9/30/13

Basic Ultrasound Physics

Kirk Spencer MD

Speaker has no disclosures to make

The Physics of Echo

•  Sound

–  Audible range 20Khz

–  Medical ultrasound Megahertz range

–  Advantages of imaging with ultrasound

•  Directed as a beam

•  Tomographic

•  Reflected from small objects

•  Non-ionizing

–  Disadvantages

•  Propagates poorly through air

•  Penetration poor (attenuation)

The Physics of Echo

λ = wavelength = v/f

v= velocity

f = frequency

cycle

•  Velocity of sound α density and temperature

1,540 m/sec soft tissue

•  Frequency 3.5 MHz (1-7 MHz)

•  λ = (1,540 m/sec)/(3.5 MHz) = 0.44 mm

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The Physics of Echo

Scattering

–  echoes originating from
relatively small, weakly
reflective, irregularly shaped
objects

–  object size > λ/4

–  not angle dependant

–  inefficient

The Physics of Echo

Reflection

–  echoes originating from
relatively large, regularly
shaped objects with smooth
surfaces

–  objects large α wavelength

–  angle dependant

–  valve, endocardium,
pericardium

The Physics of Echo

Is there pericardial calcification?

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The Physics of Echo

Resolution:

•  Lateral resolution - the ability to
resolve objects side by side

•  Structures must be separated by
more than the width of the
ultrasound beam to be
distinguished as separate

–  Transducer size (larger
better)

–  Frequency (higher better)

–  Focusing

–  Gain (lower better)

The Physics of Echo

Beam width

Low gain



Medium gain



High gain

The Physics of Echo

Resolution:

•  Axial Resolution - Axial resolution
is the ability to resolve objects that
lie along the path of the ultrasound
beam

•  Related to frequency of transducer
and pulse duration

•  In practical terms, axial resolution
is roughly twice the wavelength

Frequency
Wavelength


2.2 MHz
0.68 mm


3.5 MHz
0.43 mm


5.0 MHz
0.3 mm

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The Physics of Echo

Axial resolution vs penetration

•  ↑ frequency leads to better
resolution

•  Penetration ∝ wavelength (1/

Resolution

Penetration

frequency)

–  More scattering (more reflection by
smaller scatterers)

–  More attenuation

The Physics of Echo

Attenuation

–  Loss of ultrasound energy as it passes
through tissue (scattering and absorption)



half-power (cm)

•  Water
380

•  Blood
15

•  Soft tissue
1-5

•  Muscle
0.6-1

•  Bone
0.2-0.6

•  Air
0.08

The Physics of Echo

Resolution vs penetration

•  ↑ frequency leads to better resolution

•  Penetration ∝ wavelength (1/frequency)

Use the highest frequency probe

that gives you an adequate image

2.5 Mhz - 3.5 MHz

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The Physics of Echo

Permanently-polarized
material such as quartz (SiO2)
will produce an electric field
when the material changes
dimensions as a result of an
imposed mechanical force.
These materials are
piezoelectric, and this
phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect.

The Physics of Echo

•  Conversely, an applied
electric field can cause a
piezoelectric material to
change dimensions. This
phenomenon is known as
electrostriction, or the
reverse piezoelectric effect

•  This shape deformation
creates ultrasound
waveforms

The Physics of Echo

Scanning

–  Mechanical transducers

•  Rotating multiple elements, or a single
element and set of acoustic mirrors to
generate the sweeping beam for 2D
imaging

–  Electronic / array transducers

•  Have the ability to be steered by
sequentially stimulating each element. This
feature creates the sector scan by rapidly
steering the beam from left to right to give
the two dimensional cross sectional image.

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The Physics of Echo

Electronic / array transducers

Linear array

•  Sequential firing or array elements
moves beam linearly

•  Require large acoustic window

•  Creates a linear or rectangular
shaped scan plane

The Physics of Echo

Electronic / array transducers

Phased array

•  Phased control of array firing
controls beam direction (and thus
scan line)

•  Creates a sector or pie shaped scan
plane.

The Physics of Echo

Imaging
0.4 µsec

–  Electrical stimulate piezoelectric
crystal which sends ultrasound
pulse



–  Transducer then listens for
returning ultrasound signals
1-2 µsec

–  Transducer listens 99 percent
of time, which increases
sensitivity

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The Physics of Echo

Modes:

•  A Mode - amplitude mode.

Where the signals are displayed
as spikes that are dependent on
the amplitude of the returning
sound energy.

•  B Mode - brightness mode.
Where the signals are displayed
as various points whose
brightness depends on the
amplitude of the returning sound
energy.

The Physics of Echo

Modes:

•  M Mode - motion mode. The

application of B-mode and a strip
chart recorder allows visualization of
the structures as a function of depth
and time.

The Physics of Echo

Modes:

•  2D Mode - 2 dimensional
mode. The spatially oriented
B-mode where structures are
seen as a function of depth
and width. The beam is
rapidly swept back and forth
to create a cross section of
the imaged structures.

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The Physics of Echo

Shadowing

The loss of information
behind an object
because the sound
energy was reflected
back by the object such
that no signal passes
beyond it

Bone, metal valve, air

The Physics of Echo

Artifacts - sidelobe

Ultrasound reflections off
real objects, but from
the ultrasound beam
sidelobes, not the
central beam

Occurs because
ultrasound beam has
width to it

Worse when gain is high

The Physics of Echo

Is there a catheter in RA?

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The Physics of Echo

Artifacts - reverberations

•  Multipath artifacts

•  Sound bounces back
and forth between two
interfaces. This
prolongs the time of
flight, producing an
artifact deep to the
interface.

Artifacts - reverberation

•  Results from ultrasound strikes a target composed of
several highly reflective interfaces

•  Appear as relatively parallel irregular bright lines
extending from the structure

Artifacts - reverberation

•  Appears as a linear
brightness in the direction
of the sound beam and
deep to a strong reflector

•  Results from multiple back
and forth reflections

•  Appear as relatively
parallel irregular bright
lines extending from the
structure

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The Physics of Echo

•  Harmonics
•  Depth

•  Mechanical Index
•  Triggering

•  Compression
•  Frame rate

•  Focus
•  PRF

•  Transducer frequency
•  Packet size

•  Gain
•  Post-processing

•  Grayscale / power Doppler

The Physics of Echo

Overall gain

•  Increases the intensity of received echoes

•  Makes image brighter

The Physics of Echo

Depth

•  Use the least depth that fits the structure of
interest on the screen

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The Physics of Echo

Nonlinear distortion of ultrasound

Fundamental
Fundamental
Amplitude
Amplitude

Harmonics

Frequency Frequency

The Physics of Echo

Harmonic imaging

Lateral resolution

–  Smaller harmonic beam
width
On-Axis Reflectors

Amplitude

Clutter reduction
Off-Axis Reflectors

–  Sidelobe levels decrease
with increasing harmonic
number

Near field artifact reduction
Fund
Harm

Frequency MHz

The Physics of Echo

Doppler Effect

•  Christian Johann Doppler 1842

•  If a source of sound is stationary, the wavelength
and frequency of sound emanating from the source
are constant

•  If a source of sound is moving toward you , it s
wavelength is decreasing (frequency increasing)

•  If a source of sound is moving away from you , it s
wavelength is increasing (frequency decreasing )

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The Physics of Echo

The Physics of Echo

Dependence on angle
between scatter and incident
ultrasound beam

The Physics of Echo

Doppler
echocardiography

Continuous wave

–  Separate transmit and
receive transducer

–  Continuously receiving

–  No maximal velocity
limit

–  Range is ambiguous

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The Physics of Echo

Doppler echocardiography

Continuous wave

The Physics of Echo

Doppler echocardiography

Pulsed wave

•  Range gated Doppler

•  Inability to detect high
frequency Doppler shifts

•  Inability to detect high
velocities

The Physics of Echo

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The Physics of Echo

Doppler echocardiography

Color Doppler

•  Multiple pulsed Doppler
samples along each scan
line

The Physics of Echo

Doppler echocardiography

Color Doppler

•  Velocities colored coded

•  Blue- away, Red - toward

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