DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of turning food
into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal. To help you
understand how the many parts of the digestive system work together, here is an overview of
the structure and function of this complex system.

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Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when taking
the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while
saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can
absorb and use.

Esophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your
mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular contractions called peristalsis, the
esophagus delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with
enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining
of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the
breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are
released into the small intestine.
Small intestine

Made up of three segments - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum - the small intestine is a 22-foot
long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile
from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with
digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for
absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing
through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency.
Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through
the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the small
intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also
makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for
metabolizing sugar.

Liver

The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to process
the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small
intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the body's chemical
"factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various
chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It
breaks down and secretes many drugs.

Gallbladder

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum to help
absorb and digest fats.

Colon (large intestine)

The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. The
large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across)
colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum. The
appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly specialized organ
that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of
peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon,
water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement"
empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get
through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform
several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and
food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes
full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.

Rectum

The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is
the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is stool to be
evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes
into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal
contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts,
disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the
rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus

The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic
floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is
specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or
solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of
stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops
stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except
when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware
of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external
sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.
 Human Skeletal System

The human skeleton is comprised of the total set of bones that provide the human body
a multifunctional structure. The adult human skeletal system contains 206 bones! It also
consists of the joints, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments that connect them.

The main functions of the skeletal system are:

 Support of the body

 Locomotion
 Provide protection for internal organs
 Act as a site for the production of blood cells and the storage of minerals, particularly
calcium
 Growth and development

The human skeletal system is divided into two principal subdivisions:

the axial and appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the human body and is composed of 80
bones that include the bones of the skull, the ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone
of the throat, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. It also provides protection and
support for the brain, spinal cord and vital organs, in addition to providing a surface for
muscles to attach to.

The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones that include both the upper and
lower limbs and bones of the shoulders and pelvis.

Components of the Skeletal System

The skeletal system is composed of four main fibrous and mineralized connective
tissues : bones, ligaments, tendons, and joints.

Bone: A rigid form of connective tissue that is part of the skeletal system of vertebrates
and is composed principally of calcium.

Ligament: A small band of dense, white, fibrous elastic tissue. Ligaments connect the
ends of bones together in order to form a joint. They also assist in holding organs in
place.
Tendon: A tough, flexible and inelastic band of fibrous connective tissue that connects
muscles to bones.

Joint: Joints hold the skeleton and support movement. They can be grouped together
by function and structure, such as ball-and-socket, hinge, and pivot joints.

Types of Bones
There are five types of bones in the human skeletal system: long, short, flat, irregular,
and sesamoid.

Long Bone: Helps to facilitate movement and support the weight of the body. Long
bones are characterized by a long tubular shaft and an articular surface at each end of
the bone where ligaments and tendons attach. These bones include the major bones of
the arms and legs such as the humerus and femur, tibia and fibula, and the radius and
ulna.

Short Bone: Helps to provide stability and movement within the ankle and wrist joints.
They provide little to no movement. Short bones are roughly cube shaped and are as
long as they are wide. Examples of this type of bone include the carpals and
metacarpals in the wrists and ankles.

Flat Bone: The primary purpose of this type of bone is to protect internal organs such
as the brain, heart and lungs. It also provides a large surface area for muscles to attach
to. Examples of this type of bone include the cranium (skull), the thoracic cage (sternum
and ribs) and the ilium (pelvis).

Irregular Bone: These types of bones vary in size and structure with the shape usually
being very complex. Irregular bones serve different functions depending on location. For
example, vertebrae protect the spinal cord and together make up the spinal column.
Another example would be the hyoid bone which helps to maintain tracheal and
pharyngeal support.

Sesamoid Bone: The function of this bone is to protect tendons and diminish friction
and wear on joint surfaces. This type of bone is usually small and round and is found in
the hands, feet, and knees. A common example of a sesamoid bone is the patella
(kneecap).
 When you consider the relationship between the axial and appendicular skeleton
and the soft tissues of the body, it becomes clear that the primary functions of the
skeleton are support, protection, and motion. Of these functions, support is the oldest
and most primitive; similarly, the axial skeleton was the first to evolve.

A distinguishing characteristic of the human skeleton in comparison to other mammals

is erect posture. Our bodies are, to some extent, similar to a tall building with legs.
Enormous advantages have been gained from this type of posture with the most
prevalent being the freeing of our arms and hands for other functions.

Different Types of Joints

By Function
Synarthrosis: These immovable and strong joints include skull sutures, the
articulations between the teeth and the mandible, and the joint found between the first
pair of ribs and the sternum.

Amphiarthrosis: These joints allow slight movement and include the distal joint
between the tibia and the fibula and the pubic symphysis of the pelvic girdle.

Diarthrosis: These joints allow full movement and include many bone articulations in
the upper and lower limbs. Examples of these include the elbow, shoulder, and ankle.

By Structure
Fibrous: Thick connective tissues composed of collagen fibers found between the
articulations of fibrous joints.

Cartilaginous: Joints that join bones with cartilage.

Synovial: These are characterized by the presence of an articular capsule between the
two joined bones. Bone surfaces at synovial joints are protected by a coating of articular
cartilage.