: Inconel 625, Chronin 625, Altemp 625, Haynes 625, Nickelvac 625 and Nicrofer
6020.
Chromium (Chrome)
When small amounts of chrome are added to steel, the strength and hardness increases, but there is some loss of ductility. 1.5% chrome, in
a high-carbon (1 %) steel, results in a very hard material which is used extensively for instrument pivots and in ball and roller bearings.
Low chrome (1.5%-3%) steels are used for high tensile fasteners and are suitable for Nitriding. Chromium can also be electrolytic ally
deposited onto metals, to provide hard-wearing surfaces, such as those required in cylinder bores.
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Steels containing 12% or more chrome are very corrosion-resistant. Stainless (SS) Steels or Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRS) come into this
category. One particular stainless steel is designated `18/8 Stainless', which contains approximately 18% chrome and 8% nickel. These
stainless steels are used extensively in engine parts, particularly for hot applications and for exhaust areas where their corrosion resistance is
vital.
Summary:
 Increases hardness and strength

 Increases rate of grain growth, so nickel, which has the opposite effect, is often added with chromium to control the grain size
 Increases corrosion resistance, used to make ball and roller bearings.
Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys
This term is used when the amount of nickel present is greater than the chrome content. A wide range of such steels exists, but the low
nickel-chrome alloys are suitable for through-hardening or case-hardening. The nickel content is around 3%-5% and the chrome ranges
from 0.5%-1.5%. Crankshafts and connecting rods are often made from this group. High nickel-chrome alloys (65%-85% nickel, 15%-20%
chrome) have a high electrical resistance and are often used as heater elements.
By adding both metals, in appropriate percentages, steel, which is suitable for high-strength structural applications, is produced. Nickel-
chromium steels are used for forged and machined parts requiring high strength, ductility, shock-resistance and toughness.
Summary:
 Low nickel/chrome steels (3% Nickel/1% Chromium) are used for piston engine
 crankshafts, connecting rods and similar applications
 High nickel/chrome steels (18% Chromium/8% Nickel) are the stainless steels
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Cobalt
Cobalt is often included in High-Speed Steel (HSS) in addition to chrome, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten (to improve still further the
ability to cut at high working temperatures). Cobalt is included in high-strength, permanent magnets, in some of the nimonic alloys used for
high-temperature components in gas turbine engines and cobalt is also found in a range of temperature-resistant alloys called 'Stellite'
(used in piston engine valves and for cutting tools).
Vanadium
When added to steel, vanadium improves the strength without loss of ductility, but also greatly improves its toughness and its resistance to
fatigue;because of the improved tensile and elastic properties, valve (and many types of other). Springs, usually include vanadium. Small
amounts of vanadium are included in certain nickel-chrome steels and good quality engineering tools.
Vanadium, when combined with chromium, produces a strong, tough, ductile steel-alloy. Amounts of up to 0.2 % vanadium improve grain
structure, ultimate tensile strength and toughness. Ball bearings are also made from chrome-vanadium steel.
Summary:
 Percentage required is very low.

 Increases tensile strength and elastic limit
 Increases shock resistance and fatigue resistance. Used for valve spring, dies.
Manganese
When small amounts of manganese are added to steel (up to 1.5%) the result is steel which is strong and hard (similar to nickel-chrome
steel). Such steel is often used for shafts and axles.
11%-14% manganese steel has very unusual properties and is extremely useful. When this material is heated to approximately 1000°C and
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water-quenched, its structure becomes austenitic and, although it is only moderately hard, any attempt to cut it, or abrade it, results in the
local formation of hard martensite and it thus becomes highly resistant to cutting or abrasion. Because of this peculiar property, it is used
extensively for rock drills, stone crushers, and railway lines at junctions etc.
Small amounts of manganese are used in steel production and in welding rods since it acts as a purifying agent by reducing oxidation.
Summary:
 Increases strength, toughness, shock and wear resistance

 High Manganese steels (about 12% manganese) are very soft when produced but any cold work by rubbing, cutting, etc., causes the
surface to become very hard and wear resistant. Used for rock crusher parts
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is molybdenum. It reduces the grain size of steel, which increases
its impact-strength and elastic limit. Other advantages are an increase in wear-resistance and high fatigue-resistance, which is the reason
why molybdenum-steels are found in structural members and engine parts.
Summary:
 Percentage required is very low.
 Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures
 Increases tensile strength and ductility
 Prevents brittleness experienced by some nickel/chrome steels when they are heated.
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Chromium and Molybdenum
Chrome-molybdenum steel is, probably, the most commonly used alloy steel in the aircraft industry. Its SAE 4130 designation denotes an
alloy of 10% molybdenum and 0.3 % carbon. It machines well and is easily welded by gas or electric arc methods, as well as responding well
to heat-treatment. Its use in aircraft construction includes landing gear, engine mountings and many engine components.
Tungsten
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to the steel with which it is alloyed. Tungsten steels retain their
hardness at elevated temperatures, and are typically used for contact-breaker contacts (in magnetos), and also for high-speed cutting tools.
Summary:
 Improves heat and wear resistance
 Used in the production of many cutting tool materials.
Maraging Steels
Conventional very high tensile steels have a high carbon content and are, thus, very hard and difficult to work and also tend to be
somewhat brittle. To combat these shortcomings, maraging steels were developed. These steels are over 50% stronger than normal high
tensile steels and yet are very tough and easy to machine. These properties are achieved by the almost total elimination of carbon and by
alloying with nickel, cobalt and molybdenum in such a way that it can be precipitation hardened. Maraging steels can only be used for
special, high-stressed applications (due to cost, which is about three times that of conventional alloy steels). They are used for some
airframe and engine components and can be nitride hardened
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Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steels
Since the 1940s the term stainless steel, also designated corrosion-resistant steel (CRES), has become a household word because of its many
applications in household items as well as in aircraft and missiles. The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the
outstanding advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets. The most important characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion
resistance, strength, toughness, and resistance to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be divided into three general groups based on
their structures:
Austenitic steels are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold working, and
heat treatment serves only to anneal them. They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although some may be slightly magnetic
after cold working. Austenitic steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the critical range and holding to form a structure called
austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range.
Ferritic steels contain no carbon; hence they do not respond to heat treatment. They contain a substantial amount of chromium and may
have a small amount of aluminum. They are always magnetic.
Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloys that harden intensely if they are allowed to cool rapidly from high temperatu res. They differ
from the two preceding groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment. The most widely used stainless steels for general use are
those in the 300 series, called 18-8 because they contain approximately 18 % chromium and 8 % nickel. Typical of these types are 301, 302,
321, and 347.
Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages that must be faced by the fabricator and designer.
(1) Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many materials.
(2) Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than of steels, and they conduct heat at a lower rate this makes welding more
difficult
(3) Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high temperatures.
In the use of corrosion-resistant steels for aircraft, the technician must assure that the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft
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involved. In most cases a damaged part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified by the part number, however, there are situations
where it is preferable to repair a part by patching or welding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) must be
chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes less deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it
prevents oxidization. The expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than twice that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cut, form, shear, machine, or drill than is ordinary steel. For this reason the
technician who is to work with this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or must be directed by an
experienced technician.
TESTING MATERIAL
As previously state thatthe material must possess the strength required by the demands of dimensions, weight, that metals may be required
to withstand loads of tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion.
Compression Test
Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile testing,
but the test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder. The Load/Deflection graph in the
elastic phase for ductile materials is similar to that in the tensile test. The value of 'E' is
the same in compression as it is in tension. Compression testing is seldom used as an
acceptance test for metallic or plastic materials (except for cast iron). Compression
testing is generally restricted to building materials and research into the properties of
new materials.
Figure 1.11 Compression The compression test (figure 1.11) is simply the opposite of the tension test with respect
to the direction of loading. In compression testing the sample is squeezed while the load and the displacement are recorded. Compression
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tests result in mechanical properties that include the compressive yield stress, compressive ultimate stress, and compressive modulus of
elasticity.
Compressive yield stress is measured in a manner identical to that done for tensile yield strength. When testing metals, it is defined as the
stress corresponding to 0.002 in./in. plastic strain. For plastics, the compressive yield stress is measured at the point of permanent yield on
the stress-strain curve. Moduli are generally greater in compression for most of the commonly used structural materials.
Ultimate compressive strength is the stress required to rupture a specimen. This value is much harder to determine for a compression test
than it is for a tensile test since many material do not exhibit rapid fracture in compression. Materials such as most plastics that do not
rupture can have their results reported as the compressive strength at a specific deformation such as 1%, 5%, or 10% of the sample's original
height.
For some materials, such as concrete, the compressive strength is the most important material property that engineers use when designing
and building a structure. Compressive strength is also commonly used to determine whether a concrete mixture meets the requirements of
the job specifications.
Shear Properties
A shearing stress acts parallel to the stress plane, whereas a tensile or compressive stress acts normal to the stress plane. Shear properties
are primarily used in the design of mechanically fastened components, webs, and torsion members, and other components subject to
parallel, opposing loads.
Shear properties are dependent on the type of shear test and there is a variety of different standard shear tests that can be performed
including the single-shear test, double-shear test, blanking-shear test, torsion-shear test and others. The shear modulus of elasticity is
considered a basic shear property. Other properties, such as the proportional limit stress and shear ultimate stress, cannot be treated as
basic shear properties because of “form factor” effects.
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Hardness Test
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. The term can apply to deformation from indentation, scratching, cutting or
bending. In metals, ceramics and most polymers, the deformation considered is plastic deformation of the surface. For elastomers and some
polymers, hardness is defined at the resistance to elastic deformation of the surface. The lack of a fundamental definition indicates that
hardness is not be a basic property of a material, but rather a composite one with contributions from the yield strength, work hardening,
true tensile strength, modulus, and others factors. Hardness measurements are widely used for the quality control of materials because they
are quick and considered to be nondestructive tests when the marks or indentations produced by the test are in low stress areas.
Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also carried out to check case hardening and hardening
and tempering at the various stages of manufacture.
There are a large variety of methods used for determining the hardness of a substance.
The Brinell Test
The Brinell test uses a desktop machine to applying a specified load to a hardened sphere of a specified diameter. The Brinell hardness
number, or simply the Brinell number, is obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the measured surface area of the indentation,
in square millimeters, left on the test surface. The Brinell test is frequently used to determine the hardness metal forgings and castings that
have a large grain structures. The Brinell test provides a measurement over a fairly large area that is less affected by the course grain
structure of these materials than are Rockwell or Vickers tests.
A wide range of materials can be tested using a Brinell test simply by varying the test load and indenter ball size. In the USA, Brinell testing is
typically done on iron and steel castings using a 3,000Kg test force and a 10mm diameter ball. A 1,500 kilogram load is usually used for
aluminum castings. Copper, brass and thin stock are frequently tested using a 500Kg test force and a 10 or 5mm ball. In Europe Brinell
testing is done using a much wider range of forces and ball sizes and it is common to perform Brinell tests on small parts using a 1mm
carbide ball and a test force as low as 1kg. These low load tests are commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests. The test conditions should be
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reported along with the Brinell hardness number. A value reported as "60 HB 10/1,500/30" means that a Brinell Hardness of 60 was obtained
using a 10mm diameter ball with a 1,500 kilogram load applied for 30 seconds.
In this test a hardened steel ball is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of a suitable standard load. The diameter of the
impression is then measured using a calibrated microscope the Brinell Hardness Number (H) is found from:
HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D² - Di²)½))
Where
F - applied load, kg
D – indenter diameter, mm
Di – indentation diameter, mm.
The Brinell test was devised by a Swedish researcher at the beginning of the 20th century. The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball
indentor into the surface of the sample using a standard load as shown in figure 1.12. The diameter/load ratio is selected to provide an
impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may be 10,5 or 1mm in diameter; the load may be 3,000, 750 or 30 kgf. The load, P, is related
to the diameter, D by the relationship P/D and this ratio has been standardized for different metals in order that test results are accurate and
reproducible. For steel the ratio is 30: 1 - for example a 10mm ball can be used with a 3,000kgf load or a 1 mm ball with a 30kgf load. For
aluminium alloys the ratio is 5:1.
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Figure 1.12 The Brinell Hardness Test
A hardened spherical ball, which is forced into the surface of the metal. This ball is 10 millimeters (0.3937 inch) in diameter. A pressure of
3,000 kilograms is used for ferrous metals and 500 kilograms for nonferrous metals. The pressure must be maintained at least 10 seconds for
ferrous metals and at least 30 seconds for nonferrous metals. The load is applied by hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic pressure is built up by
a hand pump or an electric motor, depending on the model of tester. A pressure gauge indicates the amount of pressure. There is a release
mechanism for relieving the pressure after the test has been made, and a calibrated microscope is provided for measuring the diameter of
the impression in millimeters. The machine has various shaped anvils for supporting the specimen and an elevating screw for bringing the
specimen in contact with the ball penetrator. These are attachments for special tests.To determine the Brinell hardness number for a metal,
measure the diameter of the impression, using the calibrated microscope furnished with the tester. Then convert the measurement into the
Brinell hardness number on the conversion table furnished with the tester.
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The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test (figure 1.13.) is similar to the Brinell in that an impression is made by applying a load to an indenter. The hardness
number is then obtained from measurement of the impression. The indenter is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the
measurement is made across the diagonal of the impression.
Figure 1.13 The Vickers Pyramid Identer
As illustrated two diagonals, d1 and d2, are measured, averaged and the surface area calculated then divided into the load applied. As with
the Brinell test the diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables. The hardness may be reported as
Vickers Hardness number (VHN), Diamond Pyramid Number (DPN) or, most commonly, Hv xx where 'xx' represents the load used during the
test.
As mentioned earlier, the Vickers indentation is smaller than the Brinell impression and thus far smaller areas can be tested, making it
possible to carry out a survey across a welded joint, including individual runs and the heat affected zones. The small impression also means
that the surface must be flat and perpendicular to the indentor and should have a better than 300 grit finish.
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The width of the slip is adjusted so that its edges line up with the corners of the impression. The diagonal length of the impression is then
obtained from a digital counter geared to the movement of the slip. The reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN) by
reference to tables. The higher the number, the harder the material.
The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid.
The impression, produced by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell indenter, therefore this method is more accurate.
The load, varying from 1kgf to 120 kgf, is usually applied for 30 seconds
The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula:
HV = 1.854*F/ D²
Where
F -applied load, kg
D – length of the impression diagonal, mm
The length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a microscope, which is usually an integral part of the Vickers Tester.
The Rockwell Test
The Rockwell Test (figure 1.14) was developed in the U.S.A. It is used mainly for the rapid routine testing of finished materials, the hardness
number being indicated directly on a dial, no measurement of the diameter of the impression is required.
In the Rockwell test the depth of the indenter penetration into the specimen surface is measured. The indenter may be either a hardened
steel ball with diameter 1/16”, 1/8” or a spherical diamond cone of 120º angle (Brale).
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Loading procedure starts from applying a minor load of 10 kgf (3kgf in Rockwell Superficial Test) and then the indicator, measuring the
penetration depth, is set to zero. After that the major load (60, 100 or 150 kgf) is applied. The penetration depth is measured after removal of
the major load.
Hardness is measured in different scales (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K) and in numbers, having no units (in contrast to Brinell and Vickers methods).
Figure 1.14 Rockwell Hardness Test
Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and soft steels are tested with 1/16” diameter steel ball at 100 kgf load (Rockwell hardness scale B).
Harder alloys and hard cast iron are tested with the diamond cone at 150 kgf (Rockwell hardness scale C).
An example of Rockwell test result: 53 HRC. It means 53 units, measured in the scale C by the method HR (Hardness Rockwell)
There are two types of Rockwell tests:
 Rockwell : the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf.
 Superficial Rockwell : the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested.
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Principal of the Rockwell Test:
1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface

2. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established
3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference position as a result of the application of the major
load.
Rockwell Scales
There are several scales associated with the Rockwell test. The 'B' and 'C' scales are most common. The `C' scale is used for harder materials
and uses a 150 kg load. The 'B' scale is used on softer materials and uses a 100 kg load. Scale units are identical but the 'C' scale zero
coincides with the `B' scale 30.
Rockwell Superficial Testis applied for thin strips, coatings, carburized surfaces.
Reduced loads (15 kgf, 30 kgf, and 30 kgf) as a major load and deduced preload (3kgf) are used in the superficial test.
Depending on the indenter, two scales of Rockwell Superficial method may be used: T (1/16” steel ball) or N (diamond cone).
62 R30T means 62 units, measured in the scale 30T (30 kgf, 1/16” steel ball indenter) by the Rockwell Superficial method (R).
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Hardness Comparisons
Material BHN HV Rockwell
Aluminium Alloy 100 100 B 57
Mild steel 130 130 B 73
Cutting Tools 650 697 C 60
Instead of measuring the diameter of the impression, the Rockwell tester measures the depth, and the hardness is indicated directly on a
dial attached to the machine. The dial numbers in the outer circle are black, and the inner numbers are red. Rockwell hardness numbers are
based on the difference between the depth of penetration at major and minor loads. The greater this difference, the lower the hardness
number and the softer the material.
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Two types of penetrators are used with the Rockwell tester: a diamond cone and a hardened steel ball. The load which forces the penetrator
into the metal is called the major load and is measured in kilograms. The results of each penetrator and load combination are reported on
separate scales, designated by letters. The penetrator, the major load, and the scale vary with the kind of metal being tested.
For hardened steels, the diamond penetrator is used; the major load is 150 kilograms; and the hardness is read on the “C” scale. When this
reading is recorded, the letter “C” must precede the number indicated by the pointer. The C-scale setup is used for testing metals ranging in
hardness from C-20 to the hardest steel (usually about C-70). If the metal is softer than C-20, the B-scale setup is used. With this setup, the
1⁄16-inch ball is used as a penetrator; the major load is 100 kilograms; and the hardness is read on the B-scale.
In addition to the “C” and “B” scales, there are other setups for special testing. The scales, penetrators, major loads, and dial numbers to be
read are listed. The Rockwell tester is equipped with a weight pan, and two weights are supplied with the machine. One weight is marked in
red. The other weight is marked in black. With no weight in the weight pan, the machine applies a major load of 60 kilograms. If the scale
setup calls for a 100 kilogram load, the red weight is placed in the pan. For a 150 kilogram load, the black weight is added to the red weight.
The black weight is always used with the red weight; it is never used alone.
Practically all testing is done with either the B-scale setup or the C-scale setup. For these scales, the colors may be used as a guide in
selecting the weight (or weights) and in reading the dial. For the B-scale test, use the red weight and read the red numbers. For a C-scale
test, add the black weight to the red weight and read the black numbers.
In setting up the Rockwell machine, use the diamond penetrator for testing materials known to be hard. If the hardness is unknown, try the
diamond, since the steel ball may be deformed if used for testing hard materials. If the metal tests below C-22, then change to the steel ball.
Use the steel ball for all soft materials, those testing less than B-100. Should an overlap occur at the top of the B-scale and the bottom of the
C-scale, use the C-scale setup.
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Scale Symbol Penetrator Major Load (kg) Dial Color/Number
A Diamond 60 Black
B 1/16 inch 100 Red
C Diamond 150 Black
D Diamond 100 Black
E 1/8 inch 100 Red
F 1/16 inch 60 Red
G 1/16 inch 150 Red
H 1/8 inch 60 Red
K 1/8 inch 150 Red
Before the major load is applied, securely lock the test specimen in place to prevent slipping and to seat the anvil and penetrator properly.
To do this, apply a load of 10 kilograms before the lever is tripped. This preliminary load is called the minor load. The minor load is 10
kilograms regardless of the scale setup.
The metal to be tested in the Rockwell tester must be ground smooth on two opposite sides and be free of scratches and foreign matter.
The surface should be perpendicular to the axis of penetration, and the two opposite ground surfaces should be parallel. If the specimen is
tapered, the amount of error will depend on the taper. A curved surface will also cause a slight error in the hardness test. The amount of
error depends on the curvature; i.e., the smaller the radius of curvature, the greater the error. To eliminate such error, a small flatshould be
ground on the curved surface if possible.
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Clad aluminum alloy sheets cannot be tested directly with any accuracy with a Rockwell hardness tester. If the hardness value of the base
metal is desired, the pure aluminum coating must be removed from the area to be checked prior to testing.
Impact Testing
Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability to resist mechanical shock, to ensure that
temper brittleness has not been introduced during heat treatments.
Impact testing reveals how tough a material is. Toughness can be defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy without breaking.
High molecular weight favors high toughness. Crystallinity gives higher strength, yet lower toughness; unless the material can transfer the
energy through its intermolecular structure. For example, nylon is crystalline and is tough due to the molecular strength of its backbone.
Toughness is often considered to be the most critical mechanical property of thermoplastics, because it relates to the service life of the part
and influences product safety and liability. Due to this importance, we must understand the tests involved in determining toughness.
Impact testing is commonly done with pendulum impact tests. The two most common pendulum impact tests are Charpy and Izod. In both
methods the tested piece is notched. The intention of the notch is to approximate end use conditions; the notch serves as a stress
concentrator. These tests give a value for toughness, yet their respective values are not directly comparable. This is due to the differences in
how they are tested.
Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel - to
fracture and fail. The more energy that is required then the tougher the material.
The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the toughness of the test piece under slow loading
conditions. However, in the context of an impact test we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to brittle or fast
fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions.
There are two types (figure 1.15) of machine used for testing aircraft materials, both of which use a pendulum weight to fracture the
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specimen. The energy absorbed by the specimen is measured from the angle through which the pendulum swings after causing the
fracture. The IZOD testis required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be tested at high or low
temperatures the CHARPY test is used.
The test is carried out within the 6 seconds of removal of the test piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are available which carry
out both the Izod and Charpy tests. The two tests use different specimens and methods of holding the specimens, but both tests make use
of a pendulum-testing machine. For both tests, the specimen is broken by a single overload event due to the impact of the pendulum. A
stop pointer is used to record how far the pendulum swings back up after fracturing the specimen. The impact toughness of a metal is
determined by measuring the energy absorbed in the fracture of the specimen. This is simply obtained by noting the height at which the
pendulum is released and the height to which the pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen. The height of the pendulum times the
weight of the pendulum produces the potential energy and the difference in potential energy of the pendulum at the start and the end of
the test is equal to the absorbed energy.
Izod impact testing (Fig. B) was initially developed by a metallurgist (whom the test is named after) for testing metals used for cutting tools;
subsequently it was adopted for use by the plastics industry for testing plastics. The piece to be tested is held vertically and the impact
contacts the piece on the notched side in a cantilever beam fashion. The un-notched Izod test occurs with the sample simply turned around
so the notch is opposite the impact side. The test is then labeled "un-notched".
Charpy impact testing (Fig. A) also utilizes a pendulum to impact the piece. Yet, the orientation of the piece is horizontal and the impact is
opposite the notch side. This test simulates a high speed flexural test (three point bend) of the material. Charpy impact is particularly
valuable in measuring the effect of micro cracking, flow and weld lines on the parts toughness.
To carry out the test the standard specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the notch by a
pendulum as shown. The specimen is fractured and the pendulum swings through, the height of the swing being a measure of the amount
of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Conventionally three specimens are tested at any one temperature, and the results
averaged.
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A characteristic of carbon and low alloy steels is that they exhibit a change in fracture behavior as the temperature falls with the failure
mode changing from ductile to brittle. If impact testing is carried out over a range of temperatures the results of energy absorbed versus
temperature can be plotted to give the 'S' curve illustrated.
What the curve shows is that a ductile fracture absorbs a greater amount of energy than a brittle fracture in the same material. Knowing the
temperature at which the fracture behavior changes is therefore of crucial importance when the service temperature of a structure is
considered - ideally in service a structure should operate at upper shelf temperatures.
The shape of the S curve and the positions of the upper and lower shelves are all affected by composition, heat treatment condition,
whether or not the steel has been welded, welding heat input, welding consumable and a number of additional factors. All the factors must
be controlled if good notch toughness is required. This means that close control of the welding parameters is essential if impact testing is a
specification requirement. Austenitic stainless steels, nickel and aluminium alloys do not show this change in fracture behavior, the fracture
remaining ductile even to very low temperatures. This is one reason why these types of alloys are used in cryogenic applications.
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Figure 1.15 Charpy / Izod Testing
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Creep
Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of materials subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation
is plastic and occurs even though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the material.
At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in Kelvin), the creep rate is very low, but, at higher temperatures, it
becomes more rapid. For this reason, creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature phenomenon, associated with super-heated
steam plant and gas turbine technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will creep significantly at, or a little above,
ambient temperatures and some aircraft materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions. Creep is a time-dependent
deformation of a material while under an applied load that is below its yield strength. It is most often occurs at elevated t emperature, but
some materials creep at room temperature. Creep terminates in rupture if steps are not taken to bring to a halt.
Creep data for general design use are

usually obtained under conditions of
constant uniaxial loading and
constant temperature. Results of tests
are usually plotted as strain versus
time up to rupture. As indicated in the
image, creep often takes place in
three stages. In the initial stage, strain
occurs at a relatively rapid rate but
the rate gradually decreases until it
Figure 1.16 Stages of Creep
becomes approximately constant
during the second stage. This constant creep rate is called the minimum creep rate or steady-state creep rate since it is the slowest creep
rate during the test. In the third stage, the strain rate increases until failure occurs.
Creep in service is usually affected by changing conditions of loading and temperature and the number of possible stress-temperature-time
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combinations is infinite. While most materials are subject to creep, the creep mechanism is often different between metals, plastics, rubber,
and concrete.
Creep is defined as the time-dependent strain that occurs under load at elevated temperature and operates in most applications of heat-
resistant high-alloy castings at normal service temperatures. In time, creep may lead to excessive deformation and even fracture at stresses
considerably below those determined in room temperature and elevated-temperature short-term tension tests.
When the rate or degree of deformation is the limiting factor, the design stress is based on the minimum creep rate and design life after
allowing for initial transient creep. The stress that produces a specified minimum creep rate of an alloy or a specified amount of creep
deformation in a given time (for example, 1% of total 100,000 h) is referred to as the limiting creep strength, or limiting stress.
Stress rupture testing is a valuable adjunct to creep testing and is used to select the section sizes necessary to prevent creep rupture of a
component. It should be noted that the long-term creep and stress-rupture values (For example, 100,000 h) are often extrapolated from
short-term tests. Whether these property values are extrapolated or determined directly, both methods will often provide accurate
information on the operating life of high-temperature parts.
The actual material behavior is often difficult to predict accurately because of the complexity of the service stresses, vari ation in application
relative to the idealized conditions, uni-axial loading conditions in the standard tests, and also because of the attenuating factors such as
cyclic loading, temperature fluctuations, and metal loss from corrosion. The designer and the metallurgist should therefore be prepared to
anticipate the synergistic effect of these variables.
During creep testing, the tensile specimen is subjected to either a constant load or stress at a constant temperature. Most creep tests
conducted at constant load are concerned with concerned with information relating to specific engineering applications, whereas creep
tests at constant stress are necessary for the specific understanding of the mechanism of creep. During the creep test, strain (change in
length) is measured as a function of elapsed time. Creep test data is presented as a plot between time and strain known as creep curve. The
slope of the creep curve is designated as creep rate dt/dε.
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The curve may show the instantaneous elastic and plastic strain that occurs as the load is applied, followed by the plastic strain which occurs
over time. Three stages to the creep curve may be identified:
Creep in Metals when a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic deformation. This is then followed by plastic
strain, which occurs in three stages (figure 1.16):
 Primary Creep - begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time as strain-hardening sets in.
(in which the creep resistance increases with strain leading to a decreasing creep strain rate)
 Secondary Creep - the rate of strain is fairly uniform and at its lowest value.
(in which there is a balance between work hardening and recovery processes, leading to a minimum constant
creep rate.)
 Tertiary Creep - the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally leading to rupture. This final stage coincides with gross necking of the
component, prior to failure. The rate of creep is at a maximum in this phase(in which there is an accelerating creep
rate due to the accumulating damage, which leads to creep rupture, and which may only be seen at high
temperatures and stresses and in constant load machines.)
The first requirement would be typical of that for gas turbine blades, while the second standard would be most typically seen in applications
such as those for steam turbines.
Secondary creep, which occurs as a linear function of time, is heavily dependent on temperature and stress. Since creep is a thermally
activated process, the minimum secondary creep rate can be described by a fundamental Arrhenius equation of the form:
ε= dε/dt = Kσn exp(- Q/RT); for T=const, dε/dt = Kσn
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Where:
T - Temperature [K];
T - Time to rupture, [h]
K - Creep constant
n - Creep exponent (varying from metal to metal n=3÷8; most common value is n=5; determined experimentally determined by plotting
the strain rate as a
Function of stress)
σ - Applied stress/nominal stress
Q - Activation energy for creep
R - Gas constant (8,314 J/mol K)
The critical temperature for creep is 40% of the melting temperature in Kelvin:
If T>0.40Tm then creep is likely.
For metallic materials most creep tests are conducted in uni-axial tensile mode. However, uni-axial compression tests are also used for
brittle materials to avoid stress amplification and corresponding crack propagation. For most materials creep properties are independent of
loading direction.
The minimum creep rate is the most important design parameter derived from the creep curve. This particular engineering design
parameter is primarily considered for long-life applications, e.g. nuclear power plant components. Conversely, for short-life components
(e.g. turbine blades, rocket motor nozzles), time to rupture or rupture lifetime is the dominant factor in design. Minimum creep rate is
attained using the stress rupture test which tests the material to the point of failure. This is basically similar to a creep test except that the
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test is always carried out at higher loads. In a creep test total strain is often less than 0.5%, while in stress-rupture tests it is normally around
50%.
Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep
Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very low stress, primary creep may occur, but this falls to a
negligible value in the secondary stage, due to strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or temperature, however, the rate of
secondary creep will increase and lead to tertiary creep and inevitable failure.
It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable information for the design of structures, which must carry
static loads over long periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data determined from long- time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours);
are therefore essential. Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep tests are sometimes used as
acceptance tests.
The Effect of Grain Size on Creep
Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain boundaries, creep resistance is improved by increased
grain size, due to the reduced grain boundary region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that some modern, high-performance
turbine blades are being made from directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved single-crystal) castings.
Creep in Plastics
Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical, behavior to that described for metals. Since most plastics possess
lower thermal properties than metals, the choice of plastic for important applications, particularly at elevated temperature, must take creep
considerations into account.
Fatigue
An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 % of failures of engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences
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of modern engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in
many instances, has made the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, static strength properties.
Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude, could cause failure in components, which were capable of
safely carrying much greater, steady loads. This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing failure was likened to a progressive
weakening of the material, over a period of time and hence the attribution of the term 'fatigue'. Very few constructional members are
immune from it, and especially those operating in a dynamic environment.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which aircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional
high peaks, due to gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service behavior, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must
be tested in conditions as close as possible to those existing in service.
Fatigue cracking is one of the primary damage mechanisms of structural components. Fatigue cracking results from cyclic stresses that are
below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material. The name “fatigue” is based on the concept that a material
becomes “tired” and fails at a stress level below the nominal strength of the material. The facts that the original bulk design strengths are
not exceeded and the only warning sign of an impending fracture is an often hard to see crack, makes fatigue damage especially
dangerous. Fatigueis a type of failure of a material, occurring under alternating loads. Most of the failures of machine details are caused by
fatigue
The fatigue life of a component can be expressed as the number of loading cycles required to initiate a fatigue crack and to propagate the
crack to critical size. Therefore, it can be said that fatigue failure occurs in three stages – crack initiation; slow, stable crack growth; and rapid
fracture. There are many mechanisms that can lead to failure but fatigue is perhaps one of the most insidious since it can lead to a
catastrophic failure with little or no warning. Fatigue life is the number of cycling stresses, causing failure of the material. Frequency of
these stresses is not important.
Failure can occur at a fluctuating load well below the yield point of the metal and below the allowable static design stress. The number of
cycles at which failure occurs may vary from a couple of hundreds to millions. There will be little or no deformation at failure and the
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fracture has a characteristic surface.
Fatigue limit is the maximum value of repeatedly applied stress that the material can withstand after an infinite number of cycles (10-20
mln. Cycles in practice).Fatigue limit of a material is much lower, than its ultimate tensile strength.
Fatigue strength at N cycles is the load, producing the material fracture after N cycling applications of the load.
The rotating specimen in form of a cantilever is driven by an electric motor (figure 1.17). The specimen is loaded by the force F, applied to
the ball bearing, mounted on the end of the specimen. Since the force direction does not change, the direction of the stress applied to the
specimen will be reversed each 180º of the shaft rotation. This scheme provides cycling loading of the specimen, presented in the
equivalent scheme.
There are two stages in the process of fatigue cracking - a period of time during which a fatigue crack is nucleated (dislocations accumulate
near surface stress concentration) and a second stage where the crack grows incrementally leaving the ripples described above (some of the
tiny micro-cracks join together and begin to propagate through the material in a direction that is perpendicular to the maximum tensile
stress). In an un-welded component the bulk of the life is spent in initiating a fatigue crack with a shorter period spent in crack propagation.
S-N Curves
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between the amount
of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the material.
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material, it can be seen that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress
cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the
material will endure an infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level.
This limiting stress is called the `Fatigue Limit' and, for steels, the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the
static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.)
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Figure 1.17 Typical S – N Curve
Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit as such and it can be
seen that these materials will fail if subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at very small stresses. When materials have
no fatigue limit an endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles is quoted instead.
It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service at the
appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this philosophy.
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Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case with metals, the number of stress cycles, required to produce a
fatigue failure, will increase as the maximum stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is, however, generally no fatigue limit for these
materials and some form of endurance limit must be applied.
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a high- cycle fatigue mode, a mere 10% improvement in fatigue
strength can result in a 100-times life improvement.
To find the fatigue limit the fatigue test is repeated at different loads.The tests results are presented in form of S-N curve (stress vs. number
of cycles). Fatigue fracture is characterized by presence of two different types of the surface.
One part is smooth and discolored with ripple-like marks, indicating slow crack growth from the center of the crack formation. Another part
of the surface has coarse crystalline appearance resulted from the final catastrophic crack propagation.
The following factors affect fatigue fracture:
 Surface factor
Fatigue cracks form and initiate on the specimen surface therefore hardened and smooth surface (without stress concentrations - notch,
flaw) will increase the fatigue limit.
 Compressive stress
Compressive stresses, produced in the specimen surface by Shot penning, cold work or heat treatment result in considerable increase of
fatigue limit.
 Micro-structure defects
Non-metallic inclusions and other micro-defects may initiate formation of fatigue cracks.
 Environmental factor
Fatigue in the presence of corrosive environment (Corrosion fatigue) occurs at lower cycling stresses and after lower number of cycles.
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Fatigue Failure
As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known (or can be ascertained), it would seem reasonable to suppose that fatigue
failure, due to lack of suitable allowances in design, should not occur.
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the most sophisticated engineering product does not possess immunity from
this mode of failure. Such failures are often due to unforeseen factors in design, environmental or operating conditions, material, and
manufacturing processes.
Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are:
 An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or without an applied steady stress).
 A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.
The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as experienced in aircraft cabin pressurization, during each take-
off (e.g. daily), or they may have a relatively short time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic buffeting/vibration of a wing
panel. The former example would be considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-cycle fatigue. In practice, the level of the
fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to cause cracking of a given material, are affected by many other variables, such as stress
concentration points (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface finish, material imperfections etc.
Vibration - Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and, because most dynamic structures are subjected
to vibration, this is undoubtedly the most common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natural frequency at which they will freely
vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large, heavy, flexible components vibrate at a low frequency, while small, light, stiff components vibrate
at a high frequency.
Resonant frequencies are undesirable (and in some cases could be disastrous), so it is important to ensure that, over their normal operating
ranges, critical components are not vibrated at their natural frequencies and so avoid creating resonance. The resonant frequency, of a
component, is governed by its mass and stiffness and, on certain critical parts, it is often necessary to do full-scale fatigue tests to confirm
adequate fatigue life before putting the product into service.
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Fatigue Metallurgy
Under the action of fatigue stresses, minute, local, plastic deformation on an atomic scale, takes place along slip planes within the material
grains. If the fatigue stresses are continued, then micro cracks are formed within the grains, in the area of the highest local stress, (usually at
or near the surface of the material). The micro cracks join together and propagate across the grain boundaries but not along them.
A fatigue fracture generally develops in three stages (figure 1.18):
• Initiation
• Propagation (crack growth)
• Ultimate (rapid) fracture.
Figure 1.18 Fatique Crack Propagation
The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of:
 An area, on which a series of curved, parallel, relatively smooth ridges are present and are center around the starting point of the
crack. These ridges are sometimes called conchoidal lines or 'beach marks' or 'arrest lines'.
 A rougher, typically crystalline section, which is the final rapid fracture when the cross-section is no longer capable of carrying its
normal, steady load.
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The arrest lines are, normally, formed when the loading is changed, or the loading is intermittent. However, in addition to these
characteristic and informative marks, there are similar, but much finer lines (called 'striations'), which literally show the position of the crack
front after each cycle. These striations are obviously of great importance to metallurgists and failure investigators when attempting to
estimate the crack initiation and/or propagation life. The striations are often so fine and indistinct that electron beam microscopes are
required to count them.
In normal circumstances, a great deal of energy is required to 'weaken' the material sufficiently to initiate a fatigue crack, and it is not
surprising, therefore, to find that the nucleation phase takes a relatively long time.
However, once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentration (present at the crack front) is sufficient to cause the crack
to propagate relatively quickly, and gaining in speed as the crack front not only increases in size, but also reduces the component cross-
sectional area.
A point is eventually reached (known as the 'critical crack length') at which the remaining cross-section is sufficiently reduced to cause a
gross overloading situation, and a sudden fracture finally occurs.
It is not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to failure, with the propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%.
This is one of the major reasons for operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in detecting fatigue cracks in components before a
failure occurs.
Fatigue Promoters
As fatigue cracks initiate at locations of highest stress and lowest local strength, the nucleation site will be:
 Dictated largely by geometry and the general stress distribution.

 Located at or near the surface or
 Centered on surface defects/imperfections, such as scratches, pits, inclusions, dislocations and the like.
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Environment
One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the component is operating in a corrosive medium. Steel
(normally), has a well-defined fatigue limit on the S-N curve but, if a fatigue test is conducted in a corrosive environment, not only does the
general fatigue strength drop appreciably, but the curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve (e.g. the fatigue failure stress continues
to fall as the number of cycles increases).
Other environmental effects such as fretting and corrosion pitting, erosion or elevated temperatures will also adversely affect fatigue
strength.
Fatigue Preventers
If a component is prone to fatigue failure in service, then several methods of improvement are available, in the form of:
 Quality : Correct and eliminate any failure-related manufacturing or processing short comings.
 Material : Select a material with a significantly better fatigue strength, or corrosion-resistance or corrosion-protection if
relevant.
 Geometry : a) Increase the size (c.s.a.) to reduce the general stress level or modify the local geometry to reduce the change in
section (large radius).
b) Modify the geometry to change the vibration frequency or introduce a damping feature, to reduce the vibration
amplitudes
c) Improve the surface finish or put a compressive stress in the skin (e.g. shot peen or cold expand).
Cold Expansion (Broaching) - Most fatigue failures occur whilst a material is subject to a tensile, alternating stress. If the most fatigue-
prone areas, such as spar fastener holes, have a compression stress applied, they are significantly more resistant to fatigue failure.
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The fastener hole is initially checked for defects (using, usually, an Eddy Current NDT procedure) and the surface finish is further improved
by reaming (and checked once again).A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole, resulting in a localized area of residual
(compressive) stress which will provide a neutral or, at least, a significantly reduced level of fatigue in the area around the fastener hole.
Do's and Don'ts - Preventing Fatigue Failures
DO
• Be careful not to damage the surface finish of a component by mishandling.

• Use the right tools for assembling press-fit components etc.
• Maintain drawing sizes and tolerances.
• Keep the correct procedures (e.g. don't overheat when welding).
• Avoid contact or near contact of components that might cause fretting when touching.
DON'T
• Leave off protective coverings - plastic end caps etc.

• Score the surface.
• Leave sharp corners or ragged holes.
• Force parts unnecessarily to make them fit.
• Work metal unless it is in the correct heat-treated state.
The fatigue crack growth threshold, defining crack growth as either very slow or nonexistent, has been traditionally determined with
standardized load reduction methodologies. These experimental procedures can induce load history effects that result in crack closure. This
history can affect the crack driving force, i.e. during the unloading process the crack will close first at some point along the wake or blunt at
the crack tip, reducing the effective load at the crack tip. One way to reduce the effects of load history is to propagate a crack under
constant amplitude loading.
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Fatigue Meters
Fatigue meters are used to check overall stress levels on aircraft and to monitor the fatigue history of the aircraft. Fatigue meters also allow a
check to be made on the moment in time when the aircraft exceeds the design limits imposed on it.
Strain Gauges
Strain gauges may be used to monitor stress levels on specific aircraft structures. Strain gauges are thin-foil, electrical, resistor elements,
bonded to the aircraft structure. Their resistance varies proportional to the applied stress loading.
Fatigue Fuses
Fatigue fuses are metallic fuses, which are bonded to the structure and which fail at different fatigue stresses. The electrical current, flowing
through the fuse, will vary and thus, provide an indication of the stress level.
Intelligent Skins Development
Modern developments in aircraft structures will allow the structures to be designed and built with a variety of sensors and systems
embedded into the structure and skin. This would mainly be restricted to structures manufactured from composite materials. One major
benefit of this is to allow the structure to monitor its own loads and fatigue life.
Smart Structures
The generic heading 'Smart Structures' actually covers three areas of development:
• Smart Structures. These are structures, which have sensors, actuators, signal-processing and adaptive control systems built in
• Smart Skins. These have radar and communications antennae embedded in, or beneath, the structural skin
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• Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fiber optic sensors
Smart Structures perceived benefits include:
• Self-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity
• Reduced life cycle costs
• Reduced inspection costs
• Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased knowledge of composite material characteristics
• From a military point of view - an improvement in 'Stealth' characteristics.
A fully monitored and self-diagnostic system could:

• Assess structural integrity.
• Pinpoint structural damage.
• Process flight history.
Composite laminates, containing embedded fiber optic sensors can be used for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), including fatigue
monitoring and flight envelope exceedance monitoring and their advantages include:
• Cover a greater area of structure
• Not prone to electrical interference
• Less vulnerable to damage when embedded in the plies increased knowledge of structural loads aids designers.
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HEAT TREATMENT
This lesson covers the forms and principles of heat treatment in general. Both ferrous and nonferrous heat treatment of metals is covered.
Information given is for training purposes only. When actually performing heat treatment tasks, you must refer to the applicable technical
publications.
Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in the solid state for the purpose of obtaining
certain desirable characteristics. The rate of heating and cooling determines the crystalline structure of the material. In general, ferrous
metals (metals with iron bases) and nonferrous metals, as well as their alloys, respond to some form of heat treatment. Almost all metals
have a critical temperature at which the grain structure changes. Successful heat treatment, therefore, depends largely on knowledge of
these temperatures as well as the time required to produce the desired change.
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Type of steel, properties and uses :

TYPE OF STEEL PROPERTIES WORKED BY USEFUL QUALITIES USES REMERKS
Properties unaffected
Cast Iron (up to Brittle weak, fairly soft Casts easily wears to
Casting and Machine frames by heat lubricating
4.7% and (very hard surface if good surface, resists
cutting only piston rings owing to graphite
impurities) "chilled”) crushing.
carbon
Wrought Iron Ductile,

Ductile, Malleable fairly Easily magnetized Cores of dynamos, Cannot be hardened by
(about 0.02% and Malleable fairly
strong ,soft easily welded lifting chains quenching
fewer) strong, soft
Bolt tubes, rivet,

Mild Steel (low Ductile, less malleable , plates, all part Cannot be hardened by
Easily forged welded
carbon)(up to strong harder and where great quenching: for surface
All methods machined or stamped
0.003% and few more uniform than strength or hardening see “case
to shape
impurities) wrought iron hardness is not hardening”
required
Medium carbon Rather strong and

Shafts, rods, bolts,
Steel (0.3% harder but less ductile All methods Not quits so easily
tubes. Rather
to0.6% and few and malleable than (rarely cast) worked as mild steel
strong parts.
impurities) mild steel
High carbon Strong, less ductile, Forging and Can be made very hard Cutting tools of all See“ Hardening
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Steel (0.6% to hardness and cutting without undue kinds. Tempering”

1.5% and few toughness depend of brittleness
impurities) heat treatment
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Properties and Uses of Common Steels :
METAL PROPERTIES USES
Brittle, weak, casts easily, resists crushing. Good anti-

Machine beds, frames and details. General
Cast Iron(up to 4.5% carbon) friction properties, self-lubricating. Good vibration
castings, bearings.
damping qualities.
Ductile, malleable, fairly strong, soft, easily magnetized, Cores of dynamos, lifting chains, crane
Wrought Iron(0.02% carbon)
easily welded. hooks.
Machines bolts and nuts.

Ductile, less malleable, stronger and harder than wrought General workshop machined components,
Mild Steel(Low carbon)
iron. Easily forged, welded, machined or stamped to shape structural girders forgings, car body
panels.
Leaf springs, wire ropes, hammer heads,

Higher strength than mild steel and responds to heat
Medium Carbon Steel hacksaw frames, cold chisels, wood
treatment to further increase its toughness and hardness
saws, axles, crankshaft forgings
More costly than med. carbon steel. Mainly used where its
Cutting tools, such as files, drills, knives,
High Carbon Steel properties of hardness and toughness after heat treatment
wood chisels, etc. Coil springs.
can be exploited.
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Adding chromium gives greater hardness

for the manufacture of ball bearings.
By adding other metals in sufficient quantity, the Adding nickel gives greater strength and
Alloy Steels
properties of carbon steel can be altered. toughness and resistance to fatigue.
Adding tungsten it retains its hardness at
high temperatures.
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PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
The results that may be obtained by heat treatment depend, to a great extent, on the structure of the metal and the manner in which the
structure changes when the metal is heated and coded. A pure metal cannot be hardened by heat treatment because there is little change
in its structure when heated. On the other hand, most alloys respond to heat treatment because their structures change with heating and
cooling.
An alloy may be in the form of a solid solution, mechanical mixture, or a combination of a solid solution and a mechanical mixture. When an
alloy is in the form of a solid solution, the elements and compounds that form the alloy are absorbed, one into the other, in much the same
way that salt is dissolved in a glass of water. The constituents cannot be identified even under a microscope. When two or more elements or
compounds are mixed, but can be identified by microscopic examination, a mechanical mixture is formed. A mechanical mixture might be
compared to the mixture of sand and gravel in concrete. The sand and gravel are both visible. Just as the sand and gravel are held together
and kept in place by the mixture of cement, the other constituents of an alloy are embedded in the mixture formed by the base metal.
An alloy that is in the form of a mechanical mixture at ordinary temperatures may change to a solid solution when heated. When cooled
back to normal temperature, the alloy may return to its original structure. On the other hand, it may remain a solid solution or form a
combination of a solid solution and mechanical mixture. An alloy that consists of a combination of a solid solution and mechanical mixture
at normal temperatures may change to a solid solution when heated. When cooled, the alloy may remain a solid solution, return to its
original structure, or form a complex solution.
Heat treatment involves a cycle of events. These events are heating, generally done slowly to ensure uniformity; soaking, or holding the
metal at a given temperature for a specified length of time; and cooling, or returning the metal to room temperature, sometimes rapidly,
sometimes slowly. These events are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Heating
Uniform temperature is of primary importance in the heating cycle. If one section of a part is heated more rapidly than another, the resulting
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uneven expansion often causes distortion or cracking of the part. Uniform heating is most nearly obtained by slow heating.
The rate at which a part maybe heated depends on several factors. One important factor is the heat conductivity of the metal. A metal that
conducts heat readily may be heated at a faster rate than one in which heat is not absorbed throughout the part as rapidly. The condition of
the metal also affects the rate at which it may be heated. For example, the heating rate for hardened tools and parts should be slower than
for metals that are not in a stressed condition. Finally, size and cross section have an important influence on the rate of heating. Parts large
in cross section require a slower heating rate than thin sections. This slower heating rate is necessary so that the interior will be heated to
the same temperature as the surface. It is difficult to uniformly heat parts that are uneven in cross section, even though the heating rate is
slow. However, such parts are less apt to be cracked or excessively warped when the heating rate is slow.
Soaking
The object of heat treating is to bring about changes in the

properties of metal. To accomplish this, the metal must be
heated to the temperature at which structural changes take
place within the metal. These changes occur when the
constituents of the metal go into the solution. Once the
metal is heated to the proper temperature, it must be held
at that temperature until the metal is heated throughout
and the changes have time to take place. This holding of
the metal at the proper temperature is called SOAKING.
The length of time at that temperature is called the
SOAKING PERIOD. The soaking period depends on the
chemical analysis of the metal and the mass of the part.
When steel parts are uneven in cross section, the soaking period is determined by the heaviest section.
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In heating steels, the metal is seldom raised from room temperature to the final temperature in one operation. Instead, the steel is slowly
heated to a temperature below the point at which the solid solution begins, and it is then held at that temperature until heat is absorbed
throughout the metal. This process is called PREHEATING. Following the preheating, the steel is quickly heated to the final temperature.
Preheating aids in obtaining uniform temperature throughout the part being heated, and, in this way, reduces distortion and cracking.
When apart is of intricate design, it may have to be preheated at more than one temperature to prevent cracking and excessive warping. As
an example, assume that an intricate part is to be heated to 1,500°F (815°C) for hardening. This part might be slowly heated to 600°F (315°C),
be soaked at this temperature, then be heated slowly to 1,200°F (649°C), and then be soaked at that temperature. Following the second
preheat; the part would be heated quickly to the hardening; temperature. Nonferrous metals are seldom preheated because they usually do
not require it. Furthermore, preheating tends to increase the grain size in these metals.
Cooling
After being heated to the proper temperature, the metal must be returned to room temperature to complete the heat-treating process. The
metal is cooled by placing it in direct contact with a gas, liquid, or solid, or some combination of these. The solid, liquid, or gas used to cool
the metal is called a “cooling medium.”
The rate at which the metal should be cooled depends on both the metal and the properties desired. The rate of cooling also depends on
the medium; therefore, the choice of a cooling medium has an important influence on the properties obtained.
Cooling metals rapidly is called “quenching,” and the oil, water, brine, or other mediums used for rapid cooling is called a “quenching
medium.” Since most metals must be cooled rapidly during the hardening process, quenching is generally associated with hardening.
However, quenching does not always result in an increase in hardness. For example, copper is usually quenched in water during annealing.
Other metals, air-hardened steels for example, may be cooled at a relatively slow rate for hardening.
Some metals are easily cracked or warped during quenching. Other metals may be cooled at a rapid rate with no ill effects. Therefore, the
quenching medium must be chosen to fit the metal. Brine and water cool metals quickly, and should be used only for metals that require a
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rapid rate of cooling. Oil cools at a slower rate and is more suitable for metals that are easily damaged by rapid cooling. Generally, carbon
steels are considered water hardened and alloy steels oil hardened. Nonferrous metals are usually quenched in water.
The various heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling of metals. They differ, however, in the
temperatures to which the metals are heated, the rates at which they are cooled, and, of course, in the final result. The most common forms
of heat treatment for ferrous metals are annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering, and case hardening. Most nonferrous metals can be
annealed but never tempered, normalized, or case hardened. Successful heat-treating requires close control over all factors affecting the
heating and cooling of metals. Such control is possible only when the proper equipment is available, and the equipment is selected to fit
the particular job.
Micro-structure of Steel
The constituents of carbon steel are pure iron (ferrite), and a chemical compound of carbon in iron called iron carbide (cementite). In low
carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite.
With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, with 0.8% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite.
Above 0.8% carbon content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile and not very
strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard and brittle. As the carbon content is increased up
to 0.8% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When the carbon content exceeds 0.8%, increasing cementite content, the steel becomes very
hard and more brittle.
When steel is heated, the following changes will occur to the microstructure:
The temperature at which the change starts (lower critical point) is the same for all steels and is about 723°C. At this temperature, the
pearlite disappears and the ferrite and cementite of which it is composed, dissolves and forms a solid solution known as austenite which is
non-magnetic. The finishing point of the transformation (the upper critical point) varies according to the steel. In steel containing 0.8%
carbon (wholly pearlite) there is only one critical point. The whole transformation takes place at about 723°C. Therefore, steel containing
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lower or higher carbon content than 0.8% must be subjected to increase in temperature (upper critical point) to bring the free ferrite or
cementite into solid solution. When steel is allowed to cool slowly these changes occur in the reverse order.
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The amount of carbon present in steel has a major effect on the mechanical properties. The form in which the carbon is present is also
important.
Slow-Cooled Steels
Carbon can be present in these steels in the following forms:
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 When the carbon is fully dissolved and, consequently, uniformly distributed in a solid solution, the metallurgical structure is called ferrite.
At room temperature only a very small amount of carbon (0.006%) can be contained in solid solution, therefore this ferrite structure is
almost pure iron. It is (not surprisingly) soft, weak and ductile.
 When 1 carbon atom chemically combines with 3 iron atoms the result is called cementite or iron carbide. It is very hard and brittle.
 Cementite can be present either as free cementite or laminated with ferrite (in alternate layers) to produce a metallurgical structure
called pearlite. As pearlite is half cementite and half ferrite, it is not surprising to find that pearlite combines the properties of ferrite and
cementite l.e. whereas ferrite was too soft and weak - and cementite was basically strong but too hard and brittle - pearlite is strong
without being brittle.
The amount of carbon necessary to produce a totally pearlite structure is 0.83% but this material is a little too hard for general structural
use. If the carbon content exceeds this value, the excess carbon forms carbon-rich cementite areas along the grain boundaries, and this is
known as free cementite. Such high-carbon steels as already stated are very hard and strong but very brittle. Mild steel has a metallurgical
structure comprising approximately one third pearlites and two thirds ferrites.
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During heat-treatment carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a steady rise (if “straight) in temperature occurs. However, at
approximately 700°C, there is a reduction in the rate of temperature rise (a 'hesitation'), even though the heating is continued (figure 1.19).
This hesitation starts at 700°C and finishes at up to 200°C higher (depending on the percentage of carbon present) and, eventually, the
temperature rise speeds up and the rate of rise is similar to that which occurred before the hesitation.
The start of the hesitation is known as the `lower critical point' and the end is called the `upper critical point', and the phenomenon of the
temperature response is due to a change in the crystalline structure of the steel in between the two critical points.
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Forms of Heat Treatment of Steel
There are different forms of heating ferrous materials such as

steel. The methods covered in this chapter are hardening,
quenching, and tempering, annealing, normalizing, and case
hardening. Terms such as carburizing, cyaniding, and
nitriding are also discussed.
Heat treatment considerably transforms the grain structure

of steel, and it is while passing through a critical temperature
range that steel acquires hardening power. When a piece of
steel is heated slowly and uniformly beyond a red heat, its
appearance will increase in brightness until a certain
temperature is reached. The color will change slightly,
Figure 1.19 Temperature – Time of steel heat-treatment becoming somewhat darker, which may be taken as an
indication that a transformation is taking place within the metal (pearlite being converted into austenite).When this change of state is
complete, the steel will continue to increase in brightness, and if cooled quickly to prevent the change from reversing, hardness will be
produced. If, instead of being rapidly quenched, the steel is allowed to cool slowly, the metal will again pass through a change of state, and
the cooling rate will be momentarily arrested.
To obtain a condition of maximum hardness, it is necessary to raise the temperature of the steel sufficiently high to cause the change of
state to fully complete itself. This temperature is known as the upper critical point. Steel that has been heated to its upper critical point will
harden completely if rapidly quenched; however, in practice, it is necessary to exceed this temperature by approximately 28° to 56°C (50° to
100°F) to ensure thorough heating of the inside of the piece. If the upper critical temperature is exceeded too much, an unsatisfactory
coarse grain size will be developed in the hardened steel.
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110
If carbon steel is heated to just above its Upper Critical Point the structure is called 'Austenite'. This structure is a solid solution of carbon in
iron (i.e. all the carbon is uniformly distributed throughout the iron). If the steel contains above 0.3% carbon, and it is rapidly cooled (i.e.
quenched) from above the Upper Critical Point it becomes hardened.
The more carbon present, the harder the steel will be after quenching. This rapid cooling causes a change in the metallurgical structure and
is called `Martensite'. Martensite is extremely hard but is not suitable for most engineering purposes due to it being very brittle. For most
applications it is necessary to carry out a further heat-treatment to reduce the brittleness of the steel, and this is called 'tempering'.
To temper hardened carbon steel it is necessary to heat it to a suitable temperature below its Lower Critical Point followed by cooling
(usually quenching).
The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the hardness whilst at the same time greatly increasing the toughness. The actual
tempering temperature used depends on the requirements of strength, hardness and toughness.
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength and hardness, but the toughness will be greater. The maximum tensile
strength of hardened carbon steel is achievable when 0.83% carbon is present. If an even greater amount of carbon is present, the hardness
continues to increase but strength will decrease.
Steel is normally quenched in water or oil. Oil gives a slower quench which reduce the hardness of the part but makes it tougher and
reduces the risk of cracking.
The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on the amount of carbon present but also on very rapid cooling from high
temperature. The cooling rate mainly depends on the cooling medium, the size of tank, and the mass of the object to be cooled.
Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and, in terms of cooling severity; brine is more effective than water,
followed by oil and finally air.
Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase, so brine or water is normally used, whereas oil or air-cooling is used on certain alloy
steels. The rapid cooling rates, involved in the hardening of carbon steel, cause enormous thermal stresses in the component and distortion
is commonplace. Cracking may also occur in some cases.
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To achieve relatively uniform cooling it is sometimes necessary to immerse the object in a specific way because of its shape and mass.
Refining - Prolonged heating at temperatures well above the upper critical point followed by slow cooling (as in case hardening) causes the
grain structure of steel to coarsen. This reduces the toughness and strength of the steel. The refining process has the effect of reducing the
size of the crystalline structure it consists of reheating the steel to between 840°C and 900°C then quenching either water or oil (figure
1.20).Also, by combinations of cooling rates, incubation and quenching, various effects can be achieved. These include turning the
cementite needle shaped (martensite) or into platelets (bainite) or a mixture of the two.
Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material. Or Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical properties
without changing the product shape.
Heat treatment is defined as an operation or combination of heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in the solid state for the purpose of
obtaining desired change in properties. The heat treatment includes:
 Heating the metal to pre-determined temperature (above the critical point – hardening)
 Holding the metal at that temp until the structure becomes uniform throughout the mass (for a considerable period).
 Cooling at pre-determined rate to cause formation of desired change {(quenching (sudden cooling) in water, oil/molten salt
solution)}.
Objectives
 To increase the hardness of metals

 To relieve internal stress
 To improve machinability
 To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, ductility and shock resistance
 To change in grain size
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 To increase resistance to heat and corrosion

 To modify electrical and magnetic properties
 To change in chemical composition of metal surface
 To remove gases
Figure 1.20 Refining of steel grain structure
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Hardening
It consists of heating the steel to a temperature above the critical point (30-50oC); holding it at this temperature for a considerable period;
quenching (sudden cooling) in water, oil/molten salt solution. The heating operation is required form the purpose of transforming the
ferrite and pearlite for hypo eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for hyper eutectoid steels into austenite. A rapid cooling form the
hardened temperature causes austenite to be transformed into martensite which is very hard and brittle.
This is done to develop hardness to resist wear and to improve strength, elasticity, ductility and toughness and to enable it to cut other
metals (to make it suitable for cutting tools).
Tempering
Steel is tempered to relieve internal stresses and to reduce the brittleness which is caused by hardening. It is however very important that
sufficient hardness is retained by the steel. The steel is reheated to a fairly low temperature, then quenched in water or allowed to cool in
air.The temperature depends on the purpose for the tool. The higher the tempering temperature, the less the hardness but the greater the
toughness. Thus the purpose of the tool or article must be considered.
The temperature required may be judged from the temper colours which appear on the bright surface of steel which is heated slowly. Each
colour indicates a temperature.
The steel hardened by rapid quenching is very hard and brittle. It also contains internal stresses, which are severe and unequally distributed
to cause cracks or even rupture of hardened steel. Tempering is a process done subsequent to quench hardening. Quench-hardened parts
are often too brittle. This brittleness is caused by a predominance of martensite. This brittleness is removed by tempering. Tempering results
in a desired combination of hardness, ductility, toughness, strength, and structural stability. It consists of reheating the steel after hardening
to a temperature below the critical point; holding it for a considerable period and slow cooling (4-5 min/ mm). This is done to reduce the
brittleness of the hardened steel and thus to increase ductility to relieve the internal stresses and to make the steel tough to resist shock and
fatigue.
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Annealing
The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
• To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability.
• To relieve internal stresses induced by a previous process (rolling, forging, or unequal cooling).
• To remove coarseness of grain.
Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to just above the Upper Critical Limit followed by very slow cooling. In practice
the slow cooling rates are achieved by cooling in the furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as ashes. The end result is a
stress-free, fully softened material, suitable for major forming operations such as deep pressing, drawing, extruding etc.
The process consists of slow heating the steel slightly above (30-50oC) the critical point for (Pearlite and Ferrite), holding it at this temp for
considerable period (3.4 min/mm length of piece); slow cooling in sand (the rate of cooling from 30oC to 200oC depends upon the
composition of the steel. The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite. The steel becomes soft and ductile.The grain
structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite depending on whether hypo (Pearlite and Ferrite) or hyper eutectoid (Pearlite +
Cementite). The steel becomes soft and ductile.
The purpose of annealing may involve one or more of the following aims:
 To soften the steel and to improve machinability.
 To relieve internal stresses induced by some previous treatment (rolling, forging, uneven cooling).
 To remove coarseness of grain.
 To refine the grain size and structure to improve strength and ductility.
 To alter electrical and magnetic properties.
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Normalizing
It consists of heating the metal to a temperature just above the critical point (40-50oC) above and within the normalizing range, holding it at
this temp for period of 15 min and cooling in still air to room temperature. This process provides a homogeneous structure consisting of
ferrite and pearlite for hypo eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for hyper eutectoid steels. This is done,
 To produce a harder and stronger steel than full annealing
 To refine the grain structure of steel to improve the machinability and tensile strength.
 To modify and refine the grain structure.
 To obtain a relatively good ductility without reducing the hardness and strength
Surface Hardening of Steels
Unlike conventional through-hardening of steel, it is sometimes desirable to retain a relatively tough (relatively less brittle) inner core,
coupled with a very hard surface. This would, typically, be required of a component, which is subjected to high dynamic stresses, yet also
has to resist surface wear and would include:
• Gears (where the teeth need to be hardened)
• Camshafts and crankshafts (bearing surfaces)
• Cylinder barrels of piston engines (or landing gear legs).
Some materials can be `case-hardened' to achieve this aim. Several methods are used, depending on the parent material and the particular
application.
Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal.
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Case Hardening is a process of hardening ferrous alloys so that the surface layer or case is made substantially harder than the interior or
core. The chemical composition of the surface layer is altered during the treatment by the addition of carbon, nitrogen, or both. The surface
hardening processes are:
i. Carburising
ii. Cyaniding
iii. Nitriding
Carburizing
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon steels and, basically, consists of heating the metal to approximately 900°C,
while the component is in contact with a carbon-rich medium followed by a suitable heat-treatment.
Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated steel and the rate of penetration is approximately 1 mm in 5-6 hours. Low-
carbon steels are particularly suited to this type of treatment, as it increases the carbon content and hence the hardness locally.
Carburizing is a process of adding carbon to the surface. It is the process of producing a hard surface on steel. It consists of heating the steel
in the presence of carbonaceous material such as wood, bone, charcoal and energizers for increasing the concentrations of CO to improve
rate of carburizing. Carbon enters the metal to form solid solution with iron and converts the outer surface into a high carbon case. Heating
the composite steel to critical temperature cooling.
Pack carburizing (figure 1.21)
The object is sealed in a container containing a carbon-rich (charcoal based) powder and heated in a furnace. The metal is next quenched in
oil (not water- which would cause the hard case to peel off). The depth of the hard skin depends on the length of time that the metal is
heated.
117
Parts are packed in a high carbon medium such as carbon powder or cast iron shavings and heated in a furnace for 12 to 72 hou rs at 900 ºC.
At this temperature CO gas is produced which is a strong reducing agent. The reduction reaction occurs on the surface of the steel releasing
carbon, which is then diffused into the surface due to the high temperature. When enough carbon is absorbed inside the part (based on
experience and theoretical calculations based on diffusion theory), the parts are removed and can be subject to the normal hardening
methods.
Figure 1.21 Pack Carburizing
Gas carburizing
Gas Carburizing (figure 1.22) is conceptually the same as pack carburizing, except that Carbon Monoxide (CO) gas is supplied to a heated
furnace and the reduction reaction of deposition of carbon takes place on the surface of the part. This processes overcomes most of the
problems of pack carburizing. The temperature diffusion is as good as it can be with a furnace.The only concern is to safely contain the CO
118
gas. A variation of gas carburizing is when alcohol is dripped into the furnace and it volatilizes readily to provide the reducing reaction for
the deposition of the carbon.
The object is placed in a basket in a furnace, through which is passed a suitable, carbon-rich gas (e.g. methane, propane).
Figure 1.22 Gas Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing(figure1.23)
The steel parts are immersed in a molten carbon rich bath. In the past, such baths have cyanide (CN) as the main component. However,
safety concerns have led to non-toxic baths that achieve the same result.
119
The object is heated to a suitable temperature and then immersed in a hot, salt bath at 900°C. The salts are usually based on sodium cyanide
and the process is often called `cyanide hardening'. The metal is quenched in water (not oil-which would react unfavorably with the salts).
Cyaniding
Producing a hard surface on low carbon or medium carbon steel by immersing in a molten
salt bath of cyanide at 800-900 oC and quenching in water or oil. Change in hardness is
gradual, bright finish and distortion is avoided. This case hardening process heats ferrous
materials above the transformation temperature in a molten salt bath containing cyanide.
The absorption of both carbon and nitrogen at the surface also produces a gradient in from
the surface. Subsequent cooling is specified to produce the required hard, wear-resistant
properties.
Figure 1.23 Liquid Carburizing
Nitriding
Nitriding (figure 1.24) is a surface-hardening heat treatment that introduces nitrogen into the surface of steel. The process involves heating
the steel in an atmosphere of ammonia gas at 560oC to 650oC without further heat treatment. Results in extreme hardness. Used in
automotive, and diesel engine wearing parts. Principal reasons for nitriding are:
 To obtain high surface hardness
 To increase wear resistance
 To improve fatigue life
 To improve corrosion resistance (except for stainless steels)
120
 To obtain a surface that is resistant to the softening effect of heat at temperatures up to the nitriding temperature.
In this process, nitrogen is diffused into the surface of the steel being treated. The reaction of nitrogen with the steel causes the formation of
very hard iron and alloy nitrogen compounds. The resulting nitride case is harder than tool steels or carburized steels. The advantage of this
process is that hardness is achieved without the oil, water or air quench. As an added advantage, hardening is accomplished in a nitrogen
atmosphere that prevents scaling and discoloration.
Nitriding temperature is below the lower critical temperature of the

steel and it is set between 496 oC and 566oC. The nitrogen source is
usually Ammonia (NH3). At the nitriding temperature the ammonia
dissociates into Nitrogen and Hydrogen. The nitrogen diffuses into
the steel and hydrogen is exhausted.
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of carbon)

into the surface of the steel. Suitable "Nitralloy" steels are necessary
for this process and they usually contain 1% Aluminium, 1.5%
Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.
A special furnace is used and ammonia gas is circulated through it.

The furnace temperature of 500°C converts the ammonia into a
Figure 1.24 Nitriding nitrogen-rich gas and forms hard iron nitride in the surface of the
steel.
The case depth, achievable by this process, is less than that by pack carburizing, but the major advantage of nitriding is that no hardening or
tempering is necessary to achieve the final hardness, and no finish machining is required after nitriding. This, relatively low-temperature
process results in negligible distortion and is much cleaner than the carbon methods. Aircraft piston engine cylinder barrels are particularly
suitable for nitriding, as are some crankshaft bearing surfaces and the stems of some aero-engine induction and exhaust valves.
121
Nitrided surfaces must be protected against pitting corrosion, usually (as with engine gears and shafts) by keeping the surface oiled.
Note:
If certain surfaces of a component are not to be case-hardened, it is necessary to protect them during the carburizing or nitriding processes,
to locally prevent the hardening agent from being absorbed. Copper plating, nickel plating or a proprietary paste are generally used in such
areas.
Other Surface Hardening Techniques - In addition to case-hardening, there are other methods of producing hard surfaces on metals, such
as by electro-plating, welding, bonding, and metal spraying. All usually involve adding a harder surface metal to the parent material.
Surface hardening
Differs case hardening in that analysis of surface steel is not changed, hardening being by extremely rapid heating and quenching of
wearing surfaces which has no effect on the interior core.
Induction hardening
Rapid heating on medium carbon steel by induced current high frequency and rapid cooling by sprays of water. Used on bearing areas of
crank shaft, cam shaft, axial shaft etc., In this process an electric current flow is induced in the workpiece to produce a heating action.
Every electrical conductor carrying a current has a magnetic field surrounding the conductor. Since the core wire is a dead-end circuit, the
induced current cannot flow anyplace, so the net effect is heating of the wire. The induced current in the core conductor alternates at
frequencies from 60 cycles per second (60 Hz) to millions of Hertz. The resistance to current flow causes very rapid heating of the core
material. Heating occurs from the outside inward. Induction hardening process includes water quench after the heating process. The big
advantage of this system is its speed and ability to confine heating on small parts. The major disadvantage is the cost.
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Flame hardening
Surface hardening process in which heat is applied by a high temperature flame followed by quenching jets of water. It is usually applied to
medium to large size components such as large gears, sprockets, slide ways of machine tools, bearing surfaces of shafts and axles, etc. Steels
most suited have carbon content within the range 0.40-0.55%. Heating the steel with flame of oxyacetylene torch and quenching.
Flame hardening is the process of selective hardening with a combustible gas flame as the source of heat for austenitizing. (The material
should have at least 0.40 % carbon content to allow hardening.) Water quenching is applied as soon as the transformation temperature is
reached. The heating media can be oxygen acetylene, propane, or any other combination of fuel gases that will allow reasonable heating
rates. This procedure is applied to the gear teeth, shear blades, cams, ways on the lathes, etc. Flame hardening temperatures are around 816
o
C.
Flame/Induction Hardening - Unlike carburizing and nitriding, flame and induction hardening U do not add a hardening agent into the
surface of a basically softer material. Instead, they are merely techniques for hardening the surface of material by a 'local heat- treatment'.
Steels suitable for these processes already contain sufficient carbon (or other elements) to attain a high degree of hardness if heated and
quenched.
Only the surface is locally heated (by a flame or electrical induction coil), and the heated surface is then immediately quenched by water
jets. The flame or induction coil is positioned so that it only heats the area required to be hardened.
Diffusion coating
A coating process used to change the surface composition of a metallic material with (1) another metal or alloy employing heat or (2)
exposure to a gaseous or liquid metal to effect diffusion into the basis metal. Impregnating the surface of steel with aluminium. chromium,
silicon, beryllium and other elements. Impart high heat, corrosion and wear resistance. Heating and holding the steel parts in direct contact
123
with one of the above elements. Diffusion coatings provide superior oxidation, corrosion and erosion resistance of the base metal up to
11500 C without spallation. Diffusion coating is a highly reliable, substate enhancing process for critical components.
Precipitation hardening or Age hardening
Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable
materials, including most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some stainless steels. In superalloys, it is known
to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-temperature strength.
Spontaneous increase in hardness at room temperature with lapse in time. Precipitation is the decomposition of a solid solution into two
phases of different composition viz., precipitate and solid solution. Precipitation hardening is caused by precipitation of a constituent from a
super saturated solid solution by heating to some elevated temperature. In order that metals may serve useful purposes they must be
shaped into required forms.
Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede
the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice. Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to
harden the material. The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced composite materials. Just as the
formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon the thermal history of a given portion of the atmosphere,
precipitation in solids can produce many different sizes of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinary tempering,
alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to take place. This time delay is called "aging". Solution
treatment and aging is sometimes abbreviated "STA" in metals specs and certs.
Note that two different heat treatments involving precipitates can alter the strength of a material: solution heat treating and precipitation
heat treating. Solid solution strengthening involves formation of a single-phase solid solution via quenching. Precipitation heat treating
involves the addition of impurity particles to increase a material's strength.
124
A process of aging that increases hardness and strength and usually decreases ductility. Hardening in metals caused by the precipitation of
a constituent from a supersaturated solid solution. Increasing the hardness of an alloy by a relatively low temperature heat treatment that
causes precipitation of components or phases of the alloy from the supersaturated solid solution. Also known as precipitation hardening.
125

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Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual

Module 6 – Materials and Hardware

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

How is aircraft hardware identified for use?

Common Metallic Materials

Common Nonmetallic Materials

Figure 1.1 Reinforce Plastic

AIRCRAFT METALLIC MATERIALS – FERROUS MATERIALS

The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.

The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.

necessary for hot rolled material.

down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc).

i .e. A Stress of 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2

A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0.5m2, is subjected to a load of 10 MN.

(b) 1N/mm2 = 1MN/m2 so stress = 20N/mm2

Extension = 21.15 - 20 = 1.15 mm

This relationship is known as 'Hooke's Law', which states:

properties in the plastic phase.

An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results

(a) Represents a brittle material (e.g. glass)

Figure 1.3 Load/Extension Diagram some of Figure 1.2 Load/Extension

Figure 1.4 Load/Extension graph for Brittle, Elactic and Plastic

Linear-Elastic Region and Elastic Constants

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Measures of Ductility (Elongation and Reduction of Area)

• Reduction in area (at the neck)

The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional

The Tensile Test Machine

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials

Coke releases carbon monoxide when it is burned:

(1) C + O2 -> CO2 and

(2) CO2 + C -> 2 CO.

Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons:

2. Rigidity and strength under compression are good.

4. It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.

5. Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.

The Composition of Cast Iron

Ordinary cast iron contains the following elements:

 Silicon 1.0 to 3.0%

 Manganese 0.5 to 1.0%

 Sulphur up to 0.1% (Induce Brittleness)

 Also Chromium 0.5 - 1.00% for Stainless Steel

The process is far slower than that of Bessemer

The furnace is tapped the same way a blast furnace is

The basic oxygen steel-making process is as follows:

PROPERTIES WORKED BY USEFUL QUALITY USES REMARKS

Bolt tubes, rivet,

Rather strong and

High carbon Steel Strong, less ductile, Can be made very

Types of Steel, their Properties and Uses

METAL PROPERTIES USES

Uses of common steels

Alloying Elements in Steel

Low Carbon Steel

Medium Carbon Steel

High Carbon Steel

Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows:

With varying percentage of nickel, the following effects are produced:

 Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels

 Increases strength and toughness

 Increases hardness and strength

Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys

 Percentage required is very low.