Organism: Escherichia Coli Is A Microscopic

Organism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Organism
Organism
In biology, an organism (from Greek: ὀργανισμός, organismos) is any
individual entity that exhibits the properties of life. It is a synonym for
"life form".
Organisms are classified by taxonomy into specified groups such as the

multicellular animals, plants, and fungi; or unicellular microorganisms
such as a protists, bacteria, and archaea.[1] All types of organisms are
capable of reproduction, growth and development, maintenance, and
some degree of response to stimuli. Humans are multicellular animals
composed of many trillions of cells which differentiate during
development into specialized tissues and organs. Escherichia coli is a microscopic
single-celled organism, and a
An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote. Prokaryotes are prokaryote as well.
represented by two separate domains – bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a
membrane-bound cell nucleus and contain additional membrane-
bound compartments called organelles (such as mitochondria in
animals and plants and plastids in plants and algae, all generally
considered to be derived from endosymbiotic bacteria).[2] Fungi,
animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the
eukaryotes.
Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10

million to 14 million,[3] of which only about 1.2 million have been
documented.[4] More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five
billion species,[5] that ever lived are estimated to be extinct.[6][7] In Amoebae are single-celled
eukaryotes
2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor
(LUCA) of all organisms was identified.[8][9]
Contents
Etymology
Definitions
Non-cellular life
Chemistry
Macromolecules
Structure
Cell
Evolutionary history
Polypore fungi and
Last universal common ancestor
angiosperm trees are large
Location of the root many-celled eukaryotes.
Reproduction
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Organism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism
Horizontal gene transfer

Future of life (cloning and synthetic organisms)
See also
References
External links
Etymology
The term "organism" (from Greek ὀργανισμός, organismos, from ὄργανον, organon, i.e. "instrument, implement,
tool, organ of sense or apprehension"[10][11]) first appeared in the English language in 1703 and took on its current
definition by 1834 (Oxford English Dictionary). It is directly related to the term "organization". There is a long
tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings, going back at least to Immanuel Kant's 1790 Critique of
Judgment.[12]
Definitions
An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits
the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using phrases such as "any living structure, such as a
plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth and reproduction".[13] Many definitions exclude viruses and
possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the biochemical machinery of a host cell
for reproduction.[14] A superorganism is an organism consisting of many individuals working together as a single
functional or social unit.[15]
There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] and indeed
about whether or not such a definition is necessary.[25][26] Several contributions[27] are responses to the suggestion
that the category of "organism" may well not be adequate in biology.[28]
Non-cellular life
Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction,
growth or metabolism. This controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of
independent survival (but are capable of independent metabolism and procreation) and live as obligatory
intracellular parasites. Although viruses have a few enzymes and molecules characteristic of living organisms, they
have no metabolism of their own; they cannot synthesize and organize the organic compounds from which they are
formed. Naturally, this rules out autonomous reproduction: they can only be passively replicated by the machinery
of the host cell. In this sense, they are similar to inanimate matter. While viruses sustain no independent
metabolism and thus are usually not classified as organisms, they do have their own genes, and they do evolve by
mechanisms similar to the evolutionary mechanisms of organisms.
The most common argument in support of viruses as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and
replicate through self-assembly. Some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve nor self- reproduce. In fact,
viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells
did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. This is not true for cells. If viruses did not exist, the direction of
cellular evolution could be different, but cells would nevertheless be able to evolve. As for the reproduction, viruses
totally rely on hosts' machinery to replicate.[29] The discovery of viral metagenomes with genes coding for energy
metabolism and protein synthesis fueled the debate about whether viruses belong in the tree of life. The presence
of these genes suggested that viruses were once able to metabolize. However, it was found later that the genes
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coding for energy and protein metabolism have a cellular origin. Most likely, these genes were acquired through
horizontal gene transfer from viral hosts.[29]
Chemistry
Organisms are complex chemical systems, organized in ways that promote reproduction and some measure of
sustainability or survival. The same laws that govern non-living chemistry govern the chemical processes of life. It
is generally the phenomena of entire organisms that determine their fitness to an environment and therefore the
survivability of their DNA-based genes.
Organisms clearly owe their origin, metabolism, and many other internal functions to chemical phenomena,
especially the chemistry of large organic molecules. Organisms are complex systems of chemical compounds that,
through interaction and environment, play a wide variety of roles.
Organisms are semi-closed chemical systems. Although they are individual units of life (as the definition requires),
they are not closed to the environment around them. To operate they constantly take in and release energy.
Autotrophs produce usable energy (in the form of organic compounds) using light from the sun or inorganic
compounds while heterotrophs take in organic compounds from the environment.
The primary chemical element in these compounds is carbon. The chemical properties of this element such as its
great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and its small size making it
capable of forming multiple bonds, make it ideal as the basis of organic life. It is able to form small three-atom
compounds (such as carbon dioxide), as well as large chains of many thousands of atoms that can store data
(nucleic acids), hold cells together, and transmit information (protein).
Macromolecules
Compounds that make up organisms may be divided into macromolecules and other, smaller molecules. The four
groups of macromolecule are nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Nucleic acids (specifically
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA) store genetic data as a sequence of nucleotides. The particular sequence of the four
different types of nucleotides (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine) dictate many characteristics that
constitute the organism. The sequence is divided up into codons, each of which is a particular sequence of three
nucleotides and corresponds to a particular amino acid. Thus a sequence of DNA codes for a particular protein
that, due to the chemical properties of the amino acids it is made from, folds in a particular manner and so
performs a particular function.
These protein functions have been recognized:
1. Enzymes, which catalyze all of the reactions of metabolism

2. Structural proteins, such as tubulin, or collagen
3. Regulatory proteins, such as transcription factors or cyclins that regulate the cell cycle
4. Signaling molecules or their receptors such as some hormones and their receptors
5. Defensive proteins, which can include everything from antibodies of the immune system, to toxins (e.g.,
dendrotoxins of snakes), to proteins that include unusual amino acids like canavanine
A bilayer of phospholipids makes up the membrane of cells that constitutes a barrier, containing everything within
the cell and preventing compounds from freely passing into, and out of, the cell. Due to the selective permeability
of the phospholipid membrane, only specific compounds can pass through it. In some multicellular organisms,
they serve as a storage of energy and mediate communication between cells. Carbohydrates are more easily broken
down than lipids and yield more energy to compare to lipids and proteins. In fact, carbohydrates are the number
one source of energy for all living organisms.
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Structure
All organisms consist of structural units called cells; some contain a single cell (unicellular) and others contain
many units (multicellular). Multicellular organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific functions. A
group of such cells is a tissue, and in animals these occur as four basic types, namely epithelium, nervous tissue,
muscle tissue, and connective tissue. Several types of tissue work together in the form of an organ to produce a
particular function (such as the pumping of the blood by the heart, or as a barrier to the environment as the skin).
This pattern continues to a higher level with several organs functioning as an organ system such as the
reproductive system, and digestive system. Many multicellular organisms consist of several organ systems, which
coordinate to allow for life.
Cell
The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Schleiden and Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one
or more cells; all cells come from preexisting cells; and cells contain the hereditary information necessary for
regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.
There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic
cells are usually found in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane so DNA is unbound
within the cell; eukaryotic cells have nuclear membranes.
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane, which envelops the cell, separates its interior from
its environment, regulates what moves in and out, and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the
membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of
genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary
machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells.
All cells share several similar characteristics of:[30]
Reproduction by cell division (binary fission, mitosis or meiosis).

Use of enzymes and other proteins coded by DNA genes and made via messenger RNA intermediates and
ribosomes.
Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting energy, molecules and
releasing by-products. The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy
stored in organic molecules. This energy is derived from metabolic pathways.
Response to external and internal stimuli such as changes in temperature, pH or nutrient levels.
Cell contents are contained within a cell surface membrane that contains proteins and a lipid bilayer.
Evolutionary history
Last universal common ancestor

The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is the most recent organism from which all organisms now living on
Earth descend.[31] Thus it is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. The LUCA is estimated
to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Paleoarchean era).[32][33] The earliest evidence for
life on Earth is graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western
Greenland[34] and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.
[35][36] Although more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on the planet are estimated to be extinct,[6][7]
there are currently 10–14 million species of life on Earth.[3]
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Information about the early development of life includes input from

many different fields, including geology and planetary science. These
sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the
changes produced by life. However, a great deal of information about
the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the
course of time.
All organisms are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene

pool. Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared Precambrian stromatolites in the
between all living organisms. In Darwin's day, the evidence of shared Siyeh Formation, Glacier National
traits was based solely on visible observation of morphologic Park. In 2002, a paper in the
scientific journal Nature suggested
similarities, such as the fact that all birds have wings, even those that do
that these 3.5 Gya (billion years old)
not fly.
geological formations contain
fossilized cyanobacteria microbes.
There is strong evidence from genetics that all organisms have a
This suggests they are evidence of
common ancestor. For example, every living cell makes use of nucleic
one of the earliest known life forms
acids as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty amino acids as on Earth.
the building blocks for proteins. All organisms use the same genetic
code (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to translate
nucleic acid sequences into proteins. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry, because
the selection of many of these traits seems arbitrary. Horizontal gene transfer makes it more difficult to study the
last universal ancestor.[37] However, the universal use of the same genetic code, same nucleotides, and same amino
acids makes the existence of such an ancestor overwhelmingly likely.[38]
Location of the root

The most commonly accepted location of the root of the
tree of life is between a monophyletic domain Bacteria
and a clade formed by Archaea and Eukaryota of what is
referred to as the "traditional tree of life" based on several
molecular studies.[39][40][41][42][43][44] A very small
minority of studies have concluded differently, namely
that the root is in the domain Bacteria, either in the
phylum Firmicutes[45] or that the phylum Chloroflexi is
basal to a clade with Archaea and Eukaryotes and the rest
of Bacteria as proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith.[46]
Research published in 2016, by William F. Martin, by

genetically analyzing 6.1 million protein-coding genes
The LUCA used the Wood–Ljungdahl or reductive
from sequenced prokaryotic genomes of various
acetyl–CoA pathway to fix carbon.
phylogenetic trees, identified 355 protein clusters from
amongst 286,514 protein clusters that were probably
common to the LUCA. The results "depict LUCA as anaerobic, CO2-fixing, H2-dependent with a Wood–Ljungdahl
pathway (the reductive acetyl-coenzyme A pathway), N2-fixing and thermophilic. LUCA's biochemistry was replete
with FeS clusters and radical reaction mechanisms. Its cofactors reveal dependence upon transition metals, flavins,
S-adenosyl methionine, coenzyme A, ferredoxin, molybdopterin, corrins and selenium. Its genetic code required
nucleoside modifications and S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methylations." The results depict methanogenic
clostria as a basal clade in the 355 lineages examined, and suggest that the LUCA inhabited an anaerobic
hydrothermal vent setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H2, CO2, and iron.[47] However, the
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identification of these genes as being present in LUCA was criticized, suggesting that many of the proteins assumed
to be present in LUCA represent later horizontal gene transfers between archaea and bacteria.[48]
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is widespread among current eukaryotes, and was likely present in the last common
ancestor.[49] This is suggested by the finding of a core set of genes for meiosis in the descendants of lineages that
diverged early from the eukaryotic evolutionary tree.[50] and Malik et al.[51] It is further supported by evidence that
eukaryotes previously regarded as "ancient asexuals", such as Amoeba, were likely sexual in the past, and that most
present day asexual amoeboid lineages likely arose recently and independently.[52]
In prokaryotes, natural bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another and
integration of the donor DNA into the recipient chromosome by recombination. Natural bacterial transformation is
considered to be a primitive sexual process and occurs in both bacteria and archaea, although it has been studied
mainly in bacteria. Transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation and not an accidental occurrence, because it
depends on numerous gene products that specifically interact with each other to enter a state of natural
competence to perform this complex process.[53] Transformation is a common mode of DNA transfer among
prokaryotes.[54]
Horizontal gene transfer

The ancestry of living organisms has traditionally been reconstructed from morphology, but is increasingly
supplemented with phylogenetics – the reconstruction of phylogenies by the comparison of genetic (DNA)
sequence.
Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many genes among diverse species
including across the boundaries of phylogenetic "domains". Thus determining the phylogenetic
history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single
genes.[55]
Biologist Peter Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome
research", therefore "biologists (should) use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined
in individual genomes and use (the) metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of
HGT among microbes."[56]
Future of life (cloning and synthetic organisms)

Modern biotechnology is challenging traditional concepts of organism and species. Cloning is the process of
creating a new multicellular organism, genetically identical to another, with the potential of creating entirely new
species of organisms. Cloning is the subject of much ethical debate.
In 2008, the J. Craig Venter Institute assembled a synthetic bacterial genome, Mycoplasma genitalium, by using
recombination in yeast of 25 overlapping DNA fragments in a single step. The use of yeast recombination greatly
simplifies the assembly of large DNA molecules from both synthetic and natural fragments.[57] Other companies,
such as Synthetic Genomics, have already been formed to take advantage of the many commercial uses of custom
designed genomes.
See also
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Earliest known life forms
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BBCNews: 27 September 2000, When slime is not so thick (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/944790.stm)
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Citat: "It means that some of the lowliest creatures in the plant and animal kingdoms, such as slime and
amoeba, may not be as primitive as once thought"
SpaceRef.com, July 29, 1997: Scientists Discover Methane Ice Worms On Gulf Of Mexico Sea Floor
(http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4742)
The Eberly College of Science: Methane Ice Worms discovered on Gulf of Mexico Sea Floor
(http://www.science.psu.edu/iceworms/iceworms.html) download Publication-quality photos
Artikel, 2000: Methane Ice Worms: Hesiocaeca methanicola. Colonizing Fossil Fuel Reserves
(https://web.archive.org/web/20050119112427/http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Ecophy/PDF/00-Fisher-NatWis.pdf)
SpaceRef.com, May 04, 2001: Redefining "Life as We Know it" (http://www.spaceref.com
/news/viewnews.html?id=339) Hesiocaeca methanicola In 1997, Charles Fisher, professor of biology at
Penn State, discovered this remarkable creature living on mounds of methane ice under half a mile of
ocean on the floor of the Gulf of Mexico.
BBCNews, 18 December 2002, 'Space bugs' grown in lab (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2585235.stm)
Citat: "Bacillus simplex and Staphylococcus pasteuri...Engyodontium album The strains cultured by Dr
Wainwright seemed to be resistant to the effects of UV – one quality required for survival in space"
BBCNews, 19 June 2003, Ancient organism challenges cell evolution (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci
/tech/3003946.stm) Citat: "It appears that this organelle has been conserved in evolution from prokaryotes to
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Interactive Syllabus for General Biology – BI 04, Saint Anselm College, Summer 2003 (https://web.archive.org
/web/20030624180658/http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/bi04syllabsu03.html)
Jacob Feldman: Stramenopila (http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/s/jsf165/Bio110.html)
NCBI Taxonomy entry: root (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Root)
Saint Anselm College: Survey of representatives of the major Kingdoms (https://web.archive.org
/web/20030629122745/http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/surveybi04.html) Citat: "Number of
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Species 2000 Indexing the world's known species (http://www.species2000.org/). Species 2000 has the
objective of enumerating all known species of plants, animals, fungi and microbes on Earth as the baseline
dataset for studies of global biodiversity. It will also provide a simple access point enabling users to link from
here to other data systems for all groups of organisms, using direct species-links.
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The Tree of Life (http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html)
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death/)
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Organism: Escherichia Coli Is A Microscopic

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Organism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

Organisms are classified by taxonomy into specified groups such as the

Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10

Horizontal gene transfer

These protein functions have been recognized:

1. Enzymes, which catalyze all of the reactions of metabolism

All cells share several similar characteristics of:[30]

Reproduction by cell division (binary fission, mitosis or meiosis).

Last universal common ancestor

Information about the early development of life includes input from

All organisms are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene

Location of the root

Research published in 2016, by William F. Martin, by

Horizontal gene transfer

Future of life (cloning and synthetic organisms)

Earliest known life forms

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