Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE, UHMW) is a subset of the thermoplastic polyethylene. Also known as
high-modulus polyethylene, (HMPE), it has extremely long chains, with a molecular mass usually between 3.5 and 7.5 million
amu.[1] The longer chain serves to transfer load more effectively to the polymer backbone by strengthening intermolecular
interactions. This results in a very tough material, with the highestimpact strength of any thermoplastic presently made.[2]

UHMWPE is odorless, tasteless, and nontoxic.[3] It embodies all the characteristics of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with the
added traits of being resistant to concentrated acids and alkalis, as well as numerous organic solvents.[4] It is highly resistant to
corrosive chemicals except oxidizing acids; has extremely low moisture absorption and a very low coefficient of friction; is self-
lubricating (see boundary lubrication); and is highly resistant to abrasion, in some forms being 15 times more resistant to abrasion
than carbon steel. Its coefficient of friction is significantly lower than that of nylon and acetal and is comparable to that of
[5][6]
polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE, Teflon), but UHMWPE has better abrasion resistance than PTFE.

Contents
Development
Structure and properties
Production
Applications
Fiber
Medical
Manufacturing
Wire/cable
Music Equipment
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Development
Polymerization of UHMWPE was commercialized in the 1950s by Ruhrchemie AG,[7] which has changed names over the years.
Today UHMWPE powder materials, which may be directly molded into a product's final shape, are produced by Ticona, Braskem,
DSM, Teijin (Endumax), Celanese, and Mitsui. Processed UHMWPE is available commercially either as fibers or in consolidated
form, such as sheets or rods. Because of its resistance to wear and impact, UHMWPE continues to find increasing industrial
applications, including the automotive and bottling sectors. Since the 1960s, UHMWPE has also been the material of choice for total
joint arthroplasty in orthopedic and spine implants.[1]

UHMWPE fibers, commercialized in the late 1970s by the Dutch chemical company DSM, are widely used in ballistic protection,
defense applications, and increasingly in medical devices.

Structure and properties

UHMWPE is a type of polyolefin. It is made up of extremely long chains of polyethylene, which all
align in the same direction. It derives its strength largely from the length of each individual molecule
(chain). Van der Waals bonds between the molecules are relatively weak for each atom of overlap
between the molecules, but because the molecules are very long, large overlaps can exist, adding up to
the ability to carry larger shear forces from molecule to molecule. Each chain is bonded to the others
with so many van der Waals bonds that the whole of the inter-molecular strength is high. In this way,
large tensile loads are not limited as much by the comparative weakness of each van der W
aals bond.
Structure of
UHMWPE, with n
When formed into fibers, the polymer chains can attain a parallel orientation greater than 95% and a
greater than 100,000
level of crystallinity from 39% to 75%. In contrast, Kevlar derives its strength from strong bonding
between relatively short molecules.

The weak bonding between olefin molecules allows local thermal excitations to disrupt the crystalline order of a given chain piece-
by-piece, giving it much poorer heat resistance than other high-strength fibers. Its melting point is around 130 to 136 °C (266 to
277 °F),[8] and, according to DSM, it is not advisable to use UHMWPE fibres at temperatures exceeding 80 to 100 °C (176 to
212 °F) for long periods of time. It becomesbrittle at temperatures below −150 °C (−240 °F).[9]

The simple structure of the molecule also gives rise to surface and chemical properties that are rare in high-performance polymers.
For example, the polar groups in most polymers easily bond to water. Because olefins have no such groups, UHMWPE does not
absorb water readily, nor wet easily, which makes bonding it to other polymers difficult. For the same reasons, skin does not interact
with it strongly, making the UHMWPE fiber surface feel slippery. In a similar manner, aromatic polymers are often susceptible to
aromatic solvents due toaromatic stacking interactions, an effect aliphatic polymers like UHMWPE are immune to. Since UHMWPE
does not contain chemical groups (such as esters, amides or hydroxylic groups) that are susceptible to attack from aggressive agents,
it is very resistant to water, moisture, most chemicals, UV radiation, and micro-or
ganisms.

Under tensile load, UHMWPE will deform continually as long as the stress is present—an fect
ef called creep.

When UHMWPE is annealed, the material is heated to 135 °C to 138 °C in an oven or a liquid bath of silicone oil or glycerine. The
material is then cooled down at a rate of 5 °C/h to 65 °C or less. Finally, the material is wrapped in an insulating blanket for 24 hours
to bring to room temperature.[10]

Production
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is synthesized from its monomer ethylene, which is bonded together to form
the base polyethylene product. These molecules are several orders of magnitude longer than those of familiar high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) due to a synthesis process based on metallocene catalysts, resulting in UHMWPE molecules typically having
100,000 to 250,000 monomer units per molecule each compared to HDPE's 700 to 1,800 monomers.

UHMWPE is processed variously bycompression moulding, ram extrusion, gel spinning, and sintering. Several European companies
began compression molding UHMW in the early 1960s. Gel-spinning arrived much later and was intended for ferent
dif applications.

In gel spinning a precisely heated gel of UHMWPE is extruded through a spinneret. The extrudate is drawn through the air and then
cooled in a water bath. The end-result is a fiber with a high degree of molecular orientation, and therefore exceptional tensile
strength. Gel spinning depends on isolating individual chain molecules in the solvent so that intermolecular entanglements are
ficult, and lower the strength of the final product.[11]
minimal. Entanglements make chain orientation more dif

Applications

Fiber
Dyneema and Spectra are lightweight high-strength oriented-strand gels spun
through a spinneret. They have yield strengths as high as 2.4 GPa (240 kN/mm2 or
350,000 psi) and density as low as 0.97 g/cm3 (for Dyneema SK75). High-strength
steels have comparable yield strengths, and low-carbon steels have yield strengths
much lower (around 0.5 GPa). Since steel has a specific gravity of roughly 7.8, these
materials have a strength-to-weight ratios eight times that of high-strength steels. LIROS Dyneema hollow
Strength-to-weight ratios for Dyneema are about 40% higher than for aramid.
Dyneema was invented by Albert Pennings in 1963 but made commercially
available by DSM in 1990.[12]

UHMWPE are used as composite plates in armor, in particular, personal armor and on occasion as vehicle armor. Civil applications
containing UHMWPE fibers are cut-resistant gloves, bow strings, climbing equipment, fishing line, spear lines for spearguns, high-
performance sails, suspension lines on sportparachutes and paragliders, rigging in yachting, kites, and kites lines for kites sports.

For personal armor, the fibers are, in general, aligned and bonded into sheets, which are then layered at various angles to give the
resulting composite material strength in all directions.[13][14] Recently developed additions to the US Military's Interceptor body
armor, designed to offer arm and leg protection, are said to utilize a form of Spectra or Dyneema fabric.[15] Dyneema provides
puncture resistance to protective clothing in the sport offencing.

Spun UHMWPE fibers excel as fishing line, as they have less stretch, are more abrasion-resistant, and are thinner than traditional
monofilament line.

In climbing, cord and webbing made of combinations of UHMWPE and nylon yarn have gained popularity for their low weight and
bulk. They exhibit very low elasticity compared to their nylon counterparts. Also, low elasticity translates to low toughness. The
fiber's very high lubricity leads to poor knot-holding ability, and is mostly used in pre-sewn 'slings' (loops of webbing)- relying on
knots to join sections of UHMWPE is generally not recommended, and if necessary it is recommended to use the triple fisherman's
knot rather than the traditionaldouble fisherman's knot.[16][17]

Ships' hawsers and cables made from the fiber (0.97 specific gravity) float on sea water. "Spectra Wires" as they are called in the
towing boat community are commonly used for face wires as a lighter alternative to steel wires.

It is used in skis and snowboards, often in combination with carbon fiber, reinforcing the fiberglass composite material, adding
stiffness and improving its flex characteristics. The UHMWPE is often used as the base layer, which contacts the snow, and includes
abrasives to absorb and retain wax.

It is also used in lifting applications for manufacturing low weight, and heavy duty lifting slings . Due to its extreme abrasion
resistance it is also used as an excellent corner protection for synthetic lifting slings.

High-performance lines (such asbackstays) for sailing and parasailing are made of UHMWPE, due to their low stretch, high strength,
and low weight.[18]

Dyneema was used for the 30-kilometre space tether in the ESA/RussianYoung Engineers' Satellite 2of September, 2007.

In archery, UHMWPE is widely used as a material for bowstrings because of its low creep and stretch compared to, for example,
Dacron (PET). Besides pure UHMWPE fibers, most manufacturers use blends to further reduce the creep and stretch of the material.
In these blends, the UHMWPE fibers are blended with, for example,Vectran.

In skydiving, Spectra is one of the most common materials used for suspension lines, largely supplanting the earlier-used Dacron,
being lighter and less bulky. Spectra has excellent strength and wear-resistance, but is not dimensionally stable (i.e. shrinks) when
exposed to heat, which leads to gradual and uneven shrinkage of different lines as they are subject to differing amounts of friction
during canopy deployment, necessitating periodic line replacement. It is also almost completely inelastic, which can exacerbate the
opening shock. For that reason, Dacron (PET) lines continue to be used in student and some tandem systems, where the added bulk is
less of a concern than the potential for an injurious opening. In turn, in high performance parachutes used for swooping, Spectra is
replaced with Vectran and HMA (high-modulus aramid), which are even thinner and dimensionally stable, but exhibit greater wear
and require much more frequent maintenance to prevent catastrophic failure. Spectra / Dyneema are also used for reserve parachute
closing loops when used with automatic activation devices, where their extremely low coefficient of friction is critical for proper
operation in the event of cutter activation.

Medical
UHMWPE has a clinical history as a biomaterial for use in hip, knee, and (since the 1980s), for spine implants.[1] An online
repository of information and review articles related to medical grade UHMWPE, known as the UHMWPE Lexicon, was started
online in 2000.[19]

Joint replacement components have historically been made from "GUR" resins. These powder materials are produced by Ticona,
typically converted into semi-forms by companies such as Quadrant and Orthoplastics,[1] and then machined into implant
[20]
components and sterilized by device manufacturers.

UHMWPE was first used clinically in 1962 by Sir John Charnley and emerged as the dominant bearing material for total hip and
knee replacements in the 1970s.[19] Throughout its history, there were unsuccessful attempts to modify UHMWPE to improve its
clinical performance until the development of highlycross-linked UHMWPE in the late 1990s.[1]

One unsuccessful attempt to modify UHMWPE was by blending the powder with carbon fibers. This reinforced UHMWPE was
released clinically as "Poly Two" by Zimmer in the 1970s.[1] The carbon fibers had poor compatibility with the UHMWPE matrix
and its clinical performance was inferior to virgin UHMWPE.[1]

A second attempt to modify UHMWPE was by high-pressure recrystallization. This recrystallized UHMWPE was released clinically
as "Hylamer" by DePuy in the late 1980s.[1] When gamma irradiated in air, this material exhibited susceptibility to oxidation,
resulting in inferior clinical performance relative to virgin UHMWPE. Today, the poor clinical history of Hylamer is largely
attributed to its sterilization method, and there has been a resurgence of interest in studying this material (at least among certain
research circles).[19] Hylamer fell out of favor in the United States in the late 1990s with the development of highly cross-linked
UHMWPE materials, however negative clinical reports from Europe about Hylamer continue to surface in the literature.

Highly cross-linked UHMWPE materials were clinically introduced in 1998 and have rapidly become the standard of care for total
hip replacements, at least in the United States.[1] These new materials are cross-linked with gamma or electron beam radiation (50–
105 kGy) and then thermally processed to improve their oxidation resistance.[1] Five-year clinical data, from several centers, are now
available demonstrating their superiority relative to conventional UHMWPE for total hip replacement (see arthroplasty).[19] Clinical
[19]
studies are still underway to investigate the performance of highly cross-linked UHMWPE for knee replacement.

In 2007, manufacturers started incorporating anti-oxidants into UHMWPE for hip and knee arthroplasty bearing surfaces.[1] Vitamin
E (a-tocopherol) is the most common anti-oxidant used in radiation-cross-linked UHMWPE for medical applications. The anti-
oxidant helps quench free radicals that are introduced during the irradiation process, imparting improved oxidation resistance to the
UHMWPE without the need for thermal treatment.[21] Several companies have been selling antioxidant-stabilized joint replacement
[22]
technologies since 2007, using both synthetic vitamin E as well as hindered phenol-based antioxidants.

Another important medical advancement for UHMWPE in the past decade has been the increase in use of fibers for sutures. Medical-
grade fibers for surgical applications are producedby DSM under the "Dyneema Purity" trade name.

Manufacturing
UHMWPE is used in the manufacture of PVC (vinyl) windows and doors, as it can endure the heat required to soften the PVC-based
materials and is used as a form/chamber filler for the various PVC shape profiles in order for those materials to be 'bent' or shaped
around a template.
UHMWPE is also used in the manufacture of hydraulic seals and bearings. It is best suited for medium mechanical duties in water
, oil
hydraulics, pneumatics, and unlubricated applications. It has a good abrasion resistance but is better suited to soft mating surfaces.

Wire/cable
Fluoropolymer / HMWPE insulation cathodic protection cable is typically made with dual insulation. It features a primary layer of a
fluoropolymer such asECTFE which is chemically resistant to chlorine, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. Following the primary
layer is an HMWPE insulation layer, which provides pliable strength and allows considerable abuse during installation. The HMWPE
jacketing provides mechanical protection as well.[23]

Music Equipment
UHMWPE has recently achieved popularity among makers of specialty plectrums for guitar and other stringed instruments. Among
its valuable qualities as a material for guitar picks are its light weight, low coefficient of friction, abrasion resistance, and gripability
when properly hand-finished.[24][25][26][27]

See also
Cross-linked polyethylene(PEX)
High-density polyethylene(HDPE)
Linear low-density polyethylene(LLDPE)
Low-density polyethylene(LDPE)
Medium-density polyethylene(MDPE)
Stretch wrap
Olefin fiber
Twaron
Zylon
Vectran

References
1. Kurtz, Steven M. (2004).The UHMWPE handbook: ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene in total joint
replacement (https://books.google.com/books?id=bkuFjppEdMcC)
. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-429851-4.
2. Stein, H. L. (1998). Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylenes (uhmwpe). Engineered Materials Handbook, 2, 167–
171.
3. Wong, D. W. S.; Camirand, W. M.; Pavlath, A. E.; Krochta, J. M.; Baldwin, E. A. and Nisperos-Carriedo, M. O. (eds.)
(1994) "Development of edible coatings for minimally processed fruits and vegetables" pp. 65–88 Edible
in coatings
and films to improve food quality, Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, PA. ISBN 1566761131.
4. "PE Material: Porex Porous Polyethylene for Plastic Filter Media"(http://www.porex.com/technologies/materials/poro
us-plastics/pe/). www.porex.com. Retrieved 2017-02-14.
5. Tong, Jin; Ma, Yunhai; Arnell, R. D.; Ren, Luquan (2006). "Free abrasive wear behaviourfoUHMWPE composites
filled with wollastonite fibres".Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing
. 37: 38.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.05.023(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.compositesa.2005.05.023) .
6. Budinski, Kenneth G. (1997). "Resistance to particle abrasion of selected plastics".
Wear. 203–204: 302.
doi:10.1016/S0043-1648(96)07346-2(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0043-1648%2896%2907346-2) .
7. de:Ruhrchemie
8. ultra high molecular weight polyethylene; UHMWPE(http://chemyq.com/En/xz/xz4/39468nvyng.htm)
. chemyq.com
9. Lewin (1996-07-09). Handbook of Fiber Science and Technology Volume3: High Technology Fibers: (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=mrG3q9h__XYC). CRC Press. ISBN 9780824794705.
10. Hoechst: Annealing (Stress Relief) of Hostalen GUR
11. Pennings, A.J.; van der Hooft, R.J.; Postema, A.R.; Hoogsteen, W .; ten Brinke, G. (1986)."High-speed gel-spinning
of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene"(http://msc.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/BrinkeGten/1986/PolymBullPenni
ngs/1986PolymBullPennings.pdf)(PDF). Polymer Bulletin. 16 (2–3): 167–174. doi:10.1007/BF00955487 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2FBF00955487).
12. "Dyneema" (http://www.bodyarmornews.com/bullet-proof-vest/). BodyArmorNews.com.
13. "Dyneema" (http://www.tote.com.au/dyneema.htm). Tote Systems Australia.
14. Bhatnagar, A. (ed.) (2006) Lightweight Ballistic Composites: Military and Law-Enforcement Applications
. Honeywell
International. ISBN 1855739410
15. Monty Phan; Lou Dolinar (February 27, 2003). "Outfitting the Army of One –echnology
T has given today's troops
better vision, tougher body armour, global tracking systems – and more comfortable underwear" (Nassau and
Queens ed.). Newsday. pp. B.06.
16. Moyer, Tom; Tusting, Paul & Harmston, Chris(2000). "Comparative Testing of High Strength Cord"(http://www.xmiss
ion.com/~tmoyer/testing/High_Strength_Cord.pdf)(PDF).
17. "Cord testing" (http://www.xmission.com/~tmoyer/testing/High_Strength_Cord.pdf)(PDF).
18. "Spectra® and Dyneema® | Bally Ribbon Mills"(http://www.ballyribbon.com/fibers/spectra-dyneema/). Bally Ribbon
Mills. Retrieved 2016-06-07.
19. UHMWPE Lexicon (http://www.uhmwpe.org). Uhmwpe.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-30.
20. GHR HMW-PE and VHMW-PE (https://web.archive.org/web/20080515221838/http://www
.ticona.com/redesign/index/
products/gur-uhmw-pe/ghr.htm). ticona.com
21. Wannomae, K. K., Micheli, B. R.; Lozynsky
, A. J. and Muratoglu, O. K. (2010)"A new method of stabilising irradiated
UHMWPE using Vitamin E and mechanical annealing" (http://www.ors.org/Transactions/56/2290.pdf). 56th Annual
Meeting of the Orthopedic Research Society, 2290.
22. Spiegelberg, S.H. (2012)"UHMWPE for total joint arthroplasty: Past, present, and future"(http://www.bonezonepub.c
om/component/content/article/453-uhmwpe-for-total-joint-arthroplasty-past-present-and-future). Bonezone.
23. "Cathodic Protection" (http://www.performancewire.com/halar_cathodicpro.htm). Performance Wire and Cable.
24. "Cope Plastics: Plastic Remnants Find New Life in Guitar Picks
" (https://www.copeplastics.com/08-03-16-plastic-rem
nants-find-new-life-in-guitar-picks.html)
25. "Swiss Luthier Patrick Hufschmid's UHMWPE Plectrums"(http://plectrum.ch/category/uhmwpe)
26. "Hong Kong-Based BHL Technologies post on appeal of UHMWPE for guitar players"(https://www.jazzguitar.be/foru
m/sale/39096-bhl-guitar-technologies-guitar-plectrums.html)
27. "Popular Youtube guitarist Rob Scallon discusses his preference for UHMWPE pick"(https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=p84RxNcl2l4)

Further reading
Southern et al., The Properties of Polyethylene Crystallized Under the Orientation and Pressure fects
Ef of a
Pressure Capillary Viscometer, Journal of Applied Polymer Sciencevol. 14, pp. 2305–2317 (1970).
Kanamoto, On Ultra-High Tensile by Drawing Single Crystal Mats of High Molecular Weight Polyethylene, Polymer
Journal vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 327–329 (1983).

External links
US Patent 5342567 Process for producing high tenacity and high modulus polyethylene fibers, issued 1994-08-30
Polymer Gel Spinning MachineChristine A. Odero, MIT, 1994
Patent application 20070148452 High strength polyethylene fiber
, 2007-06-28
Analytical techniques to characterize radiation ef
fects on UHMWPE
Next generation orthopedic implants using UHMWPE
Highly crosslinked VE-UHMWPE for hip and knee replacements

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