653

Bond graph and finite element analyses of

temperature distribution in a hot rolling
process: a comparative study
S K Pal1, J Talamantes-Silva2, D A Linkens2, and I C Howard2
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
2Institute for Microstructural and Mechanical Process Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

The manuscript was received on 7 April 2006 and was accepted after revision for publication on 22 January 2007.

DOI: 10.1243/09596518JSCE281

Abstract: During the process of hot rolling, a metal is given its final shape by plastically
deforming the original stock. This paper shows how variables, specifically the temperature, at
each point in the deformation zone can be modelled using a multielement bond graph
approach. Low-carbon steel has been considered and the modelling is described for single-
pass hot rolling. Surface and centre temperature distributions are shown, and simulation results
are found to be in good agreement between the two modelling techniques of bond graphs and
finite element analysis.

Keywords: bond graph, finite element analysis, thermal analysis, steel rolling, modelling
and simulation

1 INTRODUCTION mathematical modelling that predicts the micro-

During the process of hot rolling, the final desired
thickness of a material is achieved by plastically
deforming the slab by a series of counter-rotating
rollers. The sheet or slab is drawn by means of
friction through a regulated opening between two
power-driven rolls. The shape and size of the product
are decided by the gap between the rolls and their
contours. Generally, rolling is performed through a
number of passes, using different rolling equipment,
in a continuous manner. In rolling flat slabs, it is
possible to perform the successive stages using the
same pair of rolls. The upper roll is normally adjusted
to control the gap after each pass. In hot rolling,
the lapse of time should be minimized as the metal
continuously cools down [1].
Advances in physical metallurgy and computer
technology are opening a new era of computer-
based metallurgy. This computer metallurgy plays
an important part in technological breakthroughs in
hot strip rolling. The core of this new field is the
* Corresponding author: Automatic Control and Systems
Engineering, Sheffield University, Mapin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD,
UK. email: d.linkens@sheffield.ac.uk
structural evolution and final mechanical properties
from chemical compositions and process conditions
[2]. Several mathematical models have been pro-
posed by many researchers from various countries.
The main research that has greatly contributed to the
promotion of the development of mathematical
models for predicting microstructural evolution and
final mechanical properties is that by Irvine and
Pickering [3] and Sellars and Whiteman [4, 5]. Sellars
proposed the first mathematical model for the pre-
diction of microstructure evolution during multipass
rolling and suggested the usefulness of computer
technology and the wide range of possibilities opened
up by its use. Temperature has a dominating influence
on the microstructure, and thermal analysis during
rolling is thus an important aspect. Hollander [6] first
developed a thermal model for flat rolling using
the finite difference technique. Later, Harding [7]
developed a more detailed analysis that forms the
basis of the finite difference model of SLIMMER [8].
The bond graph (BG) paradigm was introduced
by Paynter in 1961 [9]. Its major features are the
ability to produce mathematical models across multi-
energetic domains in a single unified representation.
Being a formal graphical approach, it lends itself to

JSCE281 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
654 S K Pal, J Talamantes-Silva, D A Linkens, and I C Howard
powerful conceptual visualization incorporating a
hierarchical set of representations from word graphs
to detailed component graphs. Because of its formal
structure and syntax, it can also provide algorithmic
tools for checking model consistencies, such as
algebraic loops, etc. A number of texts on bond
graphs have been produced in recent years, and
the reader is referred to a recently updated book
by Karnopp et al. [10] for background material on
the methodology of BG modelling. While bond
graphs have been used in many application areas,
particularly those comprising different energetic
subsystems, comparatively little work has been done
in utilizing the technique in distributed systems
where finite element (FE) modelling has found wide
applicability. The purpose of this study is to compare
the performance of BG and FE modelling and simu-
lation in a realistic industrial case study for this type
of application.
The present simulation study is based on the
single-pass rolling of low-carbon steel. The space
grid generated by typical finite element software has
been used in the bond graph modelling described
here.
2 THEORETICAL FORMULATION OF A BOND
GRAPH MODEL
In order to facilitate modelling of the thermal
phenomena and flow stress distribution during hot
deformation, the whole space in the direction of
rolling is divided mainly into three subzones: pre-
deformation, deformation, and post-deformation.
Each subzone is also divided into a number of
elements. It is assumed that the hot slab, which is
continuous, is moving through the discretized space.
The thickness of the slab is also divided into a
number of layers, leading to discrete space reticules.
This discretization is performed using finite element
software (MARC). It has been assumed that there is
no temperature gradient across the width of the slab,
and accordingly no discretization is made in this
dimension. In the present problem, deformation is
assumed to take place only in vertical and longi-
tudinal directions. There is no spread in the direction
of the width, so that a plane-strain deformation
situation has been assumed. This plane-strain defor-
mation problem is symmetric in the sense that,
above the centre-line, the thermal condition of
the material is the same as below that line. For
computational reasons, only the upper half of the
material is considered here.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
2.1 Modes of heat flow
Since the material is assumed to move through the
discretized space, transportation of heat takes place
from one space element to another owing to motion
of the slab. The flow of material is assumed through
layers only. As a result, the velocity of the material at
each point within the deformation zone is different
from elsewhere. Therefore, over a control volume
(space reticule) the rate of heat flow due to material
transportation depends on the velocity at each space
reticule. This transportation of heat also depends on
other parameters such as the density and specific
heat of the material, which are assumed to be
constant. Apart from the heat flow due to material
transportation, heat conduction is present across
all the four boundaries of a space reticule. This
conductional heat flow depends on the temperature
difference and thermal resistance between two
consecutive space reticules. There is heat loss from
the surface space reticules to the environment in
the form of convection and radiation in the pre-
deformation and post-deformation zones, and also
heat conduction to the roll in the deformation
zone. Heat generation, because of the material defor-
mation, occurs in all the space-reticules within
the deformation zone. This deformational heat is the
product of the flow stress and the strain rate over
the control volume (space reticule). The flow stress
is also a function of the chemical composition of the
material, the strain, the strain rate, and the existing
temperature. Several empirical relations based on
experimental observations are available. In the pre-
sent work, the empirical relations for the flow stress
calculation for low-carbon steel provided by Beynon
and Sellars [8] are considered. Heat generated by
friction at the roll–slab interface is insignificant for
thin slab rolling [8] and is therefore neglected for the
temperature analysis.
2.1.1 Material transportation
It has been assumed that the flow of material in the
longitudinal direction within the discretized space
is made through the movement of several layers.
Thus, the longitudinal velocities of movement of the
particles of the metal in any given vertical section
within the zone under consideration, in the absence
of spread, are directly related to the distribution of
the vertical deformation, since at any point in any
horizontal layer the mass flowrate is constant,
assuming constant material density. Therefore
v h w =v h w =v h w (1)
x x x 1 1 1 0 0 0
JSCE281 © IMechE 2007
 Bond graph and finite element analyses of temperature distribution 655

The material condition is considered as a plane strain where l is the emissivity, s is the Stefan–Boltzmann
problem constant for radiational heat transfer, and H is
C
the convectional heat transfer coefficient for slab
h
v =v 0 (2) material to air [8]. Typical values are shown in
x 0h
x Table 1.
where h and w are the thickness and width of any
given horizontal layer of an element respectively, 2.2 Thermal pseudobond graph
v is the horizontal velocity of the movement of The main approaches [10–12] to thermal modelling
this layer, and the subscripts 0, 1, and x relate to are of two types: energy (true) and pseudo bond
the front and back ends of the slab and to the section graphs. In the present analysis the pseudo bond graph
x respectively. The longitudinal velocities of the modelling technique is considered as it has several
material at each point within the discretized space advantages for thermal modelling [13–15] such as
can be found from equation (2). This velocity is the following.
needed to calculate the mass flowrate through each
space reticule. 1. Constitutive relationships of the basic thermal
Heat transfer due to material transport from one components are linear in nature.
space reticule to another is 2. Basic thermal processes of heat flow and heat
storage are generally expressed in this form.
Q =ṁc T (3)
1 p In pseudo bond graph modelling for thermal
where ṁ is the mass flowrate, c is the specific heat,
p phenomena, the effort and flow covariables are
and T is the space reticule temperature. temperature and heat-flow rate respectively. The
relations [15] between the flow covariables in energy
2.1.2 Conductional heat to roll and convectional (covariables e and f ) and pseudo (covariables e
heat to air e e p
and f ) bond graphs are as follows
p
As the deformation process progresses, heat from e =e (6a)
the surface space reticules of the slab material will e p
conduct to the roll material. These surface space f =f /e (6b)
e p p
reticules reside in the deformation zone of the Various modes of heat transfer during rolling are
discretized space. According to Beynon and Sellars shown in Fig. 1. The pseudo bond graph model
[8], the amount of this conductional heat is for the space-reticule i, j for heat transfer due to
Q =H (T −T ) (4) conduction and material transportation and heat
2 r S r generation due to deformation has been developed
where T is the temperature of the roll, T is the and is shown in Fig. 2. The 0 junction represents the
r S
surface temperature of the space reticules, and H is temperature of a reticule. Flow in bond 5 is the heat
r
the heat transfer coefficient for conduction from slab flowing into the reticule (i, j) by conduction through
material to roll material. Typical values are given in the interface thermal resistance, R . Flow in bond
Table 1. Convection and radiation take place from i−1,i
6 is the heat flowing out of the same reticule through
the surface space reticules in the predeformation and the interface thermal resistance, R . Bonds 7 and
post-deformation zones. These heat transfer rates are i,i+1
8 give the heat flows into and out of the reticule
expressed as across the layers through the interface resistance
Q = ls(T4 −T4 ) + H (T −T )n (5) R
j−1,j
and R
j,j+1
respectively. SF3 represents the heat
3 S 2 C S 2
agbgc agbgc flow into the reticule (i, j) from the previous reticule
Radiation Convection (i−1, j) owing to material transportation. Similarly,
SF4 represents the heat flowing out of the reticule
Table 1 Typical laboratory rolling conditions used for (i, j) owing to material transportation. SF9 represents
the simulation the flow of the heat generated by deformation of the
material in the space reticule (i, j) during rolling. The
Initial thickness of slab 0.025 m
Final thickness of material 0.0175 m C20 element on the 0 junction stores the heat energy
Slab width 0.03 m in the reticule from which the reticule temperature
Roll radius 0.068 m
Roll rotation 3.56 rad/s (0.242 m/s)
can be obtained. When the reticule is at the surface,
Conductive heat transfer coefficient 25 kW/m K SF elements representing heat loss to the environ-
Convective heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2 K ment or heat conduction to the roll should be
Plate emissivity 0.85
attached to the 0 junction on bond 7 or bond 8 as

JSCE281 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
656 S K Pal, J Talamantes-Silva, D A Linkens, and I C Howard

Fig. 1 Various modes of heat flow

Fig. 2 Thermal pseudo bond graph model of a space reticule

the case may be. The bond graph in Fig. 2 is therefore
a building block and is used to model all reticules
along the entire length under consideration and
across the thickness of the slab. In this way the whole
mesh structure can be generated for several space
elements and layers depending upon the size of the
problem undertaken.
2.3 Calculation of flow stress
For the accurate prediction of roll force in hot rolling,
a precise knowledge of the flow stress distribution
inside the material is very important. Until recently,
average flow stress values have been used to calculate
rolling loads and power requirements during roll-
ing. In recent years, however, considerable effort has
been made in developing constitutive equations
to predict the flow stress of the material at high
temperatures and high strain rates as a function of
process variables such as composition, strain, strain
rate, and temperature. The development of a single
empirical relationship, which can determine the flow
stress as a function of all the above-mentioned pro-
cess variables, has proven to be very difficult owing
to the wide variety of microstructural changes that
can occur during deformation at high temperatures.

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 Bond graph and finite element analyses of temperature distribution 657

Here it has been assumed that the flow of material where the factor C is
in the discretized space occurs through several layers,

C D
and each layer within the deformation zone under- (s −s )/0.10.5e0.5 2
C= 0.1 0 p (15)
goes a change in its size. Therefore, the calculation s −s
sse 0
for the strain and strain rate, and thereby the
flow stress developed, are made separately for each The above constants are determined from plane
discretized space reticule. The relation for the average strain compression tests on low-carbon steel for a
strain and strain rate are used for calculating the temperature range of 500–1100 °C. The product of
stress and strain rate at each point. The strain and this effective flow stress and strain rate within a
strain rate relations are as follows [8]. space reticule gives the value of heat generation due
to deformation for that particular space reticule. This
2 h deformational heat increases the temperature of the
e= ln 0 (7)
√3 h space reticule. The deformational heat is shown as
f
SF9 in Fig. 2.
eV
ė= r (8)
√r(h −h )
0 f
3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
where h and h are the entry and exit thickness of
0 f
the slab respectively, V is the peripheral speed of
r The finite element technique has been used to study
the roll, and r is the roll radius. The velocity of the
a broad range of processes in recent years. In this
material at each space reticule of a layer is calculated
study the technique is used to complement and
from the mass flow condition as mentioned earlier.
validate those results generated by the BG technique
Given the values of strain, strain rate, and tem-
(see section 2) when modelling the hot rolling of
perature at each space reticule, it is now possible to
steel. This section gives a general description of the
calculate the effective flow stress using the following
process and the finite element model developed.
empirical relations.
The temperature-compensated Zener–Hollomon
parameter can be related to the strain rate and is 3.1 Process description
given by [8]
Low-carbon steel at high temperature has been
rolled using an experimental rolling mill in the
A B
Q
Z= ė exp def (9) Department of Engineering Materials at the University
R T
gas of Sheffield. Here, Li [16] carried out a series of
The peak strain for dynamic recrystallization is experiments to cover a range of hot working con-
defined by ditions. The stock was rolled at temperatures that
varied from 900 to 1100 °C. The rolling speed varied
e =6.97×10−4d0.3 Z0.17 (10) from 20 r/min (0.142 m/s) to 35 r/min (0.249 m/s),
p 0
and the largest reduction was 50 per cent. A typical
The starting flow stress at plastic strain zero is
rolling schedule is shown in Table 1.

C D
Z 0.13
s =103.84 sinh−1 (11)
0 4.92×1013 3.2 Model description

The flow stress at strain 0.1 is A finite element model of these experimental rolling
conditions was built using the commercially avail-

C D
Z 0.182 able MARC software, and the results agreed well with
s =89.29 sinh−1 (12)
0.1 2.55×1011 the experimental data. These validated models were
subsequently used in a comparison study of finite
The steady state flow stress without dynamic re- element and neural network modelling of hot metal
crystallization is rolling [17]. The rolling process was simplified using
half-symmetry, as shown in Fig. 3. The model was
C D
Z 0.217
s =103.41 sinh−1 (13) thermomechanically coupled and all the material
sse 1.77×1011
properties were temperature dependent. Both roll
The effective flow stress is given by and stock were modelled using two-dimensional
plane strain elements. A heat transfer coefficient of
s =s +(s −s ){1−exp(−Ce)}0.5 (14) 25 kW/m K was used along the contact zone.
e 0 sse 0

JSCE281 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
658 S K Pal, J Talamantes-Silva, D A Linkens, and I C Howard

the deformed mesh from the finite element simu-

lations were used in the bond graph work (see Fig. 4)
to obtain closer correspondence with the bond graph
simulations. Also, in order to facilitate the bond
graph modelling, a change of system coordinates on
the finite element mesh was performed. This was
to match the three-deformation-zone concept pre-
viously described. Based on Fig. 4, the bond graph
model had 25 elements and eight layers. Therefore,
the total number of system states was 200. In
addition, the number of elements at the deformation
zone was determined by the amount of reduction
imposed on the stock. The bond graph simulations
were done using the SYMBOLS software.

Fig. 3 Two-dimensional finite element model

4 SIMULATION STUDIES
The simulation studies were performed for low-
carbon steel for the laboratory rolling conditions
shown in Table 1. To facilitate sensible comparisons
to be made between the two modelling approaches,
considerable care had to be taken in arranging the
meshing and coordinate systems to be utilized. Thus,
4.1 Bond graph results
Figures 5(a) and (b) show the bond graph results
when using the process parameters shown in Table 1.
The initial temperatures of the roll and stock were
40 and 1000 °C respectively. Figure 5(a) shows the
temperature distribution along the surface of contact
of the stock, while the temperature distribution
through the thickness of the stock (halfway along the
arc of contact) is shown in Fig. 5(b). While analysing

Fig. 4 Typical space reticulations used for the temperature distribution in bond graph simulation

Fig. 5 (a) Bond graph prediction for temperature along the arc of contact and (b) temperature
distribution through the thickness of the stock

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 Bond graph and finite element analyses of temperature distribution
the results at the surface of the stock, the bond
graph results show the three classical features at the
interface. Firstly there is a small increment in tem-
perature at the beginning of the deformation zone,
then the temperature at the surface decreases until
it reaches a minimum at the exit, and finally there
is an increase in temperature owing to conduction
from the centre. The temperature distribution through
thickness shows the temperature gradient that
develops during hot rolling (see Fig. 5(b)).
4.2 Bond graph versus FE results
Comparison between bond graph and finite element
results is shown in Figs 6(a) to (d). Here, Figs 6(a)
and (b) show the temperature distribution along
the arc of contact for the surface of the stock for the
rolling conditions shown in Table 1. This has been
done for different initial stock temperatures (i.e. 900
and 1000 °C). Figures 6(c) and (d) show the pre-
dictions at the centre of the stock for the same con-
ditions. The temperature prediction at the surface
(Figs 6(a) and (b)) show a small discrepancy between
the techniques. This difference is probably due to the
fact that the bond graph calculates temperatures
using a point at the centre of the element, whereas
the finite element technique is using four integration
Fig. 6 Surface distribution for an initial temperature of (a) 900 °C and (b) 1100 °C, and centre
distribution for an initial temperature of (c) 900 °C and (d) 1100 °C
JSCE281 © IMechE 2007
659
points per element. The temperature distribution at
the centre of the stock (Figs 6(c) and (d)) shows a
reasonably good agreement between the techniques,
bearing in mind the small total differential of 20 °C
across the arc of contact. Again, slight differences
between the formulations of the two methods
over the arc of contact account for these small
discrepancies.
One of the advantages of techniques such as BG is
that it obtains rapid solutions in a matter of seconds
with no need for costly finite element calculations.
However, when more accurate and highly non-linear
effects must be added to the analysis, FE modelling
is still required.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
In this work, temperature distributions were studied
for the hot rolling of low-carbon steel using BG
modelling. The deformational heat was also included
for this temperature analysis. A finite element grid
was used to tackle the continuum for better accuracy
in the bond graph simulation.
It has been shown that, when properly formulated,
the BG approach can produce equivalent results to
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering
660 S K Pal, J Talamantes-Silva, D A Linkens, and I C Howard
those of FE modelling, and, once validated, the BG
model is much faster computationally. It also pro-
vides conceptual visualization of the model details,
thus aiding interpretation and extension.
The BG approach has been utilized in other areas
of the hot rolling process. Thus, the effects of roll
speed and roll gap on temperature distributions
during hot rolling have been elucidated via BG
[18–20]. The principle described in this paper has
also been extended to multipass rolling [21, 22], but
without validation against FE modelling as described
here. This could be considered in further work.
Also, extensions to microstructural prediction have
been made to the modelling of static recrystallization
kinetics in multipass rolling [23]. On a wider scale,
the thermomechanical behaviour of run-out table
cooling has been modelled, including effects of
coolant distribution [24–26]. These studies point
towards the possibility of through-process modelling
of the metal processing system using an integrated,
unified BG method capable of dealing with multi-
energetic components, both as unit processes and
continuum subsystems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the UK EPSRC
(Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council)
for their financial support to carry out the present
research at the Institute for Microstuctural and
Mechanical Process Engineering at The University of
Sheffield (IMMPETUS).
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Q activation energy for deformation
def
Q heat flow due to material transportation
1
Q heat flow due to conduction to roll
2
Q heat flow due to convection and radiation
3
r roll radius
R universal gas constant
gas
T absolute temperature of the material
T absolute temperature of the roll
r
T absolute temperature of the slab surface
S
T ambient absolute temperature
2
v velocity of the slab material
V peripheral velocity of the roll
r
w width of the slab
Z Zenner–Holloman parameter

APPENDIX e strain within the material

e peak strain
p
Notation ė strain rate within the material
l emissivity
c specific heat of material
p s Stefan–Boltzmann constant
C flow stress parameter
s effective flow stress
d initial grain size e
0 s steady state flow stress without dynamic
e effort covariable for the energy bond graph sse
e recrystallization
e effort covariable for the pseudo bond graph s
p 0
flow stress at zero strain
f flow covariable for the energy bond graph
e s flow stress at a strain of 0.1
f flow covariable for the pseudo bond graph 0.1
p
h final thickness of the slab
f Bond graph elements
h initial thickness of the slab
0
H convective heat transfer coefficient C energy storing element
C
H heat transfer coefficient for slab material to R dissipative element
r
roll SE source of effort
i, j index of space reticulation numbering SF source of flow of heat
ṁ mass flowrate of the material 0 common effort junction
n constant parameter 1 common flow junction

JSCE281 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part I: J. Systems and Control Engineering