1.2.

1 Maize (corn)

The term ‘corn’ is frequently applied to the predominant local cereal, viz. wheat in England, oats in
Scotland. In the United States ‘corn’ means specifically maize.

1.2.1.1 Origin and types

Teosinte, the wild ancestor of maize, was domesticated around 9000 years ago in southern Mexico.
Cobs about 25 mm long were found in caves near Puebla. Three thousand years ago maize spread
to the Andes and to eastern North America. From 1492 it spread to Asia, Africa and Europe.

Classification of maize and related species is complex (see Iltis and Doebley, 1980). The species of
commercial production is Zea mays L. (2n=20), but in current classification, wild and domesticated
forms are recognized as subspecies, with the domesticated form as Zea mays L. ssp. mays. Different
types of maize have evolved through selection, differing mainly in the nature of the endosperm.
They are shown with the principal characteristics in Table 1.4.

Maize grains may be white, yellow or reddish in colour. White is preferred in east and southern
Africa; even in the United States, where the predominant colour is yellow, white maize commands
a premium. In world production, white maize constitutes less than 20%. Yellow maize is preferred
for poultry feeds; the reddish type is favoured in Japan.

While conventional maize is a valuable ingredient of diets of both humans and livestock, it suffers
from a limitation in the nutritional quality of its protein. The main deficiencies are in the
proportions pres- ent of the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan. However, in the early
1960s, a mutant maize cultivar with similar total protein content but twice the amount of lysine and
tryptophan and 90% bioavailable protein was discovered (Bressani, 1991). This nutritionally
superior maize was named ‘opaque-2’ maize because of the chalky (i.e., not vitreous) appearance of
its endosperm when cut. Subsequent research demonstrated that the mechanism for the
improvement was the sup- pression of zein synthesis. Zein is the prolamine (see Chapter 4) protein
of maize, and like the prolamines of many cereals it is deficient in some essential amino acids.
Opaque-2 had lower yields and its soft, chalky grain made it more susceptible to ear rot and insect
damage. Moreover,

the taste and grain appearance dissatisfied consumers, who ultimately rejected the enhanced-
protein varieties in the market. Subsequent con- ventional breeding efforts at CIMMYT generated
numerous cultivars with improved agronomic characteristics, and these were referred to as quality
protein maize (QPM). Further work, using the CIMMYT approach in a number of countries, is
continuing as large-scale pro- duction of QPM maize promises to offer significant benefits (Moura
Duarte et al., 2004).

1.2.1.2 Cultivation

The crop is grown in climates ranging from temperate to tropical, during the period when mean
daily temperatures are above 15°C and frost-free. The photosynthetic pathway found in maize is
C4, a charac- teristic found in tropical grasses, in which less water is utilized in the production of
biomass.

For germination the lowest mean daily temperature is about 10°C, with 18–20°C being optimum.
When mean daily temperatures during the grow- ing season are greater than 20°C, early grain
varieties take 80–110 days and medium varieties 110–140 days to mature. When mean daily
temperatures are below 20°C, there is an extension in days to maturity of 10–20 days for each 0.5°C
decrease depending on variety.

Maize tolerates hot and dry atmospheric conditions as long as suf- ficient water is available and
temperatures are below 45°C. It is con- sidered to be either a day-neutral or a short-day plant. The
growth of maize is very responsive to radiation, however, five or six leaves near and above the cob
are the source of assimilation for grain filling and light must penetrate to these leaves. Plant
population varies from 20,000 to 30,000 plants per hectare for the large late varieties to 50,000 to
80,000 for small early varieties. Sowing depth is 5–7 cm with one or more seeds per sowing point.

The plant does well on most soils but less so on very heavy dense clay and very sandy soils. The
soil should preferably be well aerated and well drained as the crop is susceptible to waterlogging.
The fertility demands for grain maize are relatively high and amount, for high-producing vari-
eties, up to about 200kg/ha N, 50–80kg/ha P and 60–100kg/ha K. In general, the crop can be grown
continuously as long as soil fertility is maintained (FAO water/crops website).
1.2.1.3 Diseases and pests

Diseases affecting maize, growing in different parts of the world, include downy mildew
(Sclerospora and Peronosclerospora spp.), leaf blight (Helminthosporium turcicum and Helminthosporium
maydis), rusts (Puccinia spp.), maize smut (Ustilago maydis), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gramini-
cola), bacterial leaf blight (Pseudomonas avanae), stalk and ear rots (several pathogens e.g., bacterial
ear rot Erwinia chrysanthemi).

Pests include stem borers (Brusseola fusca), stalk borers (e.g., Papaipema nebris) corn ear worm
(Helicoverpa zea) and army worm (e.g., Mythimna unipuncta).

In Africa, particularly, species of the semiparasitic weed Striga are intru- sive and damaging weeds.
see also Section 1.1.8.4 (ref to info on pests and diseases earlier in chapter).

1.2.1.4 Uses

Maize is traditionally a feed grain and this continues to be an impor- tant use. However, some
types, such as sweetcorn and popcorn are used primarily as human food. Food use of the main crop
is also important in some countries, such as several in Africa. Elsewhere, corn grits are used in the
manufacture of breakfast cereals, and cornstarch is used as a thickener in food products. Corn
syrups are used as sweeteners in processed food and drinks. Recently maize has been used as a
feedstock for production of biofuels including ethanol and diesel and in 2014 in the United States
this use exceeded feed use (www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/corn/back- ground.aspx).

The largest volume industrial process applied to maize grains is wet milling to produce starch as a
main product; dry milling, to produce grits is applied to a smaller volume. In both processes the
embryos, which are rich in lipid, are isolated and a product known as maize (corn) germ oil is
produced by extraction. By-products of maize milling and germ oil extrac- tion are suitable for
inclusion in feed.

Maize is the largest component of global coarse grain (corn, sorghum, barley, oats, rye, millet and
mixed grains) trade, generally accounting for about two-thirds of the volume over the past decade.

1.2.1.5 Global production

Around 80% of the world’s maize crop production is shared between two continental regions: the
Americas and Asia (Fig. 1.31).

While there has been an increase in production in other continents, the most consistent increase has
been demonstrated for Asia where, over a 5-year period, production has been raised by about 30%
(Fig. 1.32). The marginally greater contribution to this increase has been improved yield, which rose
by 15% (Fig. 1.34), and area harvested expanded by 13% (Fig. 1.33).

Although the contribution by Oceania is less than 1% of world maize production, yields in that
region are among the highest in the world. For more details of production see Chapter 2.

1.2.2 Rice
Although world production of maize exceeds that of rice, rice is the world’s largest human-food
crop. Rice contributes approximately 21% of

world per capita caloric intake, and 27% of per capita calories in the devel- oping countries. In
highest-consumption countries, Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar, up to 80% of caloric intake is
derived from rice. Of the 440million tonnes of polished rice produced in the world in 2010, 85%
went into direct human food supply. By contrast, 70% of wheat and only 15% of maize production
was directly consumed by humans.

1.2.2.1 Origin and types

Rice was domesticated 7000–8000years ago in China in the Yangtze River valley. It is thought to
have reached India 4000years ago, possibly hybridizing with local wild rices, and Japan 2400years
ago. Rice culture

gradually spread westward from northeastern Asia and was introduced to southern Europe in
medieval times.

Rice belongs to the genus Oryza, which includes 20 wild species and the two cultivated annual
species: Oryza sativa, known as Asian rice and Oryza glaberrima known as African rice. O. sativa
whose wild ancestor, the perennial Oryza rufipogon, grows throughout South and Southeast Asia, is
now grown in 112 countries on all continents except Antarctica (Black et al., 2006). O. glaberrima,
originating from Oryza barthii, is confined to West Africa, and even here it is progressively being
replaced by O. sativa (but see NERICA below). The ‘wild rice’ of the Great Lakes region of North
America is a different species and indeed a different genus, though in the same tribe as rice. It is
Zizania palustris.

O. sativa is characterized by subspecies (or races), the primary ones being indica and japonica.
Whether these were independently domesticated is controversial. All members of the Oryza genus
have 24 (2n) chromo- somes, and while interspecific crossing is possible within each complex, it is
difficult to recover fertile offspring from crosses across complexes.

Grains of indica type are long, narrow and slightly flattened. They are fluffy and remain separate
when cooked, whereas grains of japonica are short, broad and thick with a rounded cross-section,
they become moist and sticky on cooking.

Within the indica long-grain rice family are the fragrant rices. Because of their distinctive perfumes
they command a price premium. The principal varieties defined as aromatic are the fragrant ‘Hom
Mali’ rice produced in Thailand and the various types of basmati exclusively grown on the
Himalayan foothills in India (in the states of Haryana and Punjab) and Pakistan (in the state of
Punjab).

Japonica rice is mainly cultivated (and consumed) in temperate and tropical-upland climatic zones,
in eastern and northern China, Taiwan, North and South Korea, the EU, Japan, Russia and Turkey.
It is also grown in Australia and the United States (California).

Many of the rice hybrids available to producers derive from the basic indica varieties, including the
semidwarf rice varieties, the introduction of which led to record yield increases throughout Asia in
the 1960s and 1970s. Although research into genetically modified (GM) rice has intensi- fied since
the decoding of the rice genome in 2002, no GM rice has yet been officially released for commercial
production.

Another type, known as glutinous, sweet or waxy rice (Oryza sativa L. var. glutinosa) and grown
mainly in Southeast and East Asia, has a chalky, opaque endosperm, the cut surface of which has
the appearance of paraf- fin wax. It differs from nonglutinous strains of japonica rice which also
become sticky to some degree when cooked. The starch from glutinous rice contains 0.8%–1.3% of
amylose. The amylose content of milled rice may be classified as waxy, 1%–2%; intermediate, 20%–
25%; and high, >25%
In 1971 the African Rice Center (WARDA) was created by 11 African coun- tries to contribute to
poverty alleviation and food security in Africa, through research, development and partnership
activities aimed at increasing the productivity and profitability of the rice sector in ways that ensure
the sus- tainability of the farming environment. Today its membership comprises 25 countries. In
the early 1990s a new rice known as NERICA (New rice for Africa) was developed, by conventional
breeding techniques, at the Center by crossing African rice (O. glaberrima) with Asian rice (O. sativa)
(Jones et al., 1997). NERICA varieties have unique characteristics such as higher yields of 1.5 tons
per hectare (tonne/ha) without fertilizer application. Other qualities include early maturity,
tolerance to major stresses, higher protein content and good taste compared with the traditional rice
varieties.

1.2.2.2 Cultivation

Rice is a warm-season crop grown predominantly in tropical and sub- tropical climates as a
semiaquatic annual grass although, in the tropics, it can survive as a perennial producing new
tillers from nodes (see ratoon- ing earlier) after harvest. Cultivation methods may be classified as
paddy, upland and flood prone.

Paddy rice is grown in enclosures bounded by bunds or levees that become flooded so that plants
are grown in standing water, the level of which may be controlled by irrigation to depths
appropriate to growth stage. At times these will be greater than 15 cm. Upland (or dry land) rice is
grown with (often sparse) natural rainfall alone.

Flood prone (deep water or ‘floating’) rice is grown in river basins or deltas that become
uncontrollably flooded, often to 1.5 m deep, during the rainy season.

Alternative designations of the rice growing ecosystems, based on soil- water conditions, include
irrigated lowland, irrigated upland, rain-fed lowland, rain-fed upland and deep-water/floating. In
the case of rain-fed, lowland rice, where water levels are dependent entirely on rainfall, depths of
50–100 cm can occur.

The ability of rice to grow on saline soils has been proved in many parts of the world. Many
researchers consider rice to be a crop with medium salt resis- tance and, since water reduces salt
concentration, plant growth is not inhib- ited. Investigations carried out by physiologists have
shown that rice is most susceptible to saline soils at the germination, shooting and flowering stages.

The environmental and socioeconomic conditions of rice production vary greatly from country to
country as well as from location to location. The diverse environmental and socioeconomic
conditions have affected the performance of rice production in the past. They also influence the
opportunities for increasing rice production in the future. Rice farming in Asia is dominated by
millions of small farmers with an average landhold- ing of 1 ha.

As with some other cereals, in certain climates double cropping is prac- ticed, whereby two crops of
the same or different cereals can be produced in a season. Also under certain conditions, mainly in
lowland systems, a second crop of rice can be obtained during the same season as the first, without
sowing more seed. It is produced by the process of ‘ratooning’, whereby the parts of plants that
remain in the ground after harvest pro- duce more tillers, which bear grains after a period of
maturation.

1.2.2.3 Diseases and pests

Rice blast (Megaporthe grisea) is a serious fungal disease but bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas
campestris pv. oryzae) can also cause serious dam- age. The important tungro virus is spread by
several species of leafhopper including Nephotettix spp. and Recilia dorsalis and can be devastating in
south and southeast Asia.

Pests capable of serious direct plant damage include the brown plan- thopper (Nilaparvata lugeus)
and stem borers including the Asiatic rice borer (Chilo suppressalis) otherwise known as the striped
rice stem borer and the yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas).

Snails such as Pomacea canaliculata and rats are also a problem.

The widespread barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), also grown as a millet, competes with crop
plants for nitrogen and hosts pathogens capa- ble of infecting rice.

1.2.2.4 Uses

Rice, more than any other cereal, is a food crop. It is mainly eaten cooked as whole grains after
removal of hulls (as brown rice) and possibly after further milling, as white, or polished, rice, to
remove pericarp. About 50% of the world’s paddy is parboiled before milling; that is, it is subjected
to a prescribed sequence of soaking, steaming and drying. Parboiling con- fers a number of
advantages in that it leads to an increase in the yield of polished rice that has an enhanced
nutritional value. Its storage potential is improved and it requires less cooking (Kaddus et al., 2002).

Rice flour, produced mainly from broken grains, has many food and industrial uses. Some rice
grain products are fed to animals. Rice bran oil (extracted essentially from the embryos removed
from the grain with the bran during special milling) has value as a cooking oil.

1.2.2.5 Global production

The degree of dominance of Asia in the production of rice is demon- strated in Fig. 1.35, which
shows also that in global terms the contributions of Europe and Oceania are barely significant.
However, it was in Oceania (essentially Australia as this is the only significant producer in the
region) where not only the highest yields but also the greatest improvements in yields occurred
during the period 2009–13 (See Chapter 2 for more details on regional production.) (Fig. 1.36).