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Wei Qian
University of Texas at El Paso
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Abstract
Deep learning is considered as a popular and powerful method in pattern recognition and
classification. However, there are not many deep structured applications used in medical imaging
diagnosis area, because large dataset is not always available for medical images. In this study we
tested the feasibility of using deep learning algorithms for lung cancer diagnosis with the cases
from Lung Image Database Consortium (LIDC) database. The nodules on each computed
tomography (CT) slice were segmented according to marks provided by the radiologists. After
down sampling and rotating we acquired 174412 samples with 52 by 52 pixel each and the
corresponding truth files. Three deep learning algorithms were designed and implemented,
including Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Deep Belief Networks (DBNs), Stacked
Denoising Autoencoder (SDAE). To compare the performance of deep learning algorithms with
traditional computer aided diagnosis (CADx) system, we designed a scheme with 28 image
features and support vector machine. The accuracies of CNN, DBNs, and SDAE are 0.7976,
0.8119, and 0.7929, respectively; the accuracy of our designed traditional CADx is 0.7940,
which is slightly lower than CNN and DBNs. We also noticed that the mislabeled nodules using
DBNs are 4% larger than using traditional CADx, this might be resulting from down sampling
process lost some size information of the nodules.
Key Words: lung cancer, deep learning, computed tomography, computer aided diagnosis
(CADx), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Deep Belief Networks (DBNs), Stacked
Denoising Autoencoder (SDAE)
1. Introduction:
Deep Learning is a new subfield of machine learning created by Hinton [1] which was inspired
by the human brain’s architecture. By learning from the deep, layered and hierarchical models of
data, the deep learning algorithms can outperform the traditional machine learning models.
However, even ten years ago, most people still think this deep structured algorithm can only be
used in simple image classifications like handwritten numbers recognition. But with the
development of deep learning algorithm, many research groups have been already successfully
applied to more complicated classification tasks. In ImageNet LSVRC-2012 contest, the winner
group used deep learning algorithm successfully classified 1.2 million high-resolution images
into 1000 different classes with an error rate of 15.3%, compared to 26.2% reported by the
second-best group [2]. In another contest, deep learning algorithm won MICCAI 2013 Grand
Challenge and ICPR 2012 Contest on Mitosis Detection [3]. In recent years, some researchers
used convolutional neural network (CNN) to detect clustered microcalcifications in digital breast
tomosynthesis, and the results are promising [4] [5].
Medical Imaging 2016: Computer-Aided Diagnosis, edited by Georgia D. Tourassi, Samuel G. Armato III,
Proc. of SPIE Vol. 9785, 97850Z · © 2016 SPIE · CCC code: 1605-7422/16/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.2216307
2.2 Methods:
In this study, three deep learning models, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Deep Belief
Networks (DBNs), Stacked Denoising Autoencoder (SDAE) were implemented and compared
on the same dataset. Al the codes and experiments were implemented and run on a machine with
2.8 GHz Intel Core i7 processor and 16 GB 1600 MHz DDR3 memory.
The architecture of our CNN contains 8 layers, and except input and output layer, every odd
number layer is a convolution layer and every even number layer is a pooling and subsampling
layer [6]. For each convolution we used 12, 8 and 6 feature maps, and they are all connected to
Input image
Convolution
Feature map: 12 Kernel size: 5
Pooling
Scale 2
Convolution
Feature map: 8 Kernel size: 5
Pooling
Scale 2
Convolution
Feature map: 6 Kernel size: 5
Pooling
Scale 2
00
Output neuron
0.24
0.22
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0:5 1 1.5 2 2:5 3 31.5
Iterations x10°
BE!
80
Figure 7:
7 Visualizatiion of 100 raandom weighhts in the seccond layer RBM
R
Mean of Standard
Group nodule deviation of
size nodule size
Mislabeled cases
200 204
in DBN
Mislabeled cases
in traditional 192 196
CADx
All tested cases 247 245
4. Conclusions:
In this study, we tested the feasibility of using deep structured algorithms in lung cancer image
diagnosis. We implemented and compared the performance of three different deep learning
algorithms: CNN, DBNs, and SDAE, and the highest accuracy we get is 0.8119 using DBNs.
This accuracy is slightly higher than 0.7940 computed from traditional CADx system. The
comparison results demonstrated the great potential for deep structured algorithm and computer
learned features used in medical imaging area.
Defining the size of ROI is a very important step to apply deep learning algorithms to lung image
diagnosis. In many other image recognition tasks, like ImageNet classification challenge, the size
of the objects doesn’t have significant impact on the classification results, so all the images can
be simply down sampled to the same size. However, for lung cancer image diagnosis, the size of
nodules and how you crop the nodule areas are important, because the absolute nodule size is
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