QM1 - Tutorial 8

QHO: Ladder Operators

Amir Kahana and Yaakov Yudkin

16 May 2018

Contents

1 Raising and Lowering Operators 1

2 Bra-Ket Notation 3
3 Example: Moment Calculation 4
4 Coherent States 7
4.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Example: Expectation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1 Raising and Lowering Operators

Rearranging the Hamiltonian We start with the Hamiltonian operator of the quantum harmonic oscillator

pop 1
Hop = + mω 2 x2op
2m 2
If xop and pop were just c-numbers (i.e. not operators) the Hamiltonian could be written as

1 1
p2op + m2 ω 2 x2op =


Hop = (mωxop − ipop ) (mωxop + ipop ) (wrong!)
2m 2m
But since they are operators this is not possible. Moreover the product of the brackets is

(mωxop − ipop ) (mωxop + ipop ) = m2 ω 2 x2op + p2op + imω (xop pop − pop xop )

Making use of what was found in the homework a few weeks ago, namely

xop pop − pop xop = i~

we can write
(mωxop − ipop ) (mωxop + ipop ) = m2 ω 2 x2op + p2op − mω~
and thus
m2 ω 2 x2op + p2op = (mωxop − ipop ) (mωxop + ipop ) + mω~
Now we can rewrite the Hamiltonian operator in the correct way

1 1 ~ω
p2op + m2 ω 2 x2op =


Hop = (mωxop − ipop ) (mωxop + ipop ) +
2m 2m 2
The dierence between the real quantum mechanical Hamiltonian operator Hop and the classical Hamiltonian H (p, x)
is therefore ~ω/2 which is precisely the ground state energy. Recall that this energy is a direct consequence of the
uncertainty principle.

1
Dimensionless Variables We wish to do some further manipulations. For this we multiply the rst term by
1 = mω~/mω~. We get

  
mω~ mωxop − ipop mωxop + ipop ~ω
Hop = √ √ +
2m mω~ mω~ 2
r  r 
~ω mω i mω i ~ω
= xop − √ pop xop + √ pop +
2 ~ mω~ ~ mω~ 2
Remember the denitions
√
r
~
σx = and σp = ~ωm
mω
which we interpreted as the width of the eigen functions in position and momentum space. In terms of them we can
write the Hamiltonian operator as
  
~ω xop pop xop pop ~ω
Hop = −i +i +
2 σx σp σx σp 2
Note that all the terms in the brackets are now dimensionless.

Denition of the Raising and Lowering Operators We dene new operators. The raising operator a†op and the
lowering operator aop .
xop pop xop pop
a†op = √ − i√ , aop = √ + i√
2σx 2σp 2σx 2σp
With them the Hamiltonian operator takes the simple form

 
1
Hop = ~ω a†op aop +
2

The dagger (†) on the raising operator means that it is the hermitian conjugate of the lowering operator. In order
to show this we use the fact that the position and momentum operators are hermitian, i.e. the hermitian conjugate of
the operator coincides with the operator
x†op = xop and p†op = pop
In addition, taking the hermitian conjugate of a complex number is like taking the complex conjugate. We can thus
nd that the hermitian conjugate of the lowering operator is the raising operator.

!†
† x p x†op p†op xop pop
(aop ) = √ op + i √ op =√ − i√ =√ − i√ = a†op
2σx 2σp 2σx 2σp 2σx 2σp

Properties of the New Operators Neither the raising operator a†op nor the lowering operator aop are hermitian.
Hence they do not correspond to physical observables. The product of the two on the other hand is hermitian and is
called the number operator Nop .
Nop = a†op aop
To show that it is hermitian, we need to use the fact that the hermitian conjugate of a product is the product of the
hermitian conjugates in reverse order, i.e.
† † †
(fop gop ) = gop fop
†
Using (aop ) = a†op we get
†
† †
†
(Nop ) = a†op aop = (aop ) a†op = a†op aop = Nop
Another interesting (and very useful) property is the action of a†op and aop on an eigen function of the harmonic
oscillator:
√ √
a†op φn (x) = n + 1φn+1 (x) , aop φn (x) = nφn−1 (x)

From here the name raising and lowering become apparent. This is known as the algebra of a†op and aop .

Example: Statement of the Problem Find the action of the number operator Nop on an harmonic oscillator
eigen function φn (x).

2
Solution Acting with Nop on φn is equivalent to acting rst with aop and then with a†op . Lets do so

√
Nop φn (x) = a†op aop φn (x) = a†op nφn−1 (x)
√
Since n is just a number we can move it before the operator a†op .
√ √
a†op nφn−1 (x) = na†op φn−1 (x) = nφn (x)

Hence the number operator Nop just takes out the quantum number n.

Nop φn (x) = nφn (x)

The Position and Momentum Operator The denitions of a†op and aop can also be reversed to obtain

r r
~ mω~ †
a†op + aop



xop = , pop = i aop − aop
2mω 2
These relations together with the algebra of a†op and aop (how they act on φn (x)) are very useful for computing
expectation values of the harmonic oscillator.

2 Bra-Ket Notation

Introducing a New Notation From now on lets agree to write

|ni = φn , hn| = φ?n

The h·| is called a bra while the |·i is called a ket. With this notation the action of the operators a†op and aop is

√ √
a†op |ni = n + 1|n + 1i and aop |ni = n|n − 1i

and the Schrodinger eigen value equation is written

   
1 1
Hop |ni = ~ω a†op aop + |ni = ~ω n + |ni
2 2

This notation is more general than φn (x) because when writing |ni we do not care if we are working in the x- or
p-representation. It is well suited here because we do not really want to write a†op and aop in the x- or p-representation.
We know how they act on the n-th state. The notation |ni tells us that we are in the n-th energy eigen state.

Expectation Value Notation Using the new notation we can write the average in a nicer way.

φ?n (x)xφ
R
hxi =  (x)dx
n
? d
R
= φ̃n (p) i~ dp φ̃n (p)dp = hn |xop | ni

Note again that the notation does not specify the representation. Actually, this is the energy or Hamiltonian represen-
tation because the states |ni are the eigen states of Hop .

Example: Statement of the Problem a†op aop − aop a†op |ni.

Compute

Solution We have already seen that a†op aop |ni = n|ni. The second part is

√
aop a†op |ni = aop n + 1|n + 1i = (n + 1) |ni

Subtracting the second part from the rst we get

a†op aop − aop a†op |ni = |ni

This implies that

a†op aop − aop a†op = 1 or a†op aop = 1 + aop a†op
We see that lowering and then raising is not the same as raising and then lowering.

3
3 Example: Moment Calculation

Statement of the Problem Find hx(t)i and hx2 (t)i for a particle in a harmonic well described initially by the wave
function
1
ψ0 (x) = √ [φ1 (x) + φ2 (x) + φ3 (x)]
3

√
Figure 1: The initial wave function |ψi = (|1i + |2i + |3i) / 3 in the x-representation. We see that hxi is nonzero at
the initial time t = 0. As a function of time it will go back and forth. This motion reminds us of the classical oscillator.
Once again we see the the average of quantum mechanics corresponds to classical mechanics.

Bra-Ket Notation We write the wave function using the new notation.

1
|ψ0 i = √ (|1i + |2i + |3i)
3
We are now working in the energy representation.

Time Dependence Next we have to nd ψ (x, t) or better |ψ (t)i. Since we already are in the basis of the Hamiltonian
it is simple to add the time dependence. Each eigen state gets its own phase according to the energy.

       
1 3 5 7
|ψ(t)i = √ exp −i ωt |1i + exp −i ωt |2i + exp −i ωt |3i
3 2 2 2

For later simplicity we take out a factor of exp (−iωt/2)

 
1 1
|ψ(t)i = exp −i ωt √ e−iωt |1i + e−2iωt |2i + e−i3ωt |3i


2 3

What has to be Done In order to nd the average position as a function of time we have to compute

hx (t)i = hψ(t) |xop | ψ(t)i

For this we will need the ket |ψ(t)i, the operator xop and the bra hψ(t)| - and all must be in the same representation.
Of course we will use the energy representation.

4
 We have already found |ψ(t)i. The hψ(t)| is the same as the |ψ(t)i except that we have to reverse the brackets and
take the complex conjugate of the i in the exponent
 
1 1
hψ(t)| = exp i ωt √ eiωt h1| + ei2ωt h2| + ei3ωt h3|


2 3
The position operator xop in this representation is simply

r
~
a†op + aop


xop =
2mω
Putting it all together one obtains

hx (t)i = hψ(t) |xop | ψ(t)i

 
1 1
= exp i ωt √ eiωt h1| + ei2ωt h2| + ei3ωt h3|


2 3
r
~
a†op + aop


×
2mω
 
1 1
× exp −i ωt √ e−iωt |1i + e−i2ωt |2i + e−i3ωt |3i


2 3

Using the Raising and Lowering Properties When opening the brackets we will get 18 terms. Lets not do so.
Instead lets see what happens when a†op and aop act on |ψ (t)i. In order to solve this we will need the action of the
†
operators aop and aop on the states |1i, |2i and |3i. This is easily obtained using the formulae
√ √
a†op |ni = n + 1|ni and aop |ni = n|ni

We thus have √
a†op |1i = 2|2i , aop |1i = |0i
√ √
a†op |2i = 3|3i , aop |2i = 2|1i
√ √
a†op |3i = 4|4i , aop |3i = 3|2i
Using this we get
r
1 ~
eiωt h1| + ei2ωt h2| + ei3ωt h3|


hx (t)i =
3 2mω
n √  √ √  √ √ o
× e−iωt 2|2i + |0i + e−i2ωt 3|3i + 2|1i + e−i3ωt 4|4i + 3|2i

Using Orthogonality Now before opening the brackets, think. We know that

hn|mi = δnm

so the only terms we want to keep are the ones where the number in the bra h·| and the number in the ket |·i are the
same. All the remaining terms will vanish. Considering this we are left with four terms: one form h1|1i, two from h2|2i
and one more from h3|3i. They are (up to the constant coecient)
√ √
h1|1i eiωt e−i2ωt 2 = 2e−iωt
√ √ √ √
h2|2i ei2ωt e−iωt 2 = 2eiωt and ei2ωt e−i3ωt 3 = 3e−iωt
√ √
h3|3i ei3ωt e−i2ωt 3 = 3eiωt
Hence we can write
r
1 ~ n√
√
o
hx (t)i = 2 eiωt + e−iωt + 3 eiωt + e−iωt
3 2mω
r
2 ~ √ √ 
= 2 + 3 cos (ωt)
3 2mω
Notice that hxi ∼ cos (ωt) precisely like the well known classical oscillator. We have seen this principle before. The
average of quantum mechanics is classical.

5
Second Moment


We can now nd x2 (t) using the same scheme.

2 

x (t) = ψ(t) x2op  ψ(t)

  

We have the ket |ψ(t)i and the bra hψ(t)|.

Squared Operator In order to do the calculation we need the square of xop . Since
r
~
a†op + aop


xop =
2mω
we have
~
2 ~
x2op = a†op + aop = a†2 † † 2


op + aop aop + aop aop + aop
2mω 2mω
The expression we have to compute is thus

x2 (t) = ψ(t) x2op  ψ(t)


  
 
1 1
= exp i ωt √ eiωt h1| + ei2ωt h2| + ei3ωt h3|


2 3
~
a†2 † † 2


× op + aop aop + aop aop + aop
2mω 
1 1
× exp −i ωt √ e−iωt |1i + e−i2ωt |2i + e−i3ωt |3i


2 3

Contribution from a†2

op The raising operator squared a†2
op will only give a non zero contribution if it is between |ni
†2
and hn + 2| because aop |ni ∼ |n + 2i. In the problem at hand the only nonzero term is

 †2   √
 †   √
3 aop  1 = 2 3 aop  2 = 6

We hence take the third term in hψ (t) | and the rst term in |ψ (t)i and obtain
√
ei3ωt h3|a†2
op e
−iωt
|1i = 6ei2ωt

Contribution from a2op The same argument holds for the lowering operator squared a2op . Here the only nonzero
element is

 2   √
 2   √
1 aop  3 = 3 1 aop  2 = 6
and by taking the rst term in hψ (t) | and the third term in |ψ (t)i one obtains
√
eiωt h1|a2op e−i3ωt |3i = 6e−i2ωt

Contribution from aop a†op + a†op aop Whenaop a†op + a†op aop acts on |ni we get

a†op aop + aop a†op |ni = (n + n + 1) |ni = (2n + 1) |ni

Hence, only if it is closed by the same hn| it does not vanish. If it is closed by hn| we get (2n + 1).

hm| a†op aop + aop a†op |ni = (2n + 1) hm|ni = (2n + 1) δnm

We thus get three contributions form this term.

eiωt h1| a†op aop + aop a†op e−iωt |1i = 3

h1|1i

ei2ωt h2| a†op aop + aop a†op e−i2ωt |2i = 5

h2|2i

ei3ωt h3| a†op aop + aop a†op e−i3ωt |3i = 7

h3|3i

All Together Putting together all contributions we get

 1 ~ n√ o
x2 (t) = 6 ei2ωt + e−i2ωt + 3 + 5 + 7



3 2mω
~ n √ o
= 15 + 2 6 cos (2ωt)
6mω

6
Position Uncertainty We can go on to nd the uncertainty in position as a function of time.

2 2
[∆x(t)] = x2 (t) − hxi



~  √  4 ~ √ √ 2
= 15 + 2 6 cos (2ωt) − 2 + 3 cos2 (ωt)
6mω 9 2mω
Using cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x) /2 we obtain

2 ~  √  ~  √ 
[∆x(t)] = 15 + 2 6 cos (2ωt) − 5 + 2 6 (1 + cos (2ωt))
6mω  9mω
~ √

~ 15 5 1 2
= − + 6 − cos (2ωt)
mω 6 9 mω 3 9
√
35~ 6~
= + cos (2ωt)
18mω 9mω

4 Coherent States

4.1 Denition
Eigenstate of the Lowering Operator Consider the eigen value equation

aop |αi = α|αi

The state |αi is the eigen state and the number α is the eigen value. We have seen that raising operator a†op and the
lowering operator aop are not hermitian. Hence the eigen value need not be real. In fact, we must treat α as a complex
number. It has both an absolute value |α| and a phase ϕ.

α = |α| eiϕ

NOT Eigenstate of the Raising Operator Watch out! It is tempting to think that |αi is also an eigen state of
a†op , but this is wrong. What is true is the relation

hα|a†op = hα|α?

Where α? is the complex conjugate of the number α.

Normalization and Over-complete Basis The coherent states are dened such that they are normalized (we are
always free to make this choice).
hα|αi = 1
But they are not mutually orthogonal. The basis spanned by the set of all {|αi} is complete. Any state can be written
as a superposition of them. But there is more than one way to do so. Hence it is an over-complete basis. This is
equivalent to spanning three dimensional space with four (or more) vectors.

4.2 Example: Expectation Values

Statement of the Problem Consider a particle in the coherent state |α0 i where α0 is a known complex number.
Find the expectation values hxi and hpi.

Average Position In order to calculate hxi we need to act with hα0 | from the left and with |α0 i from the right.

hxi = hα0 |xop | α0 i

We express xop in terms of a†op and aop to obtain

 
r r 
 

~
 †
  ~  †

hxi = α0 aop + aop  α0 = hα0 |aop |α0 i + hα0 | aop |α0 i
2mω 2mω  | {z }
| {z ?}

α |α i


hα0 |α0 0 0

7
Using the way a†op and aop act on hα0 | and |α0 i respectively we get

r r
~ ~
hxi = {α? hα0 |α0 i + α0 hα0 |α0 i} = {α? + α0 }
2mω 0 2mω 0
The sum of a complex number and its complex conjugate is just twice the real part. Hence

r
2~ √
hxi = < [α0 ] = 2σx < [α0 ]
mω

Average Momentum We repeat the procedure for hpi.

r r
mω~
 †
  mω~ ?
hpi = i α0 aop − aop  α0 = i {α0 − α0 }
2 2
Noting that α0? − α0 = −2i= [α0 ] we obtain

√ √
hpi = 2mω~= [α0 ] = 2σp = [α0 ]

What the Number α0 Is Say we know the mean position hxi and momentum hpi of a particle in an harmonic well.
We have see that the real and imaginary part of α0 can be written as

hxi hpi
< [α0 ] = √ and = {α0 } = √
2σx 2σp

and hence
1 i
α0 = √ hxi + √ hpi
2σx 2σp
The complex number α0 carries information about the average values of position and momentum. For this reason the
coherent states are called quasi-classical states. They behave approximately classical.