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Sudha R.
Aim
Introduction
X-ray production
Experiment
Sudha R.
Reg No: 1091316
M.Sc Physics(II-Yr)
20 October 2010
Outline
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
1 Aim
Aim
Introduction
2 Introduction
X-ray production
XRD
3 X-ray production
XRD methods
Continuous X-rays
Experiment
Characteristic X-rays spectra
4 X-ray diffraction
Bragg’s law
5 XRD methods
6 Experiment
NaCl X-ray pattern
Experimental observation
Result
Aim
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
Aim
Introduction
X-ray production
XRD
XRD methods To Measure the average spacings between layers or rows of atoms
Experiment To Determine the orientation of a single crystal or grain
To Find the crystal structure of an unknown Material
To Measure the size, shape and internal stress of small crystalline
regions
Introduction : X-rays
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
Aim
What are X-rays?
Introduction
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength in
X-ray production
the range 0.5Å to 10Å
XRD
How are X-rays produced?
XRD methods
Copper X-rays
glass
Experiment
Vacuum
Cooling water electrons
Tungsten filament To transformer
X-rays are produced when high velocity electrons strike a target material of
high atomic number.
X-ray production : Continuous X-rays
X-ray diffraction High energy electrons are made to strike a target material. Most of the
Sudha R. energy of the electrons goes into heating the target material. A few fast
Aim
moving electrons penetrate deep into the interior of the atoms of target
Introduction
material and are attracted towards the nuclei by coulomb attraction. Due
X-ray production
to this, electrons are deflected from their original path. As a result of this,
Continuous the electrons are decelerated and hence energy of the electron decreases
X-rays
Characteristic continuously. This loss of energy during retardation is given off in the form
X-rays spectra
of X-rays of continuously varying energy with frequencies up to a max
XRD
frequency νmax or minimum wavelength λmin . This is called as continuous
XRD methods
x-rays.
Experiment
N
M
L ∆E = E − E0
e−
Photoelectron
K
Nucleus
e− E0
Incoming electron
Figure: An electron in the K shell is ejected from the atom by an external electron
Characteristic X-rays spectra
X-ray diffraction
X-ray production
N
Continuous
X-rays M
Characteristic
X-rays spectra L ∆E = E − E0
e−
XRD K Photoelectron
XRD methods
Experiment Nucleus
e− E0
Incoming electron
X-ray diffraction
What is X-ray diffraction?
Sudha R.
The atomic planes of a crystal cause an incident beam of X-rays to interfere
Aim with one another as they leave the crystal. The phenomenon is called X-ray
Introduction diffraction.
X-ray production X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile, non-destructive technique that
XRD reveals detailed information about the chemical composition and
Bragg’s law
crystallographic structure of natural and manufactured materials.
XRD methods
Experiment
Diffraction pattern recorded
am
be
d r
acte
ffr
Di
2θ
Incident beam
Crystalline material
Bragg’s law
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
Consider a set of parallel lattice planes having spacing d between each other
as shown below.
Aim
X-ray 2 X-ray 1
Introduction O
X-ray production
XRD
d
Bragg’s law
θ
XRD methods
Experiment
O
θ θ A B
A θ C
d
AB + BC = multiples of λ
B
Consider two rays incident on the lattice plane. After reflection, these rays
have a path difference of AB + BC. Constructive interference takes place if
this path difference is a multiple of wavelength. i.e.,
AB + BC = multiple of λ
Bragg’s law. . .
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
O
Path difference = AB + BC
Aim
d
Introduction θ But AB = BC
X-ray production
XRD
∴ Path difference = 2AB
Bragg’s law A B
AB AB
XRD methods
From figure, sin θ = OB
= d
Experiment
∴ AB = d sin θ
Sudha R.
Constructive interference
Aim
In phase
Destructive interference
Introduction Out of phase
XRD AW D
Experiment
A = Amplitude
AW 1 C D C
C = Vibration direction
Waves in phase: Path difference = 0
wavelength
AW 1 D
C
AR D
wavelength
C AR C D
Resultant AR = AW + AW 1 Resultant AR = AW − AW 1
XRD methods
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
Aim
Method λ θ
Laue method heterochromatic, variable fixed
Rotating crystal method monochromatic, fixed partly variable
Powder method monochromatic, fixed partly variable
NaCl X-ray pattern
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R. NaCl
Aim
Introduction
X-ray production
XRD
XRD methods
Experiment
NaCl X-ray
pattern
Counts
Experimental
observation
Result
Position 2θ
Experimental observation
X-ray diffraction
Measurement condition
Sudha R.
Starting position (2θ): 5.01
Aim
Introduction
End position (2θ): 59.99
X-ray production Anode material: Copper
XRD
Kα(Å): 1.54060
XRD methods
X-ray diffraction
Sudha R.
Aim
Introduction
X-ray production
XRD
XRD methods