CarMar GoutigL

Grouting 2017 GSP 288 185
Statistical Evaluation of Groutability Using Data from Hydraulic Tests and

Fracture Mapping
Case Studies from Sweden
Edward Runslätt1; Johan Thörn, Ph.D.2; Åsa Fransson3; and Sara Kvartsberg4
1
Golder Associates AB, Division of Geotechnical Engineering, Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail:
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by UNIVERSITE LAVAL on 04/22/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Edward_runslatt@golder.se
2
Chalmers Univ. of Technology, Division of GeoEngineering, Gothenburg, Sweden; Bergab,
Gothenburg. E-mail: Johan.thorn@chalmers.se
3
Professor, Chalmers Univ. of Technology, Division of GeoEngineering, Gothenburg, Sweden;
Golder Associates AB, Gothenburg, Sweden. E-mail: Asa_fransson@golder.se
4
Norconsult AB, Division of Rock and Hydrogeology, Gothenburg, Sweden. E-mail:
Sara.kvartsberg@norconsult.com
Abstract
Sweden has a long history of research within the field of rock fissure grouting in hard crystalline
rock mass due to strict environmental requirements regarding allowable ground water draw
down. These requirements normally implies that fractures down to aperture size between 50 to
100 µm needs to be sealed and within these ranges the size of the particles for cementitious
grouting agents becomes a limiting factor. For a grouting design it is therefore of importance to
consider the aperture size distribution of the rock mass in order to predict the groutability for
both cementitious and non-cementitious grouting agents. Transmissivity data from hydraulic
tests (water pressure tests) and number of fractures along a borehole can be assessed from core
logging for further use as input for a statistical interpretation of fracture data to simulate an
aperture size distribution. A methodology developed at Chalmers University of Technology in
Gothenburg, Sweden, is proposed. The method is a statistical evaluation of groutability (SEG)
and is based on the Pareto distribution. A computational design tool has been developed to
simplify the use of the statistical evaluation and to make the research more accessible to end
users, designers, in the grouting industry. The aim of this article is to present two case studies
where the statistical interpretation of fracture data is performed by using the computational
design tool and how the outcome can be of great use in finding a more accurate grouting design.
The case studies include fracture data sets from two large infrastructure rock tunnel projects in
Sweden; a road tunnel in Stockholm and a railroad tunnel in Gothenburg.
© ASCE
Grouting 2017
INTRODUCTION
Sweden has a long history of research within the field of rock fracture grouting in fractured
crystalline rock mass. This is due to strict environmental requirements in urban environments
regarding groundwater ingress in rock tunnels and other underground structures below the
groundwater table. If the groundwater table is lowered settlements will occur due to the
geological conditions with soft clays which will cause damages to the structures. To receive a
building permit the owner needs to present a sustainable sealing strategy in order to minimize the
environmental impact on the surroundings approved from the Swedish Land and Environment
Court. In the approval process various types of measurable sealing demands need to be specified
such as maximum allowed groundwater ingress, groundwater drawdown, risk assessment etc.
Monitoring programs are issued to assure that the inflow requirements are fulfilled. The County
Administrative Board do regular follow up, during construction, with the owner to verify that the
grouting works is in line with the approved permit for water works which include the specific
sealing demands and restrictions for allowable ground water lowering. These requirements
normally implies that fractures down to aperture size between 50 to 100 µm needs to be sealed
and within these ranges the size of the particles in a cementitious grouting agent becomes a
limiting factor.
Depending of the magnitude of the project various extensive pre-investigations are executed to
characterize the hydraulic properties of the rock mass. When cities grow and create a denser and
more compact urban environment, authorities introduce tougher requirements to protect existing
interests (buildings, structures, environment etc.). This results in a need to make better
predictions and designs in terms of sealing against water ingress during construction.
For grouting design it is of great importance to be able to describe the fracture aperture
distribution in the rock mass in order to make predictions of groutability for both cementitious
and non-cementitious grouts. Factors that affects the groutability is fracture aperture distribution,
fracture network connectivity, fracture intensity and rheology of the grouting agent.
A method for Statistical Evaluation of Groutability (SEG) developed at Chalmers University of

Technology suggests the use of the Pareto (Power Law) distribution and combinatorics to
describe a fracture transmissivity distribution and further a fracture aperture distribution
(Fransson 2002, Gustafson et al. 2004). The SEG method is based on transmissivity data from
short duration hydraulic tests conducted in test sections along a borehole. These are linked to
fracture position data from core mapping and/or optic televiewer from the corresponding section
in the borehole.
The fracture aperture distribution can be used to design a preferable type of grouting agent to use
for an investigated rock mass to be grouted. It can also be used to assess whether cementitious or
© ASCE
Grouting 2017
non-cementitious grout is needed, where the first is normally preferred and the latter is normally
only used in situations where the penetrability of cementitious grout is poor, i.e. fractures smaller
than 50 to 100 µm. The outcome of the fracture aperture distribution can also be of use for other
applications such as evaluating grout penetrability and grout spread (Gustafson and Stille 1996).
Fransson et al. (2016) presents examples of hydraulic testing, grout selection and estimate of
grout spread (penetration length).
Runslätt et al. (2013) highlighted that in order to make SEG method more available, user friendly
and transparent there is a need for a more extensive description and better understanding of how
to deal with model uncertainties regarding quality of input data gathered from borehole
investigations. Furthermore a more uniform approach of how to set up an analysis was requested.
In response, Thörn et al. (2015) developed a computational tool, coded with Visual Basics for
Applications (VBA) in excel, that in a uniform way simplifies the use and makes the SEG
method more available to the designers in the Swedish grouting industry. This tool also makes
the analysis more transparent and easier to review. The computational design tool comes with a
report that gives an in depth description of the theoretical background of the SEG method,
guidance for data collection in field and a user manual in how to perform the data input.
It should be kept in mind that fairly simple models are used for the SEG method and that the
result should be considered a useful guidance in grouting design and not as an exact answer.
The aim of this article is to present two case studies where the statistical interpretation of fracture
data is done by using the computational design tool and show how the outcome can be of use in
finding an accurate grouting design. The case studies include fracture data sets from two large
infrastructure rock tunnel projects in Sweden; a road tunnel in Stockholm and a railroad tunnel in
Gothenburg. This article will present a summary of the theoretical background while Fransson
(2002), Gustafson & Fransson (2005), Thörn et al (2015) and Thörn et al (2016) gives the reader
a more in depth description.
THEORY
Input data/ Data Collection

The SEG method use two input parameters: hydraulic transmissivity measurements and fracture
data collected from water pressure tests and mapping of rock cores respectively. A suggested
approach to reach sufficient resolution is to perform water pressure tests (WPT) in three meter
sections. Longer sections are used, 5-10 m, but will result in a loss of resolution for the analysis.
Fracture data mapping should be performed by a person with good skills to judge whether
fractures are open or closed. The open fractures along the borehole should be correlated to the
corresponding WPT section as a first step before the analysis is performed.
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Grouting 2017
Evaluation of the transmissivity, T [m2/s], from WPTs can for example be performed with
Moyes equation (Gustafson 2012):
∙ρ ∙
= ∙ 1+ Eq. 1
2 ∙ 2∙
where Q [m3/s] is the stationary steady state water flow logged at the end of the test period, dp
[Pa] is the constant water injection pressure, ρw [kg/m3] is the density of water, g [m/s2] is the
constant of gravity, rw is the borehole radius and L [m] is the length of water test section.
To perform a good quality statistical analysis it is of great importance to collect fracture data
with high quality and good accuracy. High quality in this instance is achieved through data
collected by experienced field personnel being aware of the purpose of the investigation, using
calibrated equipment relevant for the task and record any event or anomaly that could be of
interest for a designer to interpret the data in a correct way. Good accuracy is acquired with
calibrated flowmeter and piezometers with appropriate detection ranges and small error. Listed
below are a number of factors that needs to be considered during data collection.
• Core drilling, minimum double tubing, is strongly recommended since it result in a less
rough borehole wall in comparison to a percussion drilled hole. This will allow a double
packer that is used during WPTs to better seal against the borehole wall in each
individual test section. The risk of leakage around the packers will also be minimized.
Core drilling also produce a rock core which can be used for the fracture mapping which
is needed for the analysis. An optic televiewer can be used as a substitute or
complementary method.
• Measurement limits and accuracy for the flowmeter and piezometers should be based
upon the smallest fractures that need to be grouted to meet the specific sealing
requirements, i.e. inflow, environmental impact etc. It is especially important that the
lower detection limit for the flowmeter is small enough and corresponds to the inflow
requirements.
• A maximum section length of three meter is recommended for WPT. A longer section
length will result in fewer sections and a loss in resolution for the analysis.
• The water pressure and the water flow should be logged in real time. It is recommended
to install a piezometer in the actual test section, instead of at the ground surface, in order
to measure the actual water injection pressure. It is also recommended to install
piezometers above and below the double packer to detect any pressure increases. This
could be interpreted as either a leakage around the packers or a rock mass with a good
connectivity between the fractures.
• A shut-in device installed at the packer is also recommended to eliminate the borehole
storage effect.
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The amount of sections needed for an analysis have not been investigated, from experience there
is a need for at least 20 to 40 WPT sections. This topic is planned to be investigated in future
research.
Pareto distribution
The Pareto distribution has turned out to be suitable for describing how hydraulic fracture
apertures and hydraulic transmissivities are distributed in hard crystalline rock (Gustafson 2012).
This distribution is well suited for data sets where a small quantity of fractures have a large
aperture while a large quantity have a small aperture.
With use of the Pareto distribution and combinatorics a fracture transmissivity distribution can
be calculated based on evaluated section transmissivities from a borehole together with
corresponding fracture data. The Pareto distribution is described by the function:
= ∙ Eq. 2
where C is a constant, T [m2/s] is the transmissivity and k [-] is the shape parameter. The value
of the k-parameter is vital as it describes the shape of the simulated aperture distribution as will
be shown later in the case studies. In the computational design tool a probability transmissivity
distribution is calculated and correlated to the Pareto function graphically and the k-parameter is
evaluated. This step is further described in Fransson (2002), Gustafson & Fransson (2005) and
Thörn et al (2015 and 2016).
If the k-parameter is smaller than 0.5 then the largest fracture is always in the same order of
magnitude as the section transmissivity. The larger k-values the smaller the spread are of fracture
transmissivities for individual fractures in a section. Large k-values are generally expected in
fracture zones or fractures with a high connectivity (Gustafson 2012). It has also been observed
that large k-values might be a result of data collected with not small enough lower detection
limit.
The transmissivity distribution can be translated to an aperture distribution with the cubic law
(Snow 1968):
12 ∙
= ∙ Eq. 3
∙
where bhyd [m] is the hydraulic aperture and µw [Pa·s] is the viscosity of water. The transmissivity
distribution is proportional to cube of the aperture distribution.
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Grouting 2017
The following model assumptions need to be considered when using the SEG method:
• The theory behind the cubic law considers individual fractures as smooth parallel plates.
• The transmissivity of each individual fracture is assumed to be independent which means
that the sum of all individual fracture transmissivities corresponds to the total
transmissivity of the borehole (Fransson 2002).
• The largest fracture in each section is assumed to be by far most conductive and is given
a flowrate (from the WPT) in the same order of magnitude as the total flow in the section
(Fransson 2002). The remainder of the transmissivities is shared among the remaining
smaller fractures. For a section where all fractures are hydraulically well connected
(dependent) it is suggested to set the number of fractures to one, since all fractures are
linked and “acts as one”.
• If data is collected within an area where different hydraulic domains are present it is
recommended that the data is analyzed separately for each domain. Examples of
different domains can be different rock types, deformation zones etc.
• Results from a WPT reflects the transmissivity of the rock mass in the close vicinity to
the borehole. But it is assumed that this data also represent a much larger rock volume.
• Evaluation of transmissivity is assumed to be done from hydraulic tests that have
reached stationary steady state conditions, if not it is suggested to evaluate the test data
as a transient test which requires a more detailed and extensive data collection.
Estimation of water inflow

Gustafson (1986) gives an example of how to calculate a rough estimate of the water inflow into
an ungrouted tunnel which was further developed 2004 by Gustafson et al. for a grouted rock
tunnel. The groundwater level need to be assumed close to the ground surface.
The ungrouted, q [m3/s], and grouted tunnel inflow, qinj [m3/s], can be estimated with:
2∙ ∙ / ∙
= Eq. 4
2∙
+ξ
2∙ ∙ / ∙
=
2∙ Eq. 5
+ −1 ∙ 1+ +ξ
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Grouting 2017
Where Ttot is the sum of all fracture transmissivities and Tinj is the residual transmissivity after
fractures to a certain size have been grouted. L [m] is the total length of the tunnel section, H [m]
is the distance to the ground surface, rt [m] is the tunnel radius, ξ [-] is the skin factor.
CASE STUDY
In the following case studies the computational design tool has been used with data from two
different projects that are to be constructed in the near future. The West Link project is presented
as a summary of the case study presented in Thörn et al. (2016) and the Stockholm Bypass is a
new case. These projects have been chosen since they have investigations with different
detection limits for the WPTs and it will be demonstrated how this influence the analysis and
conclusions.
The West Link Project

The West Link is a planned railroad tunnel under the city of Gothenburg that will improve the
capacity for commuting and regional trains in the area. Total length of the tunnel will be six km
of which four km is in rock and two in soil (Swedish Transport Administration 2016). The
geology can be described as a sparsely fractured gneiss that is frequently heavily foliated.
WPTs were performed during the course of two different field investigations. During the first
investigation a more rudimentary equipment was used with a lower detection limit for the flow,
set to 0.1 l/min (the actual lower detection limit was unknown). This was used early in the
project and corresponded to standard procedure at the time. The main reason for the second
investigation was to provide data for design with the SEG method, using a more refined
flowmeter with a lower detection limit of 0.005 l/min. There were also improvements made by
installing piezometers in the test section instead of at the ground surface as was the case for the
first investigation. The measurements for both investigations were performed in the same three
core drilled boreholes which makes the results comparable. Data from the first and second
investigation is hereafter denoted as data set 1 and data set 2.
The sum of the evaluated transmissivities, Ttot, for the boreholes is 4·10-6 and 5·10-6 m2/s for data
set 1 and 2 respectively. This indicates that both investigations manage to log the larger
hydraulic fractures in a similar way. But the difference between the two data sets is obvious
when performing an analysis and calculating the fracture aperture distribution, see Figure 1. For
data set 1 a majority of the fracture apertures (more than 90% of the fractures) are within the
range 15 to 40 µm with a k-value of 1.1. The corresponding range is 2 to 20 µm with a k-value
of 0.42 for data set 2.
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Micro-fine cement is considered to properly seal fractures down to a range between 50 to 100
µm (Fransson 2008, Gustafson 2012, Stille 2015). Micro-fine cement is according to the
European Standards (2000) characterized by a specific surface area larger than 800 m2/kg and a
d95 smaller 20 µm. A tunnel inflow calculation, Eq. 4, results in a tunnel inflow, q, of
approximately 8 l/min·100 m for both data sets. If grouting is assumed to be performed of all
fractures down to an aperture size of 50 µm the residual inflow, Eq. 5, is estimated to 7.5 and 3.0
l/min·100 m respectively (assumed that H= 30 m, L= 135 m, rt= 5 m and ξ= 5.). Based on the
first investigation a standard grouting procedure with micro-fine cement would marginally
reduce the inflow, while the second investigation result in a significant inflow reduction if all
fractures down to 50 µm are grouted.
Simulated aperture distribution

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
P(b<bn)
0.5
0.4
0.3 First data set
0.2 Second data set
0.1 50 micrometer
0
1 10 100 1000
b(µm)
Figure 1: Show the aperture distribution for the first and second data sets. The dotted line
represents 50 µm.
E4 the Stockholm bypass Project

The Stockholm bypass is located west of the city of Stockholm in order to relieve the major
existing connection between the southern and northern suburbs. The two main tunnels is
designed as a six lane 21 km highway of which 19 km are tunnels. The tunnel is divided into two
stretches, 16.5 km and 1.8 km respectively, and will be one of the world’s longest road tunnels
when completed in 2025. The geology can be described as sedimentary gneiss that is sparsely
fractured with occasional parts of highly fractured rock.
A total of seven cored boreholes have been investigated. WPTs were performed during different
phases of the pre-investigation program, hence two different flowmeters were used with a lower
detection limit of 0.05 l/min (two boreholes, data set 3) and 0.002 l/min (five boreholes, data set
4).
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Grouting 2017
As opposed to the West Link project, data set 3 and 4 can’t be directly compared since the
investigations were performed in different boreholes. Although all boreholes are considered to be
drilled in the same rock domain some differences are still expected. The sum of the
transmissivities are 4·10-5 m2/s and 2·10-5 m2/s and the k-values are 0.52 and 0.61 for data set 3
and 4 respectively. As seen in Figure 2 both data sets have a similar shape which is also reflected
by the k-values.
The inflow to a tunnel can be estimated to an inflow, q, of 55 and 19 l/min·100 m for data set 3
and 4 respectively (Eq. 4). If all fractures are assumed to be grouted down to 50 µm the residual
inflow, qinj, is estimated to 16 and 10 l/min·100 m respectively (assumed that H= 30 m, L= 135
m, rt= 5 m and ξ= 5, with Eq. 5). This can be compared to the actual inflow requirements for the
Stockholm Bypass that varies between 7-20 l/min·100 m depending on tunnel segment. If
fractures down to 50 µm can be grouted successfully it is likely that the inflow requirements will
be fulfilled based on data sets and given assumptions.
Data set 3 and 4 have k-values in the same range, 0.52 and 0.61 which is evaluated as both data
sets are in the same rock domain. Even though the lower detection limit were different, 0.05
versus 0.002 l/min, both data sets produce a similar aperture distribution which ranges over the
same order of magnitude. The difference in estimated inflow to a tunnel before and after grouting
can be explained with the investigations being performed in different boreholes. Which implies
that the detection limit of 0.05 l/min seems to be suitable for the inflow requirements that are
presented above.
Figure 2: Show the aperture distribution for the third and fourth data sets. The dotted line
represents 50 µm.
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Grouting 2017
CONCLUSION
An understanding of the fracture aperture distribution is a key element to get a better

understanding of the hydraulic properties when doing a grouting design in crystalline rock. As
seen in the case studies an aperture distribution can be estimated based on transmissivity and
fracture data from core drilled boreholes.
For the Swedish grouting industry it is generally assumed that grouting can be performed with
cementitious grouts. By using the analysis and theories of inflow estimates to tunnels the
designer can get valuable input to whether a standard grouting design with cementitious grout is
reasonable or if it need to be reconsidered.
When it comes to the data collection the West Link project is a good example of how different
level of input data will affect the analysis. If only the first data set would have been considered
during the grouting design it is possible that grouting with cementitious grout might have been
rejected considering the limited sealing effect since the majority of the hydraulic fractures
appeared to be smaller than 50 µm. It is obvious that the lower detection limit wasn’t specifically
considered during the preparation of the investigation program for the WPTs. In this case data set
1 wasn’t planned to be analyzed according to the SEG method presented in this article.
The detection limits should be designed according to an expected inflow requirement. If the
requirement is yet to be determined the detection limit should be assumed on the conservative
side, i.e. a small limit. A small enough lower detection limit should be used in order to not lose
resolution. A loss in resolution will reflect on the transmissivity and aperture distribution, which
is seen in data set 1 for the West Link case. It is observed that the aperture distribution only
range over one order of magnitude, while data set 2 (with a lower detection limit) span over three
order of magnitudes and therefore show accordance with the general notion of a Pareto
distribution, i.e. the data collection shouldn’t be physically censored/limited. The rock quality is
evaluated, from core logging, as sparsely fractured which in terms of k-values should result in a
value of 0.5 or lower (Gustafson 2012). With this knowledge data set 1 can be deemed
inappropriate with a k-value of 1.1 which hints of a highly fractured rock. This implies that a
data set that isn’t physically limited (by detection limits) will result in a more reliable description
of the hydraulic properties of the rock mass. Early time estimates such as those presented here
should be followed up and reviewed during further investigations and construction.
The research conducted at technical universities is of great importance in order to push the
industry to a higher level of understanding of how grouting can be used in a more cost effective
manner. The computational design tool is an example of such an effort. With more refined
models and analyses there is also a need for high quality data that is collected in a uniform and
controlled way with the use of the latest technology to log and visualize the data in the field.
© ASCE
Grouting 2017
REFERENCES
European Standards (2000). Execution of Special Geotechnical Work – Grouting. CSN EN

12715.
Fransson, Å. (2002). Nonparametric Method for Transmissivity Distributions Along Boreholes.
Ground Water. 2002 Mar-Apr; 40(2):201-4
Fransson, Å. (2008). Grouting design based on characterization of the fractured rock -
Presentation and demonstration of a methodology. SKB, Report R-08-127, Stockholm,

Sweden.
Fransson, Å., Funehag, J., Thörn, J. (2016). Swedish grouting design: hydraulic testing and
selection of grout. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Ground
Improvements. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jgrim.15.00020
Gustafson, G (1986). Geohydrologiska förundersökningar i berg. Bakgrund – Metodik -
Användning. BEFO, Report 84:1/6, Stockholm, Sweden.
Gustafson, G., Stille, H. (1996). Prediction of groutability from grout properties and
hydrogeological data. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology. 1996, Vol. 11,
No. 3, 325-332.
Gustafson, G., Fransson, Å., Funehag, J. and Axelsson, M. (2004). Ett nytt angreppssätt för
bergbeskrivning och analysprocess för injektering. Väg och Vattenbyggaren 4,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Gustafson, G., Fransson, Å. (2005). The use of Pareto distribution for fracture transmissivity
assessment, Hydrogeology Journal, 14, 15-20.
Gustafson, G. (2012). Hydrogeology for Rock Engineers. BEFO, Stockholm, Sweden.
Runslätt, E., Creütz, M., Hässler, H. (2013). Groutability of the rock mass using fracture
statistics. Nordic Grouting Symposium 2013, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Snow, D. T. Rock fracture spacings, openings and porosities. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundations Division. 1968, Vol 94, 73-92
Stille, H. (2015). Rock Grouting – Theories and Application. BEFO, Stockholm, Sweden.
Swedish Transport Administration. (2016-09-07). Retrieved from
http://www.trafikverket.se/nara-dig/Vastra-gotaland/projekt-i-vastra-gotalands-
lan/Vastlanken---smidigare-pendling-och-effektivare-trafik/skiss-sa-bygger-vi-
vastlanken/
Thörn, J., Kvartsberg, S., Runslätt, E., Almfeldt, S., and Fransson, Å. (2015). Beräkningsverktyg
för bergkaraktärisering vid injekteringsdesign – Teori och användarhandledning. BEFO,
Report 143, Stockholm, Sweden.
Thörn, J., Kvartsberg, S., Runslätt, E. and Fransson, Å. (2016). Calculation tool for hydraulic
characterization during grouting design. Nordic Grouting Symposium 2016, Oslo,
Norway.
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Grouting 2017 GSP 288 185

Statistical Evaluation of Groutability Using Data from Hydraulic Tests and

A method for Statistical Evaluation of Groutability (SEG) developed at Chalmers University of

Input data/ Data Collection

Estimation of water inflow

The West Link Project

Simulated aperture distribution

E4 the Stockholm bypass Project

An understanding of the fracture aperture distribution is a key element to get a better

European Standards (2000). Execution of Special Geotechnical Work – Grouting. CSN EN

Presentation and demonstration of a methodology. SKB, Report R-08-127, Stockholm,

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