THERMOMECHANICAL STRESS

ANALYSIS OF Al-Si-Ti ALLOY

BRAKEDRUM FOR AUTOMOBILE
ABSTRACT
 ABSTRACT

In this work, an effort has been designed to raise the reliability of engine
using Al-Si-Ti composites with other alternatively materials for the brake drum
guides. Aluminium matrix composites have found the most suitable inside
automotive, aerospace and aircraft industries and contain the greatest promise
for future years growth.

This paper analysis the thermo mechanical stress occurs in brake drum due
to the friction appeared in brake pad surface. The friction occurs by the reason
of wear. In this process ,we are going to discuss about the reducing the wear of
brake drum by calculating existing wear in the drum by changing it new
material and to investigate the wear behaviour of new material at compared with
old materials.
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

The need of efficient use of energy & materials is being felt strongly because of
diminishing resources in the present times. There has been an important role of
materials in the development of civilizations. In the transportation sector when
earlier large bulky automobiles are compared with today’s light weight,
technologically superior vehicles. Man has been using iron, copper & their
alloys for thousands of years, but surprisingly until the last century he was
oblivious of the bauxite ore (which has aluminum) is the second most abundant
ore in earth crust. It became an economic competitor to steel & cast iron in
engineering applications because of its excellent combination of properties like
lightweight, high specific strength, stiffness & good corrosion resistance, higher
ductility tc. However, the poor mechanical and tribological properties of
aluminum (yield strength: 30 Mpa, tensile strength: 70 Mpa).

Limits its wider range of usage. Realizing the potential as well as

availability of Aluminum, considerable efforts are being made to explore the
possibilities of improving the mechanical strength and wear resistance so as to
meet the requirements of various applications. More aluminum is being
consumed now a days than all other non ferrous metals/ alloys including
Copper. The transformation of the automobiles requiring more fuel, frequent
maintenance to the energy efficient automobiles requiring lesser maintenance
and which is also environment friendly has resulted from better engineering &
materials. With the turn of century material technology in automobiles
undertook a shift towards all aluminum cars. In order to improve the mechanical
strength & modulus of aluminum, it is alloyed with various alloying elements
such as Cu, Zn, Mg, Si, Mn etc. Amongst the various Aluminum alloys AlZn-
Mg alloys are found to show tremendous improvement in mechanical strength
and finds its application in aerospace and automobile structural components. Al
Mg cast alloys show excellent corrosion resistance, good machinability and
attractive appearance when anodized. In internal combustion engines, Al-Si
alloys are used extensively because of their properties like low coefficient of
thermal expansion, bearing properties, good corrosion resistance in association
with the strength In automotive industries, to achieve reduced fuel consumption
as well as green house gas emission is a current issue of utmost importance. To
reduce automobile weight and improve fuel efficiency, the auto industry has
dramatically increased the use of aluminum in light vehicles in recent years.
Aluminium alloy based metal matrix composites (MMCs) with ceramic
particulate reinforcement have shown great promise for such applications.

These materials having a lower density and higher thermal conductivity

as compared to the conventionally used gray cast irons are expected to result in
weight reduction of up to 50 – 60 % in brake systems. Moreover, these
advanced materials have the potential to perform better under severe service
conditions like higher speed, higher load etc. which are increasingly being
encountered in modern automobiles. The most important consideration is the
ability of the brake drum material to withstand high friction and less abrasive
wear. Another requirement is to withstand the high temperature that evolved
due to friction. Weight, manufacturing process ability and cost are also
important factors those are need to be considered during the design phase. In
material selection stage, the recyclability of cast iron is advantageous but the
evolution of CO2 during re-melting has to be taken in consideration. The brake
disc must have enough thermal storage capacity to prevent distortion or
cracking from thermal stress until the heat can be dissipated. This is not
particularly important in a single stop but it is crucial in the case of repeated
stops from high speed.
BRAKE DRUM

The brake drum of a motorcycle is usually made from cast aluminium or

cast iron and essentially a cylinder sandwiched between the wheel rim and the
wheel hub. Within the drum are brake shoes lines with friction material. The
brake shoes are pressed against the inside of the drum surface by a cam or
actuators inside the wheel cylinders.

The inside surface of the drum is acted upon by the linings of the brake
shoes. When the brakes are applied, the brake shoes are forced to come into
contact with the inside surface of the brake drum to stop or slow the rotation of
the wheel due to friction.

The commercial brake system uses disc brake for front wheels and drum
brake for the rear wheels. Gray cast iron is the conventional material used for
making brake drums of light and heavy motor vehicle. The problems
encountered in the cast iron material are described in the second chapter. An Al
MMC brake drum has been designed to replace the heavy cast iron brake drum
of a typical passenger vehicle. The design parameters such as inner radius, outer
radius, and the width of drum, load and the allowable deformation are kept
same for both cast iron and MMC brake drum. The theoretical formulation for
the evaluation of stress, deformation and temperature rise has been described in
this chapter.

A brake is a mechanical device which is used to absorb the energy

possessed by a moving system or mechanism by means of friction. The primary
purpose of the brake is to slow down or completely stop the motion of a moving
system, such as a rotating disc/drum, machine or vehicle. Many aspects of
slowing and stopping a vehicle are controlled by simple physics dealing with
the deceleration of a body in motion The simplest way to stop a vehicle is to
convert the kinetic energy into heat energy. Excessive temperature can
prematurely or permanently damage the lining. Burnishing operation before any
final performance testing of the brake is the only desired accepted method to
evaluate the brake performance. Burnishing by multiple stops on a brake
simulator or on test track sets the liner for more than 85 % pad contact with the
disc surface. Recently Rehman et al. have reported the analysis of brake drum
made of Aluminum alloy–Silicon Carbide MMC (Al–SiC MMC) and compared
with cast iron (CI) brake drum using a brake drum dynamometer test rig. Al–
SiC MMC was reinforced with 10% and 15% SiC particle by weight. The effect
of heat treatment of the Al–SiC MMC brake drum was also studied.
Performance was evaluated on the basis of brake drum coefficient of friction
(μ). Scanning electron microscope was used to study the effect of braking on the
sliding surface of the brake drum he frictional wear resistance and thermal
fatigue resistance of bio mimetic coupling materials and gray cast iron used for
brake drum are compared. The results indicate that frictional wear resistance
and thermal fatigue resistance of bio mimetic coupling sample is better than that
of untreated sample, and among the bio mimetic samples, laser coating treated
sample has superior resistance to wear and thermal fatigue comparing with laser
melting treated sample.

The brake drum and the panel were found to have seized during high
speed brake applications. Excessive wear on the drum liner made of cast iron
was also observed. Metallurgical analysis (chemical analysis, hardness test and
microstructure analysis) of the liner revealed that excessive wear on the liner
was not due to any change in material properties. An experimental testing
methodology was developed to simulate these failures. For the same material,
testing conditions, and design specifications of cast and spoke wheels, no failure
was observed in the cast wheels.
COMPOSITE MATERIAL

A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials

that results in better properties than those of the individual components used
alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents are reinforcement and
a matrix. The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength
and stiffness, combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials,
allowing for a weight reduction in the finished part.

The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases,
the reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The
reinforcement is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have
dimensions that are approximately equal in all directions. They may be
spherical, platelets, or any other regular or irregular geometry. Particulate
composites tend to be much weaker and less stiff than continuous fiber
composites, but they are usually much less expensive.
Particulate reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up to 40 to
50 volume percent) due to processing difficulties and brittleness. A fiber has a
length that is much greater than its diameter. The length-to-diameter (l/d) ratio
is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly. Continuous fibers have long
aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios. Continuous
fiber composites normally have a preferred orientation, while discontinuous
fibers generally have a random orientation. Examples of continuous
reinforcements include unidirectional, woven cloth, and helical winding. while
examples of discontinuous reinforcements are chopped fibers and random mat.
Continuous-fiber composites are often made into laminates by stacking single
Sheets of continuous fibers in different orientations to obtain the desired
strength and stiffness properties with fiber volumes as high as 60 to 70 percent.
Fibers produce high-strength composites because of their small diameter; they
contain far fewer defects (normally surface defects) compared to the material
produced in bulk.

Introduction of composites

 Composite is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and

insoluble phases.
 Constituent materials or phases must have significantly different
properties for it to combine them: thus metals and plastics are not
considered as composites although they have a lot of fillers and
impurities
 The properties and performance of composites are far superior to those of
the constituents
 Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases (reinforcement)
embedded in a continuous phase (matrix)
Examples: –

 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized
composite)

Some examples of composite materials:

 ply wood is a laminar composite of layers of wood veneer,

 Fiber glass is a fiber-reinforced composite containing stiff, strong glass
fibers in a softer polymer matrix and concrete is a particulate composite
containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix (reduced 50%).

CLASSIFICATION

BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATRIX MATERIAL

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
 Carbon/Carbon Composites (C/Cs)

BASED ON THE GEOMETRY OF REINFORCEMENT

 Particulate reinforced Composites

 Whisker/Flakes reinforced composites
 Fiber reinforced composites

HYBRID

A composite laminate comprising of laminae of two or more composite material

systems or a combination of two or more different fibers such as C and glass or
C and aramid into a structure
I) POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

(PMCs) Are prominent class of composites compared to other composite

materials in commercial applications

Fiber Materials: Boron, Graphite, Carbon

Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the
main commercial fibers

Matrix Materials:

Thermoplastic, Epoxy and Thermo-set materials.

 Thermoplastics offer the advantages of good mechanical and tribological

properties.
 Epoxy resin remains the most important matrix polymer.

2. METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCS)

 MMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of non

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the metallic matrix.
 MMCs are widely used in engineering applications where the operating
temperature lies in between 250 ºC to 750 ºC.

Matrix materials:

Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Magnesium and Super alloys.

Reinforcement materials:

Silicon carbide, Boron, Molybdenum and Alumina

3. CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCS)

CMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of metallic/non-

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the ceramic matrix CMCs are widely
used in engineering applications where the operating temperature lies in
between 800ºC to 1650ºC

4. CARBON/CARBON COMPOSITES (C/CS)

C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme
temperature ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn
fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.

Applications

C/C composites meet applications ranging from rockets to aerospace because of

their ability to maintain and even increase their structural properties at extreme
temperatures.

Advantages

 Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C – 2760°C).

 Strength actually increases at higher temperatures (up to 1930°C).
 High strength and stiffness.
 Good resistance to thermal shock.

Uses of composites

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as
well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive.
Merits of composite materials composites

Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium

 High specific strength and

 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
 Better wear resistance Improved corrosion resistance
 Better temperature dependent behavior

Advantages of Composite Materials

 Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and

above, while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of
conventional alloys Increase in friction resistance Increase in fatigue
strength, especially at higher temperatures,
 Improvement of thermal shock resistance
 Improvement of corrosion resistance
 Increase in Young’s modulus
 Reduction of thermal elongation.

APPLICATIONS

Space craft: Antenna structures, solar reflectors, Satellite structures, Radar,

Rocket engines, etc.
Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades,
Airfoil surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay
doors, Rotor shafts in helicopters, Helicopter transmission structures, etc.

Miscellaneous: Bearing materials, Pressure vessels, Abrasive materials,

Electrical machinery, Truss members, Cutting tools, Electrical brushes, etc.

Automobile: Engines, bodies, Piston, cylinder, connecting rod, crankshafts,

bearing materials, etc.

LIGHTWEIGHT DRUM BRAKE

Starting in 2017, the axle professionals expect to equip especially weight

sensitive 9 tonne commercial vehicles, such as tankers or tipper lorries, with as
many as two newly developed products. The SAF-DIRECT pneumatic drum
brake and the aluminium (Metal Matrix composite) brake drum perfectly
complement each other, but should also be available separately and compatible
with other components. Both SAF-HOLLAND innovations are exceptionally
lightweight yet very service and maintenance friendly. This is made possible by
fewer components, the special materials aluminium and ceramics, and the high
quality workmanship of the products. This way, commercial vehicles can load
more cargo, consume less fuel and emit less CO2. Added to this are the lower
cost of maintenance, repairs and spare parts thanks to the longer service life.
The sophisticated products bring significant added value to the vehicles while
increasing their resale value

Lightweight and powerful

A special manufacturing process is used to produce the aluminium MMC brake

drum: The die-casting process is used to cast the aluminium drum housing
around a foamed-up porous aluminium-ceramic moulded blank. Thanks to the
fine-pored surface, aluminium and ceramic conjoin in a form-fitting manner: a
metal matrix composite (MMC) is formed. The brake drum exploits the
outstanding properties of both materials. The particularly hard ceramic layer is
extremely wear-resistant, while the lightweight aluminium reduces the weight
of the drum by at least 30 kilograms per axle. Its unique SAF-specific design
with an increased surface area ensures optimal heat dissipation and good
strength. The Al MMC brake drum thus combines top braking performance with
a unique design and exceptionally low tare weight.

Figure 3.1 Brake drum assembly

Fewer parts, less weight

The newly developed actuator unit makes the SAF-DIRECT into a lightweight:
As the first drum brakes in the 7.5 to 12 tonnes range, they dispense with
camshafts and slack adjusters, among other things, and therefore weigh approx.
20 kilos less per axle than conventional drum brakes. This makes them the
lightest drum brakes for 9 tonne axles on the market. The actuator unit is a
maintenance-free mechanism with an integrated automatic readjustment. It is
mounted directly on the brake drum and equipped with standard disc brake
cylinders, which are fastened to their housing. When the driver applies the
brakes, the mechanism triggers directly without intermediate elements and
forces the brake shoes against the drum. The SAF-DIRECT is compatible with
all SAF-chasses and covers all axle loads between 7.5 and 12 tonnes.
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

K. Radhakrishna et al, he had used aluminium with copper and fly ash as
reinforcements and concluded that up to 15% the reinforcements are
successfully dispersed in the matrix and hardness, wear resistance increases up
to 15 wt% addition of reinforcements. Beinias et al, used aluminium with fly
ash as reinforcements and stated with the addition of fly ash brittleness
increases and corrosion increases as it forms porosity. Sudarshan, M.K. Surappa
et al, have synthesized A356 Al–fly ash particle composites.

They studied mechanical properties and dry sliding wear and come into
brief idea that The damping capacity of composite increases with the increase in
volume fraction of fly ash. The 6% of fly ash particles into A356 Al alloy shows
low wear rates at low loads (10 and 20 N) while 12% of fly ash reinforced
composites show lower wear rates compared to the unreinforced alloy in the
load range 20–80 N. At higher load, subsurface delamination and thermal
softening is the main mechanism in both the alloy as well in composites. S. C.
Mishra et al, and co workers has studied on Aluminum fly ash composite
produced by impeller mixing and came into a brief idea that Up to 17wt% fly
ash reinforcement can be reinforced by liquid metallurgy route. The addition of
magnesium into the aluminium melt increase the wettability and thus increase in
the mechanical properties such as hardness, tensile strength and the wear
resistance is observed. Ganesan Pandi et al experimentally investigated the
machining and tribological behaviour of hybrid aluminum composites. In this
study, Silicon carbide, Alumina oxide, Fly ash and graphite used as
reinforcements and found that Aluminum metal matrix composites with
multiple reinforcements showing good mechanical and tribological properties
and stated that addition of graphite content into aluminum composites improves
tensile strength, machinability and elastic modulus due to solid lubricating
properties of the graphite particles. Also addition of Alumina and fly ash
particles into aluminum composites improves mechanical properties. Hence
authors stated that addition of two or more reinforcements gives the better
mechanical and tribological properties to the aluminum matrix. G Rajesh Babu
et al carried out the static and dynamic analysis of banjo type rear axle housing
by using FE method for two different materials like cast iron and mild steel.

The induced deformation in cast iron housing is greater than mild steel
housing and also the natural frequencies of the cast iron are lower than the mild
steel. Also observed that the stress induced in the cast iron is lower than the
mild steel and concluded that the cast iron is preferred for production of rear
axle housing. Muhammad najib bin abdul hamid conducted the experimental
analysis on drum brake and FEA analysis and concluded that improved material
performs better. Nam Ho Kim et al conducted FE analysis and experimentation
on metal/metal wear in oscillatory contact and concluded that These results
from the block on ring experiments and the finite element simulation are close,
supporting the possibility of using finite element analysis coupled with
specimen-level test data to estimate wear. A systematic approach to numerical
modeling, simulation, and validation for metal-on-metal wear is developed
using both experimental and computational tools. Maximum wear depth
predictions produced by finite element simulation of the block on ring test agree
to within 88% of the experimental measurements without using curve fitting.
Computer simulation of the wear process requires an extrapolation scheme and
more research is needed in order to systematically identify appropriate
extrapolation size as a function of test conditions
Rittner (2001) have presented the applications of metal matrix composites
in defense, aerospace and light vehicles. She has concluded that the scope for
MMC in all the above areas were optimistic and suggested further improvement
in processes, selection of alloy, selection of reinforcement and selection of
components to reduce the cost of end product. Robert (2001) has presented
various forms of aluminium alloys and their applications.

Based on his survey on the growth of aluminium alloys, he concluded that

32.2% of the aluminum was consumed in transport industry in different forms.
Foltz et al (1991) have presented various matrix alloys, reinforcements and their
applications in space, defense, automotive and electronic packaging. They also
presented the possible applications of MMCs in making automotive components
like pistons, cylinder sleeve, connecting rod and brake discs.

Many Researchers (Subra Suresh 1993, Kevorkijan 1999; Rohatgi 1991;

Nakanishi 2002) have presented the applications of MMCs for the automotive
components and the feasibility of manufacturing these materials.
 Chapter-3
MATERIALS AND
METHODS

Chapter-3
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

BRAKE DRUM MATERIALS

MATERIALS

Cast Iron

Metallic iron containing more than 2% dissolved carbon within its matrix (as
opposed to steel which contains less than 2%) but less than 4.5% is referred to
as gray cast iron because of its characteristic color. Considering its cost, relative
ease of manufacture and thermal stability, this cast iron (particularly, gray cast
iron), is actually a more specialized material for brake applications particularly
the material of choice for almost all automotive brake drums. To work correctly,
the parts must be produced at the foundry with tightly monitored chemistry and
cooling cycles to control the shape, distribution and form of the precipitation of
the excess carbon.
Stainless steels

Stainless steels are used in automobile applications because they are resistant to
corrosion easily fabricated and offer good mechanical properties. The following
examples may serve to indicate the considerations made in selecting a suitable
grade of stainless steel for disc brake automobile applications.
Aluminium-Metal Matrix Composite (AMC)

Aluminium alloy based metal matrix composites (MMCs) with ceramic

particulate reinforcement have shown great promise for brake applications.
These materials having a lower density and higher thermal conductivity as
compared to the conventionally used gray cast irons are expected to result in
weight reduction of up to 50-60% in brake systems. After increasing hard
particles content the result showed that the repeated braking operations did not
lower the friction coefficient.
BRAKE DRUM COMPARED MATERIALS
Material properties

PROPERTICE VALUE

Tensile strength 900

Density 7250

Hardness 280 – 360

melting point 1300

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Brakes is such a crucial system in stopping the vehicle on all moving stages
including braking during high speed, sharp cornering, traffic jam and downhill.
All of those braking moments give a different value of temperature distribution
and thermal stress this project concerns of the temperature distribution and
constraint of the brake drum material. Thermally-excited vibration Due to the
application of brakes on the heat generation takes place due to friction and this
thermal flux has to be conducted and dispersed across the cross section. The
condition of braking is very much severe and thus the thermal analysis has to be
carried out.

 Premature wear
 Brake fluid vaporization
 Thermal cracks
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are

 Aluminium alloy

 Silicon

 Titanium

1. ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is a light metal ( = 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable has wide variety
of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective
to heat and light.

 Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed,

hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes. Aluminium can be
riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded.
 Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it is often
anodized to improve surface finish, appearance.
 Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight ratio (high specific strength)
owing to low density.
 Such materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive applications
where weight savings are needed for better fuel efficiency and
performance.
 Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys and find wide applications in
the aerospace industry.

History, properties and alloys

The history of the light metal industry, as that of many other industries in this
century, is one of notable and ever accelerating expansion and development.
There are few people today who are not familiar with at least some modern
application of aluminium and its alloys. The part it plays in our everyday life is
such that it is difficult to realise that a century ago the metal was still a
comparative. The excellent corrosion resistance of pure aluminium is largely
due to its affinity for oxygen; this results in the production of a very thin but
tenacious oxide film which covers the surface as soon as a freshly cut piece of
the metal is exposed to the atmosphere. This oxide coating is of great
significance in the production of practically every type of surface finish for the
metal. It is, of course, the basis of what is probably the most corrosion-resistant
finish of all, namely, that group of finishes which involves the technique of
anodic oxidation in its varied forms.
Development of aluminium alloys

The chief alloying constituents added to aluminium are copper, magnesium,

silicon, manganese, nickel and zinc. All of these are used to increase the
strength of pure aluminium. Two classes of alloys may be considered. The first
are the 'cast alloys' which are cast directly into their desired forms by one of
three methods (i.e., sand-casting, gravity die casting or pressure die casting),
while the second class, the 'wrought alloys', are cast in ingots or billets and hot
and cold worked mechanically into extrusions, forgings, sheet, foil, tube and
wire. The main classes of alloys are the 2000 series (Al-Cu alloys), which are
high-strength materials used mainly in the aircraft industry, the 3000 series (Al-
Mn alloys) used mainly in the canning industry, the 5000 series (Al-Mg alloys)
which are used unprotected for structural and architectural applications, the
6000 series (Al-Mg-Si alloys) which are the most common extrusion alloys and
are used particularly in the building industry, and the 7000 series (Al-Zn-Mg
alloys) which are again high strength alloys for aircraft and military vehicle
applications. The alloy used in any particular application will depend on factors
such as the mechanical and physical properties required, the material cost and
the service environment involved. If a finishing treatment is to be applied, then
the suitability of the alloy for producing the particular finish desired will be an
additional factor to be taken into account. The great benefit of aluminium is that
such a wide variety of alloys with differing mechanical and protection
properties is available, and these, together with the exceptional rang e of
finishes which can be used, make aluminium a very versatile material
Aluminium alloy selection and applications

This monograph contains an outstanding introductory description of the

properties of wrought and cast aluminium alloys and the enormous variety of
their applications. From transportation and packing to construction,
infrastructure and aerospace, the versatility of aluminium as a practical material
is amply documented. The text is richly illustrated with numerous applications
which demonstrate the enormous flexibility and the wide range of applications
for aluminium alloys. This publication will be invaluable to engineers, designers
and students unfamiliar with the variety of aluminium alloys and to those faced
with an alloy selection decision. It outlines many of the issues to consider in
selecting an alloy for a specific application and environment. Starting with a
description of the aluminium alloy designation system, the text describes the
major alloy series, outlines their primary chemical constituents, mechanical
properties and major characteristics, and provides numerous examples of
specific alloys in use. In summary, this monograph provides a lot of clarity to
the process of selecting alloys for various applications.
Effect of aluminium

Aluminium and aluminium alloy are gaining huge industrial significance

because of their outstanding combination of mechanical, physical and
tribological properties over the base alloys. These properties include high
specific strength. High wear and seizure resistance, high stiffness, Better high
temperature strength, controlled thermal expansion coefficient and improved
damping capacity.
Corrosion of aluminium

Whilst aluminium and its alloys generally have good corrosion resistance,
localised forms of corrosion can occur, and it is important to understand the
factors contributing to these of corrosion. Corrosion may be defined as the
reaction between a metal and its immediate environment, which can be natural
or chemical in origin. The most recognisable form of corrosion is, perhaps, the
rusting of iron. All metals react with natural environments but the extent to
which this happens can vary; for noble metals like gold the amount is
insignificant whereas for iron it is considerable. Aluminium is no exception but,
fortunately, it has the propensity of self passivation and for many applications
corrosion is not a problem.
Properties of al-alloy

(i) Heat treatable and age hardenable.

(ii) High strength efficiency due to high strength to weight ratio

(iii) Good weldability

(iv) Good corrosion resistance

(v) Good thermal conductivity

Applications of al- alloy

Alloy 6063 is perhaps the most widely used because of its extrudability, it is not
only the first choice for many architectural and structural members, but it has
been the choice for the Audi automotive space frame members. A good example
of its structural use was the aluminum bridge. (Gilbert Kaufman, 2000). The
alloy has versatile application as given below

 Pressure vessels
 Pipelines
  Cryogenic tanks
 Door beams, seat tracks, racks, rails
 Electrical cable towers
 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components (The excellent
combination of high strength combined with superior corrosion resistance
plus weldability makes a number of aluminum alloys ideal for chemical
industry applications, even some involving very corrosive fluids)

MATERIAL PROPERITIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

Properties value

Elastic Modulus 69000 N/mm2

Poisson's Ratio 0.33

Thermal Expansions Co-efficient 2.4x10-5 /K

Thermal Conductivity 170 w/mk

Specific Heat 1300 J/kg k

2. SILICON

The formation of SiC from the reaction between silicon and carbon can take
place at temperatures below the melting point of silicon. The phase diagram of
the Si-C system. It can be seen that SiC is the only compound of silicon and
carbon to occur in the condensed state in addition to elemental silicon and
carbon. A eutectic point between silicon and SiC exists at 1402˚C and 0.75
atom % carbon. The liquid us curve between Si and SiC is shown up to 2600˚C
and 27 atom % C. A peritectic point is located at 2540˚C and 27 atom % C
under normal conditions. There are numerous (~200) poly types for SiC, but
only a few are common. All of the structures may be visualized as being made
up of a single basic unit, a layer of tetrahedra, in which each silicon atom is
tetrahedrally bonded to four carbon atoms and each carbon atom is tetrahedrally
bonded to four silicon atoms. The differences among the existing poly types are
the orientational sequences by which such layers of tetrahedra are stacked.
Successive layers of tetrahedra may be stacked in only one of two ways or
orientations but with many possible sequential combinations, each of which
represent a different crystal poly type.

A common system of nomenclature used to describe the different

crystalline poly types assigns a number corresponding to the number of layers in
the unit cell followed by a letter suffix designating the crystal symmetry; “C”
for cubic, “H” for hexagonal and “R” for rhombohedral. The most common SiC
poly types are the 3C, 4H, 6H, 15R and 9T. The cubic 3C is commonly referred
to as beta silicon carbide, β-SiC, which has the zinc blend structure, while all
other poly types are referred to as alpha silicon carbide, α-SiC. In general, α-SiC
phase is mainly 6H, which is a wurtzite structure. An illustration of the two
major crystal structures, zinc blend and wurtzite, exhibited by the two SiC
phases. Phase transformation of SiC occurs from β-SiC to α-SiC upon heating.
Undoped β-SiC transforms to 6H and 15R above 2000°C, with the 15R being a
metastable phase that transforms to 6H. Doping β-SiC with boron lowers the
transformation temperature and results in the formation of 4H poly type.

On the other hand, doping with nitrogen prevents the formation of 4H and
stabilizes the 6H. The β → α phase transformation is irreversible under ambient
atmosphere. However, under pure nitrogen atmosphere, the transformation can
be reversed and β-SiC phase can be stabilized up to 2500°C by applying a
nitrogen pressure. Under atmospheric pressure, silicon carbide does not melt
when heated to elevated temperatures rather, it sublimes and/or dissociates. In
addition, incongruent melting of SiC was reported at 2829°C under >500 psi
pressure of argon and is also possible when it is heated rapidly in an arc-image
furnace at atmospheric pressure. Silicon carbide is considered one of the few
lightweight covalently bonded ceramics. The theoretical density of β-SiC is
only 3.210 g/cm3 and that of α-SiC (6H poly type) is 3.208 g/cm3 . Combining
it’s lightweight and, strong covalency with other properties, such as low thermal
expansion coefficient and high thermal conductivity, strength and hardness,
make SiC a promising ceramic for the replacement of conventional metals,
alloys and ionicbonded ceramic oxides.

PRODUCTION OF SIC

The most common forms of SiC include powders, fibers, whiskers, coatings and
single crystals. There are several methods to produce SiC depending on the
product form desired and its application. Purity of the product imposes certain
restrictions on the selection of the method of production. SiC powders are
produced predominantly via the traditional Acheson method where a reaction
mixture of green petroleum coke and sand is heated to 2500°C using two large
graphite electrodes. Due to the high temperatures, the Acheson process yields
the alpha form of SiC, i.e. hexagonal or rhombohedral (α-SiC).

The SiC product, usually in the form of a large chunk, is broken, sorted,
crushed, milled, and classified into different sizes to yield the commercial
grades of SiC powder. To produce ultrafine SiC powder, the finest grade of the
Acheson product is further milled, typically for days, and then acid-treated to
remove metallic impurities. Fine SiC powder can also be produced using a
mixture of fine powders of silica and carbon reacted at lower temperatures for
short periods of time followed by quenching to prevent grain growth. The
product, however, is agglomerates of SiC and needs to be attrition milled to
break up the agglomerates and reduce the particle size to submicron range. SiO2
powder can be replaced with SiO (silicon monoxide) powder which, when
mixed with nano-scale carbon and heated to moderate temperatures, produces
nano crystalline SiC powder with particle size in the range 20-100 nm. The SiC
particle characteristics, such as size, shape and surface chemistry, are very
important for the subsequent densification processes of the SiC powder. For this
reason, some post processes may be needed, such as the addition of certain
elements as sintering aids, to achieve high density during hot pressing or
pressure less sintering. SiC fibers are produced via the pyrolysis of organo
silicon polymers, such as poly carbosilane, and are commercially available.
Briefly, the process consists of melt-spinning the poly carbosilane at
approximately 300°C, un fusing with thermal oxidation at 110-200°C, and
baking at 1000-1500°C under a flow of inert gas. Nicalon fibers are known for
their excellent mechanical properties when used as reinforcement in ceramic
matrix composites (CMC). The drawback of Nicalon fibers has been their
oxygen and free-carbon contents, which limit their high temperature
applications. Recently, however, Hi-Nicalon SiC fibers have been introduced
with much lower oxygen content. At present, much of the work in the SiC fiber
reinforced CMC development is using Hi-Nicalon SiC fibers. Another method
for producing SiC fibers is via the CVD method. In this process, SiC is
deposited from the gas phase on a tungsten wire used as the substrate.

These fibers are stronger and have higher thermal stability due to their
higher stoichiometry and purity. SiC whiskers, which are nearly single crystals,
are produced (grown) using different methods, including the heating of coked
rice hulls, reaction of silanes, reaction of silica and carbon, and the sublimation
of SiC powder. In some cases a third element used as a catalyst, such as iron, is
added to the reacting materials to facilitate the precipitation of the SiC crystals.
In this arrangement, the mechanism for the SiC whisker growth is called the
vapour liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism. SiC whiskers are in the order of microns
in diameter and grow several hundred microns in length. The VLS process,
developed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory to produce longer SiC
whiskers with larger diameters, did not show promise for production due to the
extremely low yield. Currently, commercially available SiC whiskers are
produced using the rice-hull process with the whisker growth being largely of
VS mechanism due to the absence of a catalyst. Because of their excellent
mechanical properties, SiC whiskers are very desirable as reinforcements of
metal and ceramic matrix composites for structural applications where fracture
toughness and strength are significantly improved.

FABRICATION OF SIC PRODUCTS

In addition to the efforts and significant development in the production of

different forms of SiC (powders, fibers, whiskers, etc.), more efforts have been
devoted to the fabrication of SiC parts as a final product with the desired
properties. The densification of the SiC powders has been the largest part of
these efforts. Analogous to powder metallurgy techniques, SiC powders have
been densified using hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing, and pressure less
sintering, in addition to wet processing, such as slip casting of SiC powder
slurries. Sintering of SiC powders requires the addition of sintering aids and
heating to elevated temperatures.

The addition of boron and carbon elements to SiC powder assists in the
densification of SiC during pressure less sintering. Carbon is added to remove
surface oxygen present as a film of SiO2 on the SiC particles. Boron, on the
other hand, is added to prevent grain growth at lower temperatures before
reaching the sintering point. A density of 97% of the theoretical density can be
reached depending on the temperature and characteristics of the SiC powder.
Other sintering aids include oxides, such as alumina, zirconia and yttria. In this
system, the oxide phase melts at relatively low temperatures enhancing SiC
particle flow, resulting in shrinkage and densification. However, due to the
presence of the liquid phase, there are limits to the high temperature
applications of the densified parts. For the fabrication of SiC/SiC composites, a
preform is first prepared from continuous SiC fibers with 20-30% loading by
volume. A SiC matrix can be applied via the CVI process, or slurry processing,
to make SiC/SiC composite.

The SiC matrix can also be produced by impregnating the SiC preform
with liquid carbon precursor, such as a resin, followed by pyrolysis and silicon
infiltration to form reaction-bonded SiC/SiC composite. The SiC fiber preforms
can also be impregnated with silicon powder in the form of slurry, followed by
nitridation to form SiC-fiber reinforced Si3N4 matrix composites. SiC-fiber
reinforced ceramic composites are used in high-temperature structural
applications due to their high strength and fracture toughness. The processes
discussed above produce SiC materials that contain high levels of impurities
associated with the processing steps. Impurities, such as metal-based sintering
additives, are not acceptable in the semiconductor industry. Conventional
purification by high-temperature chlorination results in the depletion of silicon
from the SiC and carbon enrichment. In addition, the presence of impurities in
SiC may become an issue in high temperature applications depending on the
type and level of these impurities.

Typical silicon characteristics include:

 Low density
 High strength
 Good high temperature strength (Reaction bonded)
 Oxidation resistance (Reaction bonded)
 Excellent thermal shock resistance
 High hardness and wear resistance
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity
Typical silicon applications include:

 Fixed and moving turbine components

 Seals, bearings, pump vanes
 Ball valve parts
 Wear plates
 Kiln furniture
 Heat exchangers
 Semiconductor wafer processing equipment

SILICON PROPERTIES

Properties Value

Poisson’s Ratio 0.17

Coefficient of Thermal -0.5 (K)

Expansion
Young's Modulus 150 GPa

Density 2330 kg/m3

3. TITANIUM

Titanium is one of the lightest members of the first row transition series of
elements, consisting of Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn, and belongs to
group 4 of the periodic table, along with Zr and Hf. The element has an atomic
number of 22, an atomic mass of 48, three main oxidation states (+2, +3 and
+4), of which +4 is the most common, and five naturally occurring isotopes
(46Ti, 47Ti, 48Ti, 49Ti, and 50Ti), of which 48Ti is the most abundant at 74%
of the total mass.

Titanium is a common lithophile metallic element that forms several

minerals, including ilmenite FeTiO3, rutile, brookite, anatase (all TiO2) and
sphene CaTiSiO5, but it also occurs as an accessory element in pyroxene,
amphibole, mica and garnet. It is a relatively abundant metal with a crustal
abundance of 6320 mg kg-1 (Mielke 1979, Fyfe 1999).

During magmatic processes, Ti follows Fe in magmatic crystallisation.

Ti4+ is predominantly partitioned into Fe-Ti or Fe oxides such as ilmenite and
magnetite, or into one or more of the TiO2 phases, rutile, anatase and brookite.
Titanium may also substitute for Mg2+ or Fe2+ in silicate minerals, leading to
enrichment of Ti in amphibole and mica. The compatibility displayed by Ti
during the early stages of fractionation results in enrichment in mafic (>1%
TiO2) and ultramafic (>2% TiO2) rocks relative to felsic igneous lithologies
(ca. 0.2% TiO2). Therefore, elevated Ti values are indicative of mafic and
ultramafic rocks.

Titanium is relatively immobile during prograde metamorphism (Nicollet

and Adriambololona 1980). However, it may be mobilised and enriched in
amphibole during granulite-amphibolite retrogression (Beach and Tarney 1978),
with rutile authigenesis occurring commonly (Ure and Berrow 1982). Titanium
is not involved in normal hydrothermal sulphide mineralisation processes, but
metasomatism may give rise to magnetite-rich rocks containing appreciable Ti.
In sedimentary rocks, the concentration of TiO2 is determined by the abundance
of detrital oxides and silicates, such as chlorite and clay minerals, and
diagenetic phases, such as anatase (Correns 1978).

Typical titanium characteristics include:

 Excellent in corrosion resistance

 Light weight
 High strength
 Excellent in elasticity
 Low thermal conductivity
 Easy temperature rise
 High resistance to thermal shrink

Typical titanium applications include:

 Pigments, additives, and coatings

 Aerospace and marine
 Industrial
 Consumer and architectural
 Jewellery
 Medical
 Nuclear waste storage
TITANIUM PROPERTIES

Properties Value

Poisson’s Ratio 0.32

Coefficient of Thermal -0.5 (K)

Expansion
Young's Modulus 116 GPa

Density 4.506 g/cm3

METHODS

STIR CASTING PROCESS STUDIES

Fabrication techniques affect the microstructure, the distribution of the

reinforcing materials and interfacial bond condition between reinforcing phase
and matrix. These techniques has to ensure uniform distribution of the
reinforcing material in the matrix and formation of good bond between matrix
and reinforcing material, to obtain MMCs with optimum properties. There are
several fabrication techniques available to manufacture different MMC.
Depending on the choice of matrix and reinforcement material, the fabrication
techniques can vary considerably. According to fabrication methods can be
divided into three types. These are solid phase process, liquid phase process and
semi solid fabrication process. Among the variety of manufacturing processes
available for discontinuous metal matrix composite, stir casting is generally
accepted as a particularly promising route, because of low cost. lie in its
simplicity, flexibility and applicability to the large quantity production. This
semi solid metallurgy technique is the most economical of all available routes
for MMC Production. It allows very large sized components to be fabricated,
and is able to sustain high productivity rates. Has shown that the cost of
preparing composite materials using a casting method is about one third to one
half that of competing methods

The composites were prepared by stir casting process. Shows schematic

diagram the original setup of the stir casting process. Resistance furnace with a
temperature range of 3000 C was used to melt the matrix material. The furnace
has a temperature controller with k type thermocouple to control and measure
the temperature. An electric motor is fixed at the top of the furnace to provide
stirring motion to the stirrer. The speed of the stirrer can be varied as the setup
has a speed controller attached to it.

Figure Schematic Diagram of Stir Casting

Melting of Alloy

In stir casting process the following procedure was adopted for the preparation
of composites. Explains the stir casting process in detail. Alloy is cut and
weighed to obtain the correct weight as per the stoichio metric calculations. The
metals are then taken in to a crucible along with the coverall. The furnace is
heated to a temperature of 800 C and is constantly maintained at that
temperature throughout the process.

Preheating of alloys

Heat treatment of the particles before dispersion into the melt aids their transfer
by causing desorption of adsorbed gases from the particle surface. Preheating
1000 C of alloy particles removing surface Impurities and in the desorption of
gases, and alters the surface composition by forming an oxide layer on the
surface. The addition of pre-heated particles in Al, Si and Ti melt has been
found to improve the wettability property. A clean surface of provides a better
opportunity for melt particles interaction, and thus, enhances wetting.

Addition of Coverall Powder

The flux used is Coverall. It is the composition of Potassium chloride (KCl) +

Nitric acid (HNO3), its function is to avoid oxidation. Coverall powder is added
twice during the casting process. Initially, when the ingots are placed in the
crucible, later while stirring of preheated SiC particles. The recommended
amount that is to be added is 250gm for a melt of 50kg.

Addition of Degasser Powder

Degasser powder is added to the molten metal when it reaches a temperature of

800 C. The recommended amount to be added is 250gm for a melt of 50Kg.
Degasser powder reduces blow holes formed during the casting process. The
reasons for adding degasser powder are as below
 When alloy is in the molten state, it tries to absorb hydrogen from the
atmosphere.
 When the absorbed hydrogen is unable to escape from the molten metal,
it results in the formation of blow holes.
 When coverall 65 is added, it forms a thin film over the molten metal and
prevents contact of molten metal with the atmosphere.
 When degasser tablets is added to molten metal, the chlorine present in
these tablets react with hydrogen in the molten metal and form
hydrochloric acid which dissolves in the molten metal, thereby reducing
blow holes.

Pouring of Molten Metal

The material is stirred with 300 rpm for thirty minutes. The stirred metal is then
slowly poured into the die which is preheated to a temperature of 973 C. The die
is allowed to cool in air for two hours and then the specimen is removed.

Solution Treatment

During casting low cooling rate of the alloy allows for the strengthening of
phase to precipitate out of solution and grow into large incoherent phases within
the matrix. In the as cast structure, the large, incoherent nature of the phase does
little to increase the strength of the alloy. To obtain finely dispersed Al- Si-Ti a
solution heat treatment should be conducted on the alloy.
 Chapter-4

MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

 Chapter-4
MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

PIN ON DISC WEAR TESTER

Surface engineering point of view, wear test is carried out to evaluate the
potential of using a certain surface engineering technology to reduce wear for a
specific application, and to investigate the effect of treatment conditions
(processing parameters) on the wear performance, so that optimized surface
treatment conditions can be realized. In a pin-on-disc wear tester, a pin is loaded
against a flat rotating disc specimen such that a circular wear path is described
by the machine. The machine can be used to evaluate wear and friction
properties of materials under pure sliding conditions. This test method
describes a laboratory procedure for determining the wear of materials during
sliding using a pin-on-disk apparatus. Materials are tested in pairs under
nominally non-abrasive conditions. The principal areas of experimental
attention in using this type of apparatus to measure wear are described. The
coefficient of friction may also be determined.

Summary of Test Method

For the pin-on-disk wear test, two specimens are required. One, a pin with a
radiused tip, is positioned perpendicular to the other, usually a flat circular disk.
A ball, rigidly held, is often used as the pin specimen. The test machine causes
either the disk specimen or the pin specimen to revolve about the disk center. In
either case, the sliding path is a circle on the disk surface. The plane of the disk
may be oriented. The pin specimen is pressed against the disk at a specified load
usually by means of an arm or lever and attached weights. Other loading
methods have been used, such as, hydraulic or pneumatic. Wear results are
reported as volume loss in cubic millimetres for the pin and the disk separately.
When two different materials are tested, it is recommended that each material
be tested in both the pin and disk positions. The amount of wear is determined
by measuring appropriate linear dimensions of both specimens before and after
the test, or by weighing both specimens before and after the test. If linear
measures of wear are used, the length change or shape change of the pin, and
the depth or shape change of the disk wear track (in millimetres) are determined
by any suitable metrological technique, such as electronic distance gaging or
stylus profiling. Linear measures of wear are converted to wear volume (in
cubic millimetres) by using appropriate geometric relations.

Linear measures of wear are used frequently in practice since mass loss
is often too small to measure precisely. If loss of mass is measured, the mass
loss value is converted to volume loss (in cubic millimetres) using an
appropriate value for the specimen density. Wear results are usually obtained by
conducting a test for a selected sliding distance and for selected values of load
and speed. One set of test a condition that was used in an Inter laboratory
measurement series is and as a guide. Other test conditions may be selected
depending on the purpose of the test. Wear results may in some cases be
reported as plots of wear volume versus sliding distance using different
specimens for different distances. Such plots may display non-linear
relationships between wear volume and distance over certain portions of the
total sliding distance, and linear relationships over other portions. Causes for
such differing relationships include initial “break-in” processes, transitions
between regions of different dominant wear mechanisms, etc. The extent of
such non-linear periods depends on the details of the test system, materials, and
test conditions. It is not recommended that continuous wear depth data obtained
from position-sensing gages be used because of the complicated effects of wear
debris and transfer films present in the contact gap, and interferences from
thermal expansion or contraction.
Significance and Use

The amount of wear in any system will, in general, depend upon the number of
system factors such as the applied load, machine characteristics, sliding speed,
sliding distance, the environment, and the material properties. The value of any
wear test method lies in predicting the relative ranking of material
combinations. Since the pin-on-disk test method does not attempt to duplicate
all the conditions that may be experienced in service (for example; lubrication,
load, pressure, contact geometry, removal of wear debris, and presence of
corrosive environment), there is no ensurance that the test will predict the wear
rate of a given material under conditions differing from those in the test.

APPARATUS

a typical pin-on-disk wear test system, and photographs of two differently

designed apparatuses.5 One type of typical system consists of a driven spindle
and chuck for holding the revolving disk, a lever-arm device to hold the pin, and
attachments to allow the pin specimen to be forced against the revolving disk
specimen with a controlled load. Another type of system loads a pin revolving
about the disk center against a stationary disk. In any case the wear track on the
disk is a circle, involving multiple wear passes on the same track. The system
may have a friction force measuring system, for example, a load cell, that
allows the coefficient o friction to be determined.
Motor Drive
Avariable speed motor, capable of maintaining constant speed (61 % of rated
full load motor speed) under load is required. The motor should be mounted in
such a manner that its vibration does not affect the test. Rotating speeds are
typically in the range 0.3 to 3 rad/s (60 to 600 r/min).
Revolution Counter

The machine shall be equipped with a revolution counter or its equivalent that
will record the number of disk revolutions, and preferably have the ability to
shut off the machine after a pre-selected number of revolutions.
Pin Specimen Holder and Lever Arm
In one typical system, the stationary specimen holder is attached to a lever arm
that has a pivot. Adding weights, as one option of loading, produces a test force
proportional to the mass of the weights applied. Ideally, the pivot of the arm
should be located in the plane of the wearing contact to avoid extraneous
loading forces due to the sliding friction. The pin holder and arm must be of
substantial construction to reduce vibrational motion during the test.
Wear Measuring Systems
Instruments to obtain linear measures of wear should have a sensitivity of 2.5
μm or better. Any balance used to measure the mass loss of the test specimen
shall have a sensitivity of 0.1 mg or better; in low wear situations greater
sensitivity may be needed.
TEST SPECIMENS AND SAMPLE PREPARATION
Materials

This test method may be applied to a variety of materials. The only requirement
is that specimens having the specified dimensions can be prepared and that they
will withstand the stresses imposed during the test without failure or excessive
flexure. The materials being tested shall be described by dimensions, surface
finish, material type, form, composition, microstructure, processing treatments,
and indentation hardness (if appropriate).
Test Specimens
The typical pin specimen is cylindrical or spherical in shape. Typical cylindrical
or spherical pin specimen diameters range from 2 to 10 mm. The typical disk
specimen diameters range from 30 to 100 mm and have a thickness in the range
of 2 to 10 mm.

TEST PARAMETERS

Load: Values of the force in Newtons at the wearing contact.

Speed: The relative sliding speed between the contacting surfaces in metres per
second.
Distance: The accumulated sliding distance in meters.
Temperature: The temperature of one or both specimens at locations close to
the wearing contact.
Atmosphere: The atmosphere (laboratory air, relative humidity, argon,
lubricant, etc.) surrounding the wearing contact.

PROCEDURE

 Immediately prior to testing, and prior to measuring or weighing, clean

and dry the specimens. Take care to remove all dirt and foreign matter
from the specimens. Use non chlorinated, non-film-forming cleaning
 agents and solvents. Dry materials with open grains to remove all traces
of the cleaning fluids that may be entrapped in the material. Steel
(ferromagnetic) specimens having residual magnetism should be
demagnetized. Report the methods used for cleaning.
 Measure appropriate specimen dimensions to the nearest μm or weigh
the specimens to the nearest 0.0001 g.
 Insert the disk securely in the holding device so that the disk is fixed
perpendicular (61°) to the axis of the resolution.
 Insert the pin specimen securely in its holder and, if necessary, adjust so
that the specimen is perpendicular (61°) to the disk surface when in
contact, in order to maintain the necessary contact conditions. Add the
proper mass to the system lever or bale to develop the selected force
pressing the pin against the disk. Start the motor and adjust the speed to
the desired value while holding the pin specimen out of contact with the
disk. Stop the motor.
 Set the revolution counter (or equivalent) to the desired number of
revolutions.
 Begin the test with the specimens in contact under load. The test is
stopped when the desired number of revolutions is achieved. Tests should
not be interrupted or restarted.
 Remove the specimens and clean off any loose wear debris. Note the
existence of features on or near the wear scar such as: protrusions,
displaced metal, discoloration, micro cracking, or spotting.
 Re measure the specimen dimensions to the nearest 2.5 μm or reweigh
the specimens to the nearest 0.0001 g, as appropriate.
 Repeat the test with additional specimens to obtain sufficient data for
statistically significant results.
2. KNOOP HARDNESS TEST

The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test - a test for mechanical
hardness used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets, where only a
small indentation may be made for testing purpose.

Introduction

Metallurgists have long used various types of indenters for testing the hardness
(defined as resistance to deformation) of metals. Attempts to apply to minerals
the Rockwell, Vickers, and other types of machines which measure hardness in
terms of deformation of the specimen by penetration of a standard-shaped point
applied by a specified machine, have met with little success because of the
tendency of minerals to fracture during the penetration of the indenter. Since the
fracture represents displacement and deformation of other material than that
immediately adjacent to the point of the indenter, greater penetration takes place
than is proper for the indenter and its associated machine. Moreover, the
displacement due to fracture cannot be measured readily, and therefore
introduces an unknown factor into the measurement. Experiments conducted at
the Research Laboratories of the Hamilton Watch Company have suggested that
of all the various machines for measuring hardness by indentation, the Knoop
micro hardness tester may be the only tool that can give valid, or at least
consistent, readings of the hardness of minerals.

KNOOP INDENTER

Knoop, Peters, and Emerson (1939) described an unusually sensitive pyramidal-

diamond indenter which is known as the micro hardness tester, or Knoop
indenter. The Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company manufactures a
machine, the Tukon tester, which utilizes this indenter. In measuring the
hardness of a specimen, a polished flat surface is first prepared. The Knoop
indenter is then brought into contact with this surface for 20 seconds (the
minimum time found adequate to assure consistent results), with a known load.
The indentation thus produced is measured with a microscope, and the hardness
number 1 is proportional to the load divided by the area of the indentation. For
relatively heavy loads-say 1 to 3 kilograms-the hardness number is essentially
independent of the load. Tate (1944) showed, however, that this is not strictly
true for loads of 100 grams or less the concluded that the applied load should
always be reported with the hardness number: that practice is followed here.

The Tukon tester is provided with several weights corresponding to loads

from 100 grams up. Our instrument is not provided with smaller loads, but
slight changes could easily be made which would accomplish the purpose if
necessary. The latest model of the Tukon testing machine embodies an
electromagnetic device for applying the load without overloading by impact
between the specimen and the diamond indenter. The Hamilton instrument was
rebuilt to afford that protection against shock after about half of the corundum
tests reported here had been completed. The error due to impact before
installation of the device is believed to be mostly the result of fractures in brittle
specimens, although there must have been some decrease of the hardness
number due to impact of the unguarded indenter in the old form of the
instrument. The K.noop indenter possesses advantages over other similar
hardness measuring tools, and these are exactly the advantages that make it
suitable for testing minerals. An extremely shallow penetration is sufficient to
produce an indentation long enough to be measured with a relative accuracy of
about t/o. The, for an indentation 100 microns (0.1 mm.) long, the penetration is
only about 3 microns. The smallness of the penetrtaion was demonstrated by
Peters and Knoop (1940) when they showed that a valid reading of the hardness
of electrolytic chromium plate can be obtained,
Regard less of the nature of the base metal upon which the chromium was
deposited, if the thickness of the plating is greater than 0.001 inch or 25
microns. The validity of extending this conclusion to cover small grains in a
polished section of a mineral assemblage is not debatedh ere, but does not seem
unreasonable for roughly equant grains which appear about 100 microns in
diameter in the plane of the section, especially if several such grains are tested
and found to give consistent results. By reducing the Ioad applied to the
indenter, the length of the indentation can always be kept small.
APPLICATION
 Chapter-6

APPLICATIONS

 AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRIES
 CORROSION RESISTANCE AREAS
 WATER PURIFICATION PLANTS
 SEASHORE AREAS
CONCLUSION
 Chapter-7
CONCLUSION

The material selection methods for the design and application of automotive

brake drum are developed. From the results obtained above, we can come to the

conclusion that

 Practical use of Al-Si-Ti composite material produces much effective

braking compared to steel brake drum.

 Deformation in steel is much higher than composite, which implies the

deformation resistance of the composite structure than the steel material.

 Stress accumulated on the composite is much less, which proves the wear

resistance, rigid & stable braking during high speeds.

REFERENCE
 REFERENCE

 Beinias, microstructure and corrosion behaviour of aluminium fly ash

composites, dept of materials engineering, lublin university of
technology, Poland, 2008
 Sudarshan, M.K. Surappa, Dry sliding wear of fly ash particle
reinforcedA356 Al composites, Wear 265 (2008): pp 349–360 [4] S. C.
Mishra, Aluminum fly ash composite produced by impeller mixing,
Journal of reinforced plastics and composites,(2008):pp1-6
 Ganesan Pandi, Saravanan Muthusamy “A review on machining and
tribological behaviours of aluminium hybrid composites”, Procedia
Engineering 38 (2012) 1399- 1408, ELSEVIER
 G Rajesh Babu, N Amar Nageswara Rao, “Static and modal analysis of
rear axle housing of a truck”, International Journal of Mathematical
sciences, Technology and Humanities 7 (2011) 69-76.
 Muhammad najib bin abdul hamid Thesis on “a study on the effect of
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