Building

Movements
and Joints
This text is intended for the concerned reader-whether
engineer, architect, builder, or student-who wants to
know more about why and how the parts of concrete
buildings move and change shape, and how these changes
can be controlled.
Temperature and moisture changes are always at work,
changing the length, width, and thickness of concrete,
masonry, and other building materials. Gravity pulls,
bends, and twists the parts of a building as do wind, rain,
snow, and earthquake. Chemical actions sometimes
occur and cause movements that must be anticipated.
These individual movements are minute, but they can
have noticeable effects as the building adjusts itself into
balance with its environment. When they are recognized
and understood, they are easier to cope with.
Although the causes of the movements, fractures, and
distress encountered in buildings can be complex, the
remedies are usually quite simple. Ways are shown for
controlling these movements within the state of the art.
If such preventive measures are included in the planning
stages, the builder as well as the user can have confidence
that the building will be attractive, comfortable, and safe.
Cover Photo:
Poplar Creek Library, Streamwood, Illinois
O’Donnell, Wicklund, Pigozzi Architects, Inc., Northbrook, Illinois

This publication is based on the facts, tests,and authoritiesstated

herein. It is intended for the use of professional personnel com-
petent toevaluate thesignificanceandlimitationsofthereported
findings and who will accept responsibility for the application of
the material it contains. The Portland Cement Association dis-
claims any and all responsibility for application of the stated
principles or for the accuracy of any of the sources other than
work performed or information developed by the Association.

0 Portland Cement Association 1982

First Edition

I ’ ASSOCIATION
PORTLAND CEMENT ml
5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, Illinois 60077-4321
Contents

PART ONE: Movements in Concrete Chapter 3. Movements Due to

Structures
Chapter 1. Movements, Strains, and
Volume Changes-Not Restrained ...... 1
Moisture Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drying Shrinkage of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drying Shrinkage of Lightweight
Concrete Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plastic Shrinkage and Plastic
Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat of Hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Changes and Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfate Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shrinkage-Compensating Cement . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion of Metals in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonshrink Grouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2. Movements, Strains, and
Volume Changes-Restrained ........... lo
Elastic and Inelastic Strains ...................
Axial.....................................1 0
Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
Flexural Strains (Deflections). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Shear Strains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I2
Poisson’s Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I4
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..I 4
Continual Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I6
Relaxation of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Restrained Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . .18
Special Loading Conditions.. . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Dead Loads.................................21
Live Loads...........................,......22
Construction Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Windand Earthquake........................23
Floor Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1 Chapter 4. Movements Due to
2 Foundations, Construction
Procedures, and Combined Effects . . . . .26
2
Foundation Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
4 Frost Heave...............................2 7
4 Construction Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
6 Reshoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
7 Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
7 Construction Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
7 Combined Effects .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
7
8
8
9
PART TWO: Controlling Crack ing in
Concrete Structures
10 Chapter
- 5. The Need for Crack
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Esthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1
Causes of Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Settlement of Plastic Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Plastic Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1
Volume Change of Hardened Concrete . . . . . . .32
Flexural Stresses Resulting from Applied
Loads or Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..3 2
Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

iii

Chapter 6. Control Joints in Walls ..... .33
Locating Control Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cutting Reinforcement at Control Joints . . . . . . . .34
Forming Control Joints in Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Joints in Tiltup Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Isolated Footings with Tiltup Walls . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Chapter 7. Expansion Joints in
Concrete Buildings ...................... .39
Causes of Volume Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Moisture Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Temperature Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Drying Shrinkage Effect on Total Movement . . . .40
Foundation Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Spacing Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Empirical Approach for Determining Need . . . .40
Closure Strips...............................4 2 Chapter 13. Precast and
Chapter 8. Construction Joints
in Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..4 3
Location of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Horizontal Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Vertical Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Chapter 9. Joints in Slabs
on Ground.................................4
Type of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Slab Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Reinforced Slabs on Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Curling (Warping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Chapter 10. Masonry Materials ......... .49
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Moisture Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Thermal Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Elastic Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
iv
Plastic Flow (Creep) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Composite Walls .................................................... $
Differential Movement
Bond Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Flexible Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Control Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1
Vertical Control Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Horizontal Control Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1
Bond Beams and Horizontal Joint
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1
Summary of Design Standards for
Composite Masonry Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Rational Design Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Chapter 11. Cracking in Partitions ..... .53
Chapter 12. Earthquake Movements ... .54
Prestressed Structures .................. .55
Precast Architectural Concrete Elements . . . . . . . .55
Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 6
Chapter 14. Conclusion ................. .57
Site Conditions and Arrangement of Joints. . . . . .57
Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
5 Miscellaneous Structural Considerations . . . . . . . .58
ReferenCei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Additional Reading ...................... .61
The Language of Movements,
Strains, and Volume Changes .......... .62
The Language of Cracking .............. .62
Index ...................................... .63
 Part One: Movements in
Concrete Structures

CHAPTER 1.
Movements, Strains, and Volume Changes-
Not Restrained -
To understand the behavior of concrete, it is helpful to and then resaturated, but it does not return to its original
examine its movements and length changes as they occur length.“‘* After this, wetting and drying follows the
under two separate conditions: without restraint and lower diagonal line. During first drying concrete under-
with restraint. This chapter concerns the unrestrained goes structural alteration or stabilization, depending on
condition. its porosity. Following this, the reversible shrinkage due
Concrete, in common with other building materials, to wetting and drying is fairly constant. Materials with
will change in dimension a definable amount due to mois- high initial irreversible shrinkage require maturing be-
ture, temperature, and certain chemical changes; and fore use.“’
when it is free to move without restraint externally and
internally, no stress or damage will result to the concrete
itself, though the concrete may intrude on some function Length change, %
of a building.
On the other hand, if concrete is restrained externally On t t
or internally, the development of deformations, stresses,
and possible cracking in the concrete will result from the
influence of external forces and temperature, moisture,
and certain chemical changes.
For convenience in this text, the amount of volume
change is generally stated in linear rather than volumetric
units. Changes in length are often expressed as a coeffi-
cient of the length in parts per million, or more simply as
millionths. Thus 500 millionths is 0.000500, which is
equal to 0.050%. Percentages are used in this text as the
common measure of volume change. They are shown to -.600 -
three decimal points, not as a measure of accuracy, but to
make it easier to compare the values and determine their
relative importance. -.8001 I 1 I I I
100 80 60 40 20 0
Relative humidity, %

MOISTURE CHANGES Fig. 1. Length changes of a slab of 0.6 water-cement-ratio

paste during drying and wetting. Reference 1.
Concrete shrinks as it dries and swells as it is wetted. As
a rule, when concrete dries and becomes resaturated, not
more than two-thirds of the initial drying shrinkage will
be recovered. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, where a cement- *Superscript numbers in parentheses indicate referencesat the backof
paste specimen is initiallv dried to 50% relative humiditv this book.

1
Orying Shrinkage of Concrete Drying shrinkage, %

0.120
Several important factors have separate influences on
the amount of shrinkage that accompanies drying: (1) the
total amount of water in the concrete as illustrated by I
Fig. 2;“’ (2) the amount the aggregate shrinks; (3) the ,100 -
elastic modulus of the aggregate; and (4) the total amount
of aggregate in the concrete, also called the aggregate
volume concentration.‘4 5’
If concrete is considered as two parts-cement paste
and aggregates-the shrinkage action is more readily
understood. The two parts do not shrink to the same ex-
tent. The cement paste shrinks more than the aggregate
.060 -
and shrinkage of the paste by itself can be five times or
more that of the concrete. The absolute volume of aggre-
gate is two to three times that of the paste, so the aggre-
gate has an important role in restraining shrinkage.‘6 The ,040
relative elasticity of the paste and aggregate helps deter-
mine the net shrinkage of the concrete. Table 1 lists the
shrinkage of concretes made with different aggregates.“’
Drying shrinkage of structural lightweight concrete .020
and also of high-strength concrete made and cured at I Ib/cu yd - 0.593 kg/m3
normal temperatures may be comparable to or slightly
greater than that of normal-weight concrete. The differ-
0
ence in shrinkage is usually less than about 30%, and in
some cases there is little or no difference. High-strength 200 300 400
lightweight concrete, 7000 to 9000 psi (48 to 62 MPa), has Water- lb /cu yd
about the same shrinkage as comparable normal-weight
concrete. Fig. 2. Dependence of concrete shrinkage on water
content. Reference 3.
Normally included in values cited for drying shrinkage
is the amount of autogenous volume change, which is
occasionally an expansion but usually a shrinkage. This
change is caused by hydration of cement and aging, and Table 1. Shrinkage of Concrete as
it may range from 0.001% to 0.015~~.‘* 9’
Affected by Aggregate Type
According to research conducted in 1966, both size and
shape of concrete sections have an effect on how fast and Two-year
how much shrinkage develops. Fig. 3 shows the rate of Aggregate type shrinkage, %
shrinkage with respect to total shrinkage.“” Neglecting Siliceous sand and gravel 0.086
the ends, each thickness of concrete slab or wall has a Granite and fine quartzite sand 0.061
distinct volume-to-surface (v-s) ratio as does each size Elgin sand and gravel 0.055
(carbonate and siliceous)
of round or square column. Thus a 6-in. (150-mm) slab Commercial Elgin 0.054
has a v-s ratio of 3, as does a 12-in. (300-mm) column Granite 0.053
(round or square). At an age of 100 days, the shrinkage Traprock 0.040
Quartzite sand and gravel 0.038
selected from Fig. 3 for this slab or column would be just Lightweight 0.057 to 0.089
under 60% of its total shrinkage. The curves represent
conditions at 70°F (21°C) and 50% relative humidity. Note: Curing by atmospheric steam pressure
Note that volume and surface are measured in inches; Source: Reference 7
measuring in feet or millimeters will produce different
numbers.
The v-s ratio for prismatic sections can be expressed conclusions can be reached. All authors agree that the
as the cross-sectional area divided by the periphery (or rate of shrinkage is size-related. Therefore, from a prac-
that part of the periphery that is exposed to drying). A tical viewpoint, because of the large size and long drying
concrete slab or wall that can only dry from one side time of most beams, columns, and foundations, it is ap-
would have the same drying characteristics as a slab or propriate to assume that shrinkage during the finite life
wall twice as thick that can dry from both sides. Thus a of a structure is size-related.
6-in.-thick (1%mm) slab drying from one side would
shrink the same amount as a 12-in. (300-mm) wall drying
from both sides. Drying Shrinkage of Lightweight
Since 1966 researchers have reached a conclusion that Concrete Masonry
“the ultimate shrinkage is broadly independent of speci-
men size.““’ 13’ However, depending on the method used Drying shrinkage curves for expanded-shale concrete
to extrapolate measured data to infinite time, different masonry units are given in Fig. 4. These units were ini-

2
Percentage of total shrinkage or creep

50% R H. Fig. 3 (at left). Calculated variation of shrinkage and creep

I, I I , 1, 1, 11, with time for given volume-to-surface ratios regardless of
Oo 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 type of aggregate. Source: Reference 10. Metric conversion:
Time, days v-s (in.) X 25 = v-s (mm)

Factors Influencing Magnitude and Rate of Drying Shrinkage of Concrete*

Positive Negative
effect effect
(decreased (increased
Factor drying shrinkage) drying shrinkage)
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT, a minor factor:
Type Generally no greater or less
shrinkage from one type to another
Fineness Finer cements generally exhibit small
increase in shrinkage
TYPE OF AGGREGATE, major factor:
Modulus of Elasticity, E, High Low
Absorption Low High
Shrinkage Low High
Size Large Small
Gradation Good Poor
WATER CONTENT AND MIX PROPORTIONS,
major factor:
Water content Low High
Volume concentration High Low
Volume of coarse aggregate Large Small
Volume of fine aggregate Low High
Cement content Not a significant factor
Slump Low High
Concrete temperature Cooler Hotter
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES:
Air-entraining No appreciable effect at normal percent
Water-reducing Some increase at early ages
Set-retarding Some increase
Accelerators Substantial increase at early ages,
moderate at late ages
POZZOLANS. a minor factor:
Fly ash Some have little effect, others some
increase
Natural materials Some may or may not increase
shrinkage

SIZE AND SHAPE OF CONCRETE Larger member- Smaller member-

MEMBERS: less shrinkage more shrinkage
DURATION OF MOIST CURING:
Moist-cure No effect
Steam-cure at atmospheric pressure Reduced

‘Source: Reference 11. ACI 224-81. Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures, Paragraph 3.4.

3

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 120
Time, days
Fig. 4. Drying shrinkage of expanded-shale concrete
masonry units when exposed to stepped decreasing
humidities. Reference 14.
tially cured under high-pressure steam and then cured at
four lower humidities for 30 days each. Drying shrinkage
would be twice as much for units initially cured at 72O F
(22’C) in moist air. The curves show a substantialamount
of shrinkage at 85% relative humidity (RH) and further
substantial drops at 50% and 25%. The shrinkage is not
directly proportional to the moisture loss.
The rate of drying shrinkage in a concrete masonry
wall, however, would be slower. Fig. 5 is for an 8-in.-
thick (lOO-mm) expanded-shale block wall cured at 73’F
(23°C) and 50% external relative humidity. The mortar
dried rapidly at first, reaching 94% RH internally in one
day, but took seven more weeks to reach 85%. The face
shell aged four weeks before reaching 85% internally, and
6 months before reaching 60%~“~
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Designation: C90, Standard Specifications for Hollow
Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry Units (and Canadian
Standards Association [CSA] A165.1, Concrete Ma-
sonry Units), limits the moisture content for Type I
(moisture-controlled) concrete masonry units as deliv-
ered to the jobsite. The maximum permissible moisture
content depends on the average annual relative humidity
at point of use and the potential linear drying shrinkage
of the concrete used in making the units. At most, the
ASTM specification allows only a 45% moisture content
for units with low shrinkage in an environment with rela-
tive humidity above 75%.
Plastic Shrinkage and Plastic Cracking
Plastic shrinkage and cracking sometimes occur in the
exposed surfaces of freshly placed concrete slabs because
of a rapid evaporation of water from the surface of the
concrete. Plastic shrinkage and cracking are usually asso-
ciated with hot-weather concreting (high temperatures
and low humidity), but can occur at other times as well.
The cracks can be as deep as 4 in. (100 mm). They are
rather straight, without a pattern, and are generally dis-
continuous. They usually develop during finishing opera-
tions after the water sheen on the surface disappears and
indicate that the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of
bleeding.
Relative humidity, %
60-
I 1 1 I I I I I I I
5o0 40 80 120 160
Time, days
Fig. 5. Drying in different parts of a concrete block in an
expanded-shale concrete masonry wall cured at 50%
relative humidity.
Movements in the category of temperature changes are
significant. They depend on the local weather conditions
and on heating and cooling within the building. Temper-
ature gradients can cause curling or bending of concrete
slabs, as shown in Fig. 6, when the temperature varies
from one face to the other. This can occur in precast wall
panels and in slabs and pavements on the ground.
An average coefficient of expansion of plain concrete
is on the order of 0.055% per 100” F (0.100% per 100” C)
or 85% of the coefficient for steel. Thus a rise or fall of
lOOoF will cause a length change of 0.66 in. in a lOO-ft
length of concrete (or 5 mm for a IO-m-long section with
a rise or fall of 50°C).
Of course, an average coefficient does not apply to all
concrete. Table 2 shows some experimental values of the
thermal coefficient of expansion for unrestrained labora-
tory specimens of concrete made with various aggre-
gates. The coefficient for structural lightweight concrete
varies from 0.040% to 0.060% per 100°F (0.070% to
0.110% per 100” C), depending on the aggregate type and
the amount of natural sand.
Thermal coefficients for expansion of concrete vary
because the coefficients for the aggregates vary widely
as shown in Table 3. Aggregates are often complex in
terms of type and mineral content and so the thermal co-
efficients cannot be neatly classified by rock or mineral
type. It is considered that “the main factor influencing
the thermal expansion of rock, and therefore of concrete,
is the proportion of quartz present. Rocks with a high
quartz content, such as quartzite and sandstone, have the
highest coefficients. Rocks containing little or no quartz,
such as limestone, have the lowest coefticient.““9
The expansion coefficient for a given aggregate may
vary with different grain textures and with temperature
as shown in Fig. 7. So it can be seen why the coefficient
for concrete can also vary considerably with the tempera-
ture. This points out the need for using averages
 Warm side

Ar(T,-T2)L2C
01
C = Coef f. of expan. /deg. F.
When C =0.055% per 100” F,

*,(68-21) x0.055x 1202

8x6x100x100

A=0.077" = 54j4*
20 40
tz6" Temperature
Concrete
slab Fig. 7. Thermal expansion curves of a fine-grained
limestone and a coarse-grained limestone. Reference 20.

Fig. 6. Curling of a plain concrete panel due to temperature.

TemDerature varies uniformly from inside to outside.
(5 - T2)LZC ciously and in critical situations the need for testing the
Metric conversion: n = where T1 and T2 aggregate or the concrete.
mm 4.27r
are degrees Celsius, L = mm, C is coefficient/deg. C, and t = mm, Another reason why thermal expansion coefficients
1 in.=25mm,1ft=0.30m,21”F=-6”C.68”F=20”C. cover a wide range is because of the method of reporting.
Some research reports compute the coefficient merely
on the basis of the length change of moist concrete for a
rise in temperature. During this process drying shrink-
age takes place. But it is not identified or separated from
Table 2. Thermal Coefficient of Expansion of the temperature expansion, because that particular re-
Concrete Depending on Aggregate Type searcher may only be interested in the total effect and
because it is difficult or laborious to isolate the shrinkage
Coefficient, % effect.
Aggregate type
(from one source) per 100°F 1 per 100°C Further, a major influence on the factor is the size of
Quartz 0.066 0.119
the specimen and the rate of temperature increase. Lab-
Sandstone 0.065 0.117 oratory specimens are small compared with building
Gravel 0.060 0.108 components such as foundations, columns, girders, and
Granite 0.053 0.095 slabs. This size effect as well as the actual speed of ambi-
Basalt 0.048 0.086 ent air temperature change strongly influences the actual
Limestone 0.038 0.068
temperature movements in a building.
Source: Reference 3 Cement paste has a higher expansion coefficient than
aggregate; and as aggregate is added to the paste, the co-
efficient drops. Thus
Table 3. Range of Thermal Coefficient 1. Cement paste (cement plus water) has the highest
of Expansion of Aggregates coefficient.
2. Mortar (paste plus sand) has a lower coefficient.
Coefficient, % 3. Concrete (mortar plus coarse aggregate) has the
Aggregate type per 100” F oer 100” C lowest coefficient.
Marble 0.006 to 0.009 0.011 to 0.160 The thermal coefficient for cement paste may range
Gravel, chert 0.041 to 0.073 0.074 to 0.131 from 0.060% to 0.090% per 100°F (0.108% to 0.162% per
Quartzite 0.073 0.131 1OOOC). ‘291 The difference in coefficients of mortar and
Gravel 0.059 to 0.071 0.106 to 0.128
Sands 0.060 to 0.070 0.108 to 0.126 aggregates is illustrated in Table 4 and further shows how
Granite 0.010 to 0.066 0.018 to 0.119 the thermal coefficient of concrete is affected by the type
Sandstone 0.088 0.119 of aggregate. Research has shown some correlation of
Limestone 0.019 to 0.064 0.034 to 0.115 these differences to the durability of concrete exposed to
Slag 0.051 0.092 freezing and thawing”’ *” but the role of this relationship
Traorock 0.043 to 0.047 0.077 to 0.085
Basalt 0.045 0.081 has not yet been fully established.
Another variation of thermal expansion of concrete
Source: References 16. 17. 16 relates to the moisture content. Air-dry aggregate by

5
Table 4. Difference Between Thermal Coefficient of
Expansion of Mortar and Coarse Aggregate
T
I - . .
Coetticlent. %
-.
Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
in the mortar by itself 1 per 100°F per 100” C
Siliceous Limestone 0.008 to 0.052 0.014 to 0.094
Glacial Limestone 0.027 to 0.034 0.049 to 0.061
Limestone Limestone 0.009 to 0.028 0.016 to 0.050
Syenite Syenite 0.019 0.034
Siliceous Quartzite 0.007 to 0.017 0.013 to 0.031
Siliceous Traprock 0.019 to 0.028 0.034 to 0.050
Syenite Traprock 0.017 0.031
Limestone Traprock 0.008 to 0.011 0.014 to 0.020
-I
Source: Table 1 in Reference 17
itself may have a 10% higher coefficient of expansion
than saturated aggregate. It is believed that the thermal
coefficient of expansion of concrete is about equal to the
weighted average of the coefficients of its ingredients.“”
The thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete will
vary for other reasons as well. One is called hygrothermal
volume change, in which a change of temperature of con-
crete causes a migration of water between the gels and
capillaries of the concrete. As a result, the damp or wet
expansion of concrete will not be the same as for ovendry
concrete. The absolute difference may be plus or minus
0.010%. However, the difference disappears within a half
hour after the temperature stabilizes. The phenomenon
yields its largest apparent thermal coefficients at about
68°F (20°C). High-pressure steam curing eliminates
hygrothermal shrinking and swelling.‘22’
Some data suggest that the water-cement ratio of the
concrete has a strong influence on the coefficient. For
example, at an age of two months the coefficient for con-
crete with a water-cement ratio of 0.50 was 16% more
than for concrete with a water-cement ratio of 0.70. On
the other hand, the maturity of concrete may cause the
coefficient to drop 25% between the age of two and six
months.‘23’
The presence of reinforcing steel in concrete will influ-
ence the composite thermal expansion, since rarely do
both materials have identical coefficients. However, the
difference may be no more than 5% to 6% when reinforce-
ment is placed symmetrically in the concrete. If it is not
placed symmetrically, as in a floor slab, the thermal coef-
ficient of the concrete remote from the steel will change
very litile. In a rigid frame with 6% reinforcement,‘23’ the
coefficient near the bars may be 10% different, and thus
would contribute to curling or curling stresses.
Temperature movements are most severe at a roof. A
black roofing under a hot sun can rise 90°F (50°C) above
the ambient air temperature during the day. Even with
insulation under the roofing membrane, the temperature
will rise in the concrete roof slab, creating a tendency to
curl, expand horizontally, and move masonry parapets.
Partitions and facing materials in the top story of a build-
ing must be detailed to accommodate these movements.
6
Heat of Hydration
Heat of hydration is the heat concrete generates as it
hardens because of the chemical reaction of the cement
and water. Heat of hydration can be another source of
temperature-caused movement.
If the heat cannot escape from the concrete, the condi-
tion is known as adiabatic. In the real world this situation
cannot fully exist, but something close to it does occur.
Fig. 8 shows temperature buildup under adiabatic condi-
tions, which for Type I cement at 28 days, for example,
amounts to almost 40°F (55OC).
This heat rise would of course be a matter to reckon
with in planning a building with massive structural ele-
ments or massive foundations. If the temperature in-
creased in a long slab or wall resting on the ground, the
concrete would extend its length by sliding on the ground;
but on cooling, the friction of the ground could cause
tensile forces high enough to severely crack the concrete.
When reinforcing steel is provided, the crack widths are
less severe. Another consequence during expansion could
be to push other parts of the building out of alignment.
In the slabs, beams, and columns with typical dimen-
sions, heat of hydration creates no problems because it
dissipates rapidly. But in very thick or massive concrete
sections, the heat does not escape quickly. As an example,
consider walls of various thicknesses and the time it takes
for 95% of a fixed amount of heat to escape out the sides
when the surrounding air temperature is constant. The
time for the heat to dissipate is roportional to the square
of the thickness of the wall:‘2sP
Approximate
dissipation time,
Wall thickness hours
6-in. (I 52-mm) 2
g-in. (203-mm) 3
12-in. (305-mm) 7
18-in. (457-mm) 15
24-in. (6 IO-mm) 27
60-in. (1524-mm) 168 (two weeks)
Another consideration is the temperature of the con-
crete, where heat is dissipating at the same time that heat
of hydration is being created. It can be shown that if the
temperature of the air is constant and the same as that of
the concrete as delivered, the heat rise in the concrete
after 24 hours will be only a few degrees Fahrenheit for
walls as thick as 24 in. (610 mm).
If the air temperature has normal weather fluctuations
and the concrete is allowed to lose heat at the same time
it is creating heat of hydration, the resultant rempera-
ture of the concrete will tend to follow the air tempera-
ture, though with some timelag.
The differential temperature between the surface and
the interior of the concrete is decisive, as it may cause
cracking. Studies indicate that this difference in the tem-
perature gradient should not exceed 36OF (20°C) for
concrete with siliceous gravel if subsequent cracking is

TYP* m cement
30.
.
’ 1
I 3 7 14 28
Age, days
Fig. 8. Typical temperature rise of concrete containing
584 lb of cement per cubic yard (330 kg/m3). Reference 24.
Correspondingcementtypes: l,II.III,IV,andVintheUnitedStates
equal 10.20, 30,40, and 50 respectively in Canada.
to be avoided.‘26 *” For concrete with granite aggregate
a temperature differential of 45’ F (25°C) is considered
a limit, and with limestone aggregate the limit is 56°F
(3 PC).‘*” Other methods for computing maximum tem-
perature rise of uninsulated sections appear in Reference
30 and sample curves appear in Reference 28.
CHEMICAL CHANGES AND EFFECTS
Certain movements of concrete result from chemical
reactions of the cement and aggregates with the mixing
water or later reactions within the hardened concrete in
the presence of water or moisture.
Carbonation
Hardened concrete reacts with the carbon dioxide and
moisture present in the air and develops a slight shrink-
age. The effect is not destructive but actually increases
the chemical stability of the concrete. The reaction is very
shallow in dense concrete, and penetrates deep in porous
concrete. Some concrete masonry units are deliberately
exposed to carbon dioxide during manufacture after
reaching 80% of their rated strength to induce shrinkage
and make the units more dimensionally stable. Future
shrinkage is reduced 30% or more.‘29’
On hardened concrete, long-term carbonation may
reach a depth of an inch (25 mm) but only over a period
of many years. One of the causes of surface crazing of
concrete, however, is the shrinkage that accompanies
natural air carbonation of young concrete.
Carbonation of another kind also can occur to fresh,
unhardened concrete and cause a soft chalky surface.
This carbonation usually takes place during cold-weather
concreting when there is an unusual amount of carbon
dioxide in the air due to direct-fired heating or gasoline-
powered equipment. It is not accompanied by significant
movements or cracking, and after the concrete is 24 hours
old this danger no longer exists.
Sulfate Attack
Sulfate attack on concrete can occur where soil and
groundwater have a high sulfate content. The attack is
confined to concrete that is cool and moist, such as foun-
dations and slabs on ground. It usually causes an expan-
sion of the concrete because of the formation of solids as
a result of the chemical action. The amount of expansion
in some circumstances has often been higher than0. lOO%,
and the disruptive effect within the concrete can result
in extensive cracking and disintegration. The amount of
expansion cannot be accurately predicted; it is not useful
in the design of concrete units or structures and cannot
be controlled by jointing. Rather than try to accommo-
date the expansion, the designer should find a way to
avoid it altogether.
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions
In most parts of North America, concrete aggregates are
considered more or less chemically inert in concrete.
However, in some areas the aggregates definitely react
with the alkalis in cement, causing expansion and crack-
ing over a period of years. The reaction is limited to those
parts of a structure that are cool and moist. A knowledge
of the characteristics of local aggregates is helpful. There
are two types of alkali reactive aggregates: siliceous and
carbonate.
Alkali-silica reaction occurs in certain localities from
coast to coast. In addition to expansion and cracking, the
reaction causes a gel, which may be soft or hard, to ooze
from pores and cracks and collect on the surface. Crack-
ing usually is random but it may have a pattern, some-
times called map cracking. Sometimes popouts occur.
Most noncrystalline silica minerals, such as opal, are
potentially reactive with the alkali in cement. Some
igneous and metamorphic siliceous rocks are also poten-
tially reactive. The expansion may exceed I .500% in mor-
tar or 0.500% in concrete and can cause the concrete to
fracture and break apart.
Alkalicarbonate reaction is less widespread but has
been encountered in the Middle West and on the East
Coast and could be found anywhere that carbonate rocks
are found. Only a few of the alkali-reactive rocks are
expansive-mostly some of the various kinds of dolo-
mitic limestones. The characteristics of reactive carbon-
ate aggregate are a relatively high clay content, a fine-
grained matrix, and a I: 1 approximate dolomite-tocal-
cite ratio. The amount of expansion has been measured
as high as 0.180% in 9 months for 3x4-in. (75x100-mm)
prisms tested at 100% relative humidity and 73’F
(23’C).“”
Knowing the amount of alkali-aggregate expansion is
not useful in the design of concrete structures, and the
expansion cannot be controlled by jointing. Rather than
trying to accommodate the expansion, the designer
should find a way to avoid it altogether.
7
Shrinkage-Compensating Cement
Shrinkagecompensating cement was developed to pro-
duce a concrete without the net drying shrinkage associ-
ated with portland cement concrete. Expansion takes
place during the first week and is on the order of 0.030%
to 0. lOOYe, depending on the amount of restraint present
and the mix design. Fig. 9 shows the early expansion and
later shrinkage upon drying. The expansion more than
offsets the shrinkage so there is no net shrinkage in the
concrete.
By far, the greatest use of shrinkagecompensating
cement is in concrete floor slabs on the ground. Restraint
Length change, %
1@oist curing
Portland cement concrete
G I I I I 1
0 50 100 150 200
Age, &YS
Fig. 9. Expansion and contraction of shrfnkage-
compensating-cement concrete at a relative humidity of
50%. Reinforcement equals 0.16% of cross-sectional area
of concrete.
by reinforcing steel-properly selected and placed steel-
is essential to the effective performance of shrinkage-
compensating concrete. The elasticity of the reinforcing
steel restores the concrete to almost its original length as
shrinkage progresses, and cracking is avoided. Polyeth-
ylene sheets are sometimes used under the slab to reduce
subgrade friction; a 2-in. (XI-mm) sand cushion on top of
the sheets is recommended if the slab is cast under the
open sky.
The simplicity of shrinkage compensation can be ap-
preciated when three types of slabs on ground are com-
pared (Fig. 10). They are relatively long slabs, all cast to
the same length. The action of the first (Fig. lOa), with
shrinkagecompensating cement, has been discussed.
The second slab (Fig. 106) with normal portland ce-
ment, has a control joint. The slab developed a micro-
scopic crack at the control joint because of a temperature
drop during the first 24 hours after placement when the
concrete had very little strength. Later, drying shrink-
age opened the crack.
The third slab (Fig. 10~) also developed a microscopic
crack from a temperature drop. A day or two later the
slab was post-tensioned, closing the crack. As drying
8
Type of construction Condition
,-Slab
All: :‘.).‘.“~...‘, ., :.,:. .:::... ,: .: ,. . . . . .,:.1 .,. . . . .,As cast
Expansive
cement
concrete
(a)
Portland
cement ,. ., ..:I,I . . p. ;:.. :‘......II. . . . ,. ..: ..;11 .‘ . %, .‘. ,As shrunk
concrete,
no steel (b)
Post-tensioned - -
. , :~:,,‘.‘,.:,“‘..,~‘...” ;. , ’ :.‘.~.:*..:,‘.‘.:. :. :. :: As shrunk
concrete
(cl
Fig. 10. Movements of three types of slabs on the ground.
shrinkage developed, the slab shortened. The tendon
coupled the two halves together and the crack remained
closed.
Corrosion of Metals in Concrete
Occasional corrosion of reinforcing steel has been ob-
served in the form of rust stains, cracking, and spalling
of the concrete. The products of corrosion occupy a
greater volume than the metal that has corroded. They
may cause internal forces of expansion that can crack and
loosen the surrounding concrete. Engineers are aware of
the generally excellent service record of concrete struc-
tures, determined by long-time studies of specimens in
widely varying exposures. Not so well understood is the
remarkably effective protective mechanism afforded to
steel encased in concrete or mortar. The protection pro-
vided by concrete and mortar is comparable to that of
other types of coatings. When corrosion does occur, it
can often be traced to factors such as insufficient cover
over the steel, physical damage to concrete that results
in steel exposure, or poorquality concrete that is porous
or contains large voids around the steel.
Calcium chloride used as an admixture has been the
cause of corrosion problems, and this is a subject in itself.
Designs that place dissimilar metals in contact in moist
or saturated concrete, particularly if the concrete con-
tains calcium chloride, have produced corrosion of at
least one of the metals. Various nonmetallic coatings
have been applied to reinforcing steel to reduce corro-
sion. An epoxy coating is now in use that transmits bond
to the bar and allows the full structural value of the steel.
Cathodic protection has been used successfully to coun-
teract corrosion, particularly in bridges.
Nonferrous metals such as copper, zinc, aluminum,
lead, and their alloys may be subject to corrosion when
embedded in concrete or in surface contact with it. Cop-
per and its alloys are practically immune to action from
fresh concrete and mortar, except in the presence of solu-
ble chlorides that maycausecorrosion. Zinc(galvanizing)
is susceptible to attack by fresh or moist concrete and
mortar. Galvanized coatings are so thin that their expan-
sive pressures generally do not cause any damage to the
surrounding concrete, and galvanizing does furnish sac-
rificial protection to steel. However, calcium chloride
admixtures corrode galvanized steel and may lead to
severe cracking and spalling of the surrounding concrete.
When aluminum is placed in fresh concrete, a reaction
occurs and aluminum oxide and hydrogen are formed.
The greater volume occupied by these products causes
expansive pressures around the embedded metal and may
lead to serious damage to the surrounding concrete. Alu-
minum should not be used in concrete containing admix-
tures with chlorides, nor in or near seawater. Lead is also
attacked by fresh or moist concrete, and destruction of an
embedded lead pipe may occur in a few years. When lead
is partially embedded in concrete and partially exposed
to air, a condition known as differential aeration occurs.
The embedded lead has a different electrical potential
than that in the air and an electrical current is created that
will cause corrosion and gradual disintegration of the
embedded lead. Generally no damage will be observed in
the concrete becauseof the softness of the lead, which will
absorb expansive pressures caused by the formation of
corrosion products.
Nickel-plated steel will not corrode in moist concrete,
but pinholes in the coating may lead to accelerated cor-
rosion in the presence of chlorides. Cadmium coatings
will satisfactorily protect steel embedded in concrete,
even in the presence of moisture and normal chloride
concentrations.

Nonshrink Grouts
Nonshrink grouts and mortars are regularly used under
columns, precast elements, and equipment to avoid set-
tlement due to drying shrinkage. These grouts and mor-
tars are made with an addition such as aluminum powder
that expands when water is added to the mix. Theamount
of shrinkage that can develop in a l-in. (25-mm) layer of
regular grout is very minute-perhaps only 0.0005 in.
(0.012 mm)-so it would be insignificant compared to
the shortening of the columns or other precast elements
resting on it. Nevertheless, a reason for using nonshrink
grout is to avoid loosening the nuts on the anchor bolts.
However, the shrinkage may take years, or forever, to
develop because the mortar is capped by a steel plate and
because of the thick concrete foundation below that is
perhaps in a moist environment, thus inhibiting drying
shrinkage.
CHAPTER 2.
Movements, Strains, and Volume Changes-
Restrained
If concrete were free from all restraints against its move-
ment, there would be no cracking. In service, however,
concrete is usually in a restrained condition and cracking
occurs either because of too much imposed load or be-
cause of the development of greater volume changes
(movements) than the concrete can withstand.
A simple example of external restraint is a concrete test
cylinder in a testing machine (Fig. 11). A load is applied
at the top and the bed of the machine restrains the con-
crete from moving down. The load is increased until it is
more than the concrete can withstand and the cylinder
cracks and fails.
An example of tensile stresses caused by the restraint
of a subgrade under a slab is in Fig. 34 in this chapter.
Internal restraint occurs when the surface of a mass of
concrete is restrained from shrinkage during drying be-
cause the interior is wetter than the surface (Fig. 12). Ten-
sile stresses that may be large enough to cause surface
cracking will be created on the surface.

ELASTIC AND INELASTIC STRAINS*

Axial

A basic movement in all materials is the strain or defor-

mation that develops with axial stress. A generalized
stress-strain curve for concrete is shown in Fig. 13. Elas- Fig. 11. A concrete cylinder being broken in a testing
machine.
ticity prevails up to the elastic limit and then a plastic
deformation occurs. When the load is removed, the re-
covery line usually is not parallel to the elastic and plas-
tic curve; so the amount of permanent set differs from the
amount of plastic deformation.
A stress-strain curve is customarily drawn with stress *Stress-strain relationships that are elastic or straight-lined are also
on the vertical axis and strain on the horizontal axis. known as linear. Those that are inelastic or curvilinear are known as
Graphs of strain from other causes, however, usually nonlinear.

10

Concr
body
‘Compression
Fig. 12. Stresses created in a block of concrete because
the outside dries faster than the inside.
Plastic
deformation
Modulus of f
elasticity= E= F
Permanent
<<
Strain, E:
Fig. 13. Generalized stress-strain curve for concrete.
position strain on the vertical axis, as will be seen in this
text. When a series of graphs for strain are to be com-
pared, the strain should be on the same axis ineachgraph.
Thus the stress-strain curve in Fig. 13 can be shown as it
is in Fig. 14, where there are curves for specific water-
cement ratios by weight. These curves result from tests
wherein the strain is constantly increased and the con-
crete offers first more and then less resistance.
With moderate-to-high-strength concretes, water-ce-
ment ratios of 0.50 or less and up to strains of 0. 150%, the
strain is closely proportional to pressure or stress, and so
is almost elastic. The upper parts of the curves are inelas-
tic or plastic. The maximum usable strain at the extreme
fibers of concrete in compression is assumed for struc-
tural design to be 0.300%. The maximum measured strains
shown for the lower watercement-ratio concretes are
smaller than those for the higher water-cement ratios be-
cause of the physical problems of testing. The term “elas-
tic” is not favored for general discussion of concrete
Compressive stress, MPo
13.8 41.4
I I
I rw/c =I.0
0.400
.300 - O? 40
2 53
Strain c, % %k
.200 -
2000 4 0 0 0 6000 8(
Compressive stress f, psi
Fig. 14. Stresses caused as concrete is compressed
(strained).
behavior because very frequently the strain may be in the
inelastic range. For this reason, a term such as “instanta-
neous strain” is often used.
Modulus of Elasticity
A stress-strain curve for a five-unit-high prism of light-
weight concrete masonry with full mortar bedding ap-
pears in Fig. 1 5 .‘3’) To compute the modulus of elasticity,
the strength of these prisms was adjusted to the strength
of a two-unit-high prism. In this case it was found that
the modulus of elasticity was much higher than the com-
monly assumed value, which is 1000 times the ultimate
compressive strength of the masonry test prism.
Normal-weight concrete has a modulus of elasticity of
2,000,000 to 6,000,000 psi (14,000 to 41,000 MPa), de-
pending on the compressive strength. The modulus of
elasticity of structural lightweight concrete is generally
20% to 50% lower than that for normal-weight concrete
of equal strength, with the greater difference in the lower
weight range. An approximate relationship can be used
to estimate modulus of elasticity, E, for normal-weight
concrete:
E = 57,000 fi for customary units
E, = 15,100 & for SI (metric) units
in whichf: is the compressive strength determined by test
cylinders. This empirical formula is reasonably reliable
for concretes with compressive strengths of 3000 to 5000
psi (20 to 35 MPa). Fig. 16 illustrates this relationship.
Note that the modulus of elasticity for most lightweight
concretes is between 1,000,000 and 2,500,OOO psi (7000
and 17,000 MPa). For important work the modulus of
11
 Compressive stress - MPa Elastic modulus Ec.million psi

Strain, %

.050

Unit weight w, pcf

Compressive stress -psi Modulus of elasticity, Ec, MPa

26000
Fig. 15. Stress-strain curve for a five-unit-high
lightweight concrete masonry prism.

elasticity should be determined by laboratory tests in ac-

cordance with ASTM C469, Method of Test for Static
Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete
in Compression.

Flexural Strains (Deflections)

Deflection of concrete beams and slabs is one of the most
common examples of building movements and its effects
are conspicuous. As floors deflect, the partitions they
support may separate from the ceiling above, cracks may
develop in the wall, and doors may not close properly.
Furniture may stand at an angle away from the wall, and
need leveling devices to avoid rocking.
A closely allied topic is cambering or building in an
upward bowing to anticipate and offset the eventual de-
flection. The movement of a floor or beam is the same
regardless of whether it has been cambered, but the visual
effects are improved. Cambering serves a definite pur-
pose, and if it can be accomplished economically, the
owners and tenants will be more satisfied that it was done.
Deflections are the result of flexural strains that may
result in cracking of the tension surface of a beam or slab.
Indeed, reinforced concrete structural design has always
been based on sections that will crack when loaded. The
current practice of deflection calculations for reinforced
concrete limits the cracking by using an effective moment
of inertia. A sample deflection calculation is illustrated
in Fig. 17 and further refinements are given in References
32, 33, and 34.
In the past, cracking in concrete beams was rather in-
conspicuous. In recent times, however, the use of high-
strength steel has increased the size of thecracks and they
are more apparent. Experimental work has shown that
1400 1500 1600 1700 moo 1900
Mass density, kg/m3
Fig. 16. Modulus of elasticity varies with strength and
density.
crack widths can be roughly predicted. A sample calcu-
lation appears in Fig. 18 using the same beam as in Fig. 17.
The limitations on crack widths are 0.016 in. (0.4 mm)
indoors and 0.013 in. (0.33 mm) outdoors. A crack width
as narrow as 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) is apparent to the naked
eye as a very fine hairline crack-the approximate diam-
eter of a human hair. However, concrete cracks with
widths up to 0.020 in. (0.50 mm) are often called hairline
cracks.
Shear Strains
Concrete, like other materials, deforms under shear forces
(Fig. 19). The movement or strain is important in deter-
mining the load paths or distribution of forces in indeter-
minate structures-for example, where shearwalls and

12
Problem: For the concrete beam shown, calculate the
immediate deflection.
Known:
Simple span = 30 ft R = 360 in.
Bending moment,
(uniform load) M= 217.5 in.-kips
Concrete strength, fS = 3000 psi
Concrete density, w = 145 pcf
Modulus of rupture, usefr = 7.5p
Modulus of elasticity,
Concrete, E, = 3,120,OOO psi
Bars, E, = 29,000 ksi
Ratio, n =E/E,=say9
Solution:
5 Ml2
Deflection, A = 48 EI,
Effective moment of inertia,
I, = (MCI/ Ml3 I, + [l - (M,,/W3]L,
where
Gross moment of inertia,
I, = bh’/ 12 = 3410 in.4 Crack width can be controlled using the formula,
Cracked moment of inertia, Z=fs $zT
I,, = b(kd)3/3 + nA,(d - kd)*
where Z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural
kd is computed from reinforcement
kdb
-= fs = working stress in bars that can be assumed to
1+2g - 1 be 60% of the yield strength, using ksi
nA, J nA,
2bdc
kd = 4.65 in. so that A = tension area per bar, in this case = 3
I,, = 1320 in.4 And by supplying enough bars to be within the limiting
MC, = frIB/y, = 175 in. kips because yt = h/2 values:
M/M,, = 217.5/ 175 = 1.24 Z = 175 kips per inch for interior exposure and
Z = 145 kips per inch for exterior exposure
Then I, = 0.52(3410) + 0.48(1320) = 2410 in.4
For the beam shown in Fig. 17, the formula will show that
And deflection, Z = 116, which is well within the criteria.
A = 5. 217.5(36o_rI = 0.39 in.
4 8 3120(2410) I

Fig. 18. Calculation of crack width caused by bending of

Fig. 17. Sample calculation for deflection (Reference 34).
The same method is used in Code for Design of Concrete
Sfrucfures for t?u//d/ngs, CAN%A23.3477, Canadian
Standards Association.
1 in. = 25 mm; 1000 psi = 6.9 MPa; 1 in.-kip = 16 N-m.
reinforced concrete. The same method Is used in Code for
Design of Concrefe Structures for Bulldings, CANB-
A23.3-77, Canadian Standards Association. Reference 33:
ACI 318 Commentary, Section 10.8.
1 in. = 25 mm; 1000 psi = 6.9 MPa; 1 kip/in. = 16 kg/mm.

13
 Displacement Height h, ft.
Area = A C= 6wh2 40.
~mzzi
/r -4
I 4’ r
I ’ I
-1 ’ I
-I ’ I
-1 I I
E
w -,I I '
h I I G= -
2(I+Y)
-1 I I
I I
:
I/
II ,/,/,,,,,,,,,/,,:,,,,,,,/,///
///////f I

Fig. 19. Strain that results from shear on a body. G q shear

modulus. Y q Poisson’s ratio. Strain resulting from flexure
is not shown.

Horizontal movement at the top, in.

Fig. 20. Strains due to bending and shear of a concrete

wall with a longitudinal wind load. Values are based on a
6-In.-thick (150-mm) wall, 10 ft (3 m) long, with longi-
columns both participate in resisting horizontal forces. tudinal wind = 400 lb per foot (600 kg/m) of height.
Whether the load is applied parallel or perpendicular to
the wall, the formula for the displacement at the top of
the wall is the same and the answer is the same.
The amount of movement, while not large, is significant
in short stubby members, but is overshadowed in longer
members by flexural strains. For example, a concrete
shearwall will have a horizontal shear strain about equal
to the horizontal flexural strain shown in Fig. 20 at the
IO-ft (3-m) height. At a height of 30 ft, the shear strain at
the top is only 10% of the total, which is

The shear modulus, G, varies with the strength and

temperature of the concrete. When the compressive
strength is between 4000 and 5000 psi (27.6 to 34.5 MPa)
the shear modulus at 75’ F (24” C) will average 42% of the Fig. 21. Ratio of lateral to axial strain is Poisson’s
elastic modulus, E.“” ratio, V.
For a typical hollow concrete masonry wall of the same
nominal dimensions as in Fig. 20, shear and flexural
strains could be seven times that for the concrete wall, but of 0.20, the bending moment at the center of the panel is
if the wall were filled with grout, the strains would be only 20% higher than if Poisson’s ratio were zero.‘36’
two and a half times that of the concrete wall.

Poisson’s Ratio CREEP

When a block of concrete is loaded as in Fig. 21, it will
shorten and at the same time develop a lateral strain or
bulging. The ratio of the lateral to axial strain is known
as Poisson’s ratio. The value is generally between 0.15
and 0.25, depending upon the aggregate, moisture con-
tent, and age of the concrete; and it is thought to be lower
for higher strength concrete. A value of 0.20 or 0.21 is
commonly used.
In ordinary building work, Poisson’s ratio is of no con-
cern to the designer or contractor; but it is used in the
advanced structural analysis of flat-plate floors, roof
shells, and mat foundations. As an example, take the case
of a concrete slab that is square in plan, fixed along all
four sides, and uniformly loaded. With a Poisson’s ratio
When concrete is loaded, the deformation caused by the
load can be divided into two parts: a deformation that
occurs immediately (such as an elastic strain), and a time-
dependent deformation that begins immediately but con-
tinues at a decreasing rate for as long as the concrete is
loaded. This latter deformation is called creep.
When the load is removed, there is an instantaneous
recovery from strain that is always less than the elastic
strain, and then a gradual recovery from strain (or creep
recovery). As a result, there is an irrecoverable creep as
well as a permanent set. This is shown in Fig. 22 for a
16-in.diameter (400-mm) cylinder of plain concrete.
The amount of creep is dependent upon (1) the mag-
nitude of stress, (2) the age and strength of the concrete

14
Strain per 1000 psi Creep stroin, % per 1000 psi
of stress, % Irrecoverable 0. I 50
Age of looding

000 1200
Time, days

Fig. 22. Combined curve of elastic and creep strains,

showing amount of recovery. Reference 10, page A8.
b 250 500 750
Age, doys
1000

1000 psi = 6.9 MPa = 6.9 Nlmm2.

Fig. 23.Relationship of timeand age of loading tocreepfor
one concrete mix. Specimens were 8-in. (150-mm)
cylinders. Reference 38, updated.
1000 psi = 6.9 MPa = 6.9 N/mm2.
when stress is applied (the higher the strength of the con-
crete, the less the creep), and (3) the length of time the
concrete is stressed. It is also affected by factors related
to the quality of the concrete and conditions of exposure Stroin
o I46 %/I,000 Psi
such as type, amount, and maximum size of aggregate;
type of cement; amount of cement paste; size and shape
of the concrete mass; amount of steel reinforcement; and
curing conditions. For loads that are applied slowly at :120&
very early ages, it is difficult to separate instantaneous
deformation and creep. ‘37) For the usual concrete
strengths, creep is proportional to stress when stress is
less than 40% of ultimate strength.
The range of creep for lightweight concrete is about
the same as the range for normal-weight concrete. The
average ultimate creep of lightweight concrete, however,
is generally slightly greater than that of normal-weight
concrete. When precise knowledge of creep is required,
tests should be performed on the concrete in question. A

very effective method of reducing creep in lightweight or
normal-weight concrete is to use higher strength concrete
but keep the stress the same.
Curves illustrating creep appear in Fig. 23. These are
based on tests conducted under laboratory conditions in
accordance with ASTM Designation C512, Standard
Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression. Six-
inch-diameter (150-mm) cylinders were loaded to some-
thing less than 40% of the ultimate compressive strength.
Companion cylinders not subject to load were used to
measure shrinkage, which was then deducted from the
total deformation of the loaded specimens to determine
creep. Cylinders were allowed to dry, except those
marked “sealed.” The curves at 28 days in Fig. 23 illus-
trate the two parts of creep-the deformation accom-
panied by drying and the deformation that occurs with-
out drying, sometimes called basic creep. Concrete speci-
mens loaded at a late age will creep less than those loaded
at an early age. This is especially significant when devel-
oping schedules for floor form removal.
Fig. 24 gives the creep strain curve for the same light-
weight concrete masonry five-unit-high prism shown in
Fig. 15. The specimens were loaded at the age of seven
days to 40% of ultimate strength, and projected final
creep was calculated to be lO!?$~ of the instantaneous
strain.
.“:IL&.&,-
56 84 II2
Time under load, days
Fig. 24. Creep strain for concrete masonry with 1 :1:8
(Portland cement, lime, sand) mortar,loadedatseven days
to 40% of ultimate strength.
1000 psi = 6.9 MPa = 6.9 N/mmz.
Both size and shape are believed to affect the total
amount of creep during the first three months; after-
wards, the rate is close to that for sealed specimens.“”
Large members have less creep, approaching the value of
basic creep.
A combination of strains is illustrated in Fig. 25. The
curves represent the deformations or volume changes in
the fourteenth-story column of a 76-story reinforced con-
crete building while it was being constructed. The column
size was 16x48 in. (400x 1200 mm). The column contained

15
COmv8SSiV8 StrOin, %
(shortening)
Age, doys
Fig. 25. Summation of strains in the column of a tall
reinforced concrete building. Reference 38. The dips in
the curves are due to construction slowdowns.
just over 2% vertical reinforcement. Concrete design
strength was 9000 psi (62 MPa) at 56 days.
The method of curing prior to loading has a marked
effect on the amount of creep in concrete specimens.
Three different methods are charted in Fig. 26. Note that
very little creep occurs in concrete that is cured by high-
pressure steam (autoclaving) and that atmosphericsteam-
cured concrete ( 13 hours) has considerably less creep than
7-day-moist-cured concrete (16 hours). These two meth-
ods of steam curing reduce drying shrinkage of concrete
about half as much as they reduce creep.
The practical effects of creep can be a timedependent
deformation due to continual movement, a relaxation of
stress, or an intermediate condition. The situation that
will exist depends upon whether the applied load, or dis-
placement of part of the structure, is resisted wholly or
only in part by the strength and stiffness of the structure.
Examples of the two conditions follow.
Continud Movement
Continual movement occurs where there is no restraint,
as in a simple post. An instantaneous strain is followed
by and increased by creep although the stress or load on
the column remains unchanged.
Continual movement from creep and drying shrinkage
can cause additional deflection of beams and slabs. For
example, it is often predicted that for a beam or slab with
no compressive reinforcement (AC), addirionol deflection
16
Tim8 after loading. days
Fig. 28. Effect of curing method on magnitude of creep for
typical normal-weight concrete. Concrete strengths at
time of loading were equal in all cases.
after five years may be equal to twice the original amount,
thus rripling the immediate deflection (Fig. 27). This of
course assumes that the same load is on the member for
the full time.
This multiple of the deflection will vary depending on
the age of the concrete when initially loaded. More creep
and shrinkage will develop if concrete is loaded at an
earlier age, as in Fig. 23. When Fig. 23 is compared with
Fig. 14, other values of the multiple can be derived (as-
suming both figures are based on the same concrete mix).
For example, in Fig. 14 for a water-cement ratio of 0.50
the instantaneous strain would be about 0.025% at a
stress of 1000 psi (6.9 MPa) in the elastic range. Then if a
0.50 water-cement ratio represents 4000 psi (27.6 MPa)
concrete, Fig. 23 for concrete initially loaded at 28 days
shows a total creep of over 0.100% per 1000 psi (6.9 MPa)
at 1000 days (2.75 years). This is four times the instan-
taneous strain, making a total multiple of live for the
creep effect. If concrete is loaded before the age of 28
days, the multiple is especially pronounced, and deflec-
tion of floors and beams is apparent.
Relaxation of Stress
Relaxation of stress may occur either after an instantane-
ous initial strain or with gradual strain. In either case,
creep causes a readjustment of bending moments and
stresses if further strain is prevented or if further move-
ment of some part of the structure is prevented.
An example of stress relaxation after an instantaneous
initial strain is illustrated by Fig. 28, which represents a
huge, stiff compressor supported on a center pier and two
unyielding abutments. The compressor was lowered onto
the supports after the concrete pier had hardened and
strengthened. The pier at first supports almost all of the
load because it was accidentally constructed slightly
higher than the abutments. As creep develops with time,
the stress in the pier is relaxed as shown in Fig. 29 for
curve I (instantaneous).‘39’
Stress relaxation with gradual strain is illustrated in
Fig. 29 by curve G (gradual) as if the compressor were
Multiplier being very, very slowly lowered onto the pier. Stress in-
creases during the strain time and then relaxes during the
following years as creep continues. The peak of curve G
occurs at the end of the strain time, the length of time
when strain is being increased.
The two curves in Fig. 29 show that a delayed or grad-
ual strain does not create as high a stress as does an in-
stantaneous strain. The maximum stress on curve G will
be an increasing percentage of the maximum stress on
curve las the strain time is decreased. If the strain time is
30 days or more, the percentage will be about 50.
An example of stress relaxation of a concrete slab ap-
pears in Fig. 30. Discussion of two types of movements
IllI I I I I I follows. They both involve cases where part of a structure
‘0136 12 24 36 48 60 is displaced, then that part is prevented from further
Duration of load, months movement, after which there are changing strains and
movements in other parts of the structure.
Fig. 27. Amount of addftional deflection caused by First, consider that the right support beam is displaced
shrinkage and creep. downward instantaneously by an outside force. The
induced shear in the slab takes the shape of curve /in Fig.
29, and the shear created by the displacement relaxes as
the concrete creeps, adjusting and relaxing into its new
position.
If the dead and live loads are included, the net shear in
the slab at the right support would vary as in Fig. 31~7,
because the total shear is immediately reduced, and then
ti as creep (plastic flow) develops, the concrete slab relaxes,
tending to resume its originally suspended configuration;
so the shear increases with time.
Second, consider that the right support beam is gradu-
ally displaced downward by an outside influence during
the strain time. The induced shear in the slab takes the
Rigid / [Concrete pier shape of curve G in Fig. 29 because the stress increases
obutments cast too high gradually, but not in a straight line, increasing less gradu-
ally as creep develops until the end of the strain time when
Fig. 28. Concrete center pier built slightly too high will the stress starts to decrease and approaches curve I.
undergo relaxation of stress after rigid load is placed If the dead and live loads are included, the net shear
over the three supports (without benefit of grouting at in the slab would vary as in Fig. 31b, because the shear
the supports to equalize the loads). drops gradually as the support drops; but at the end of the
strain time when displacement of the support ceases,
creep still continues-the sustained loads cause time-
dependent deformations in the form of bending changes
in the slab-resulting in an increasing reaction at the
right support until the creep stops.

rh
Relaxation of stress also occurs in prestressed concrete.
It has six causes: (a) anchorage seating loss, (b) elastic
I-After instantaneous
initial strain
St&s Instantaneous
or deflected Displacement
force

relaxation
Age, yeors ---+ (weighted)

Fig. 29. Relaxation of stress with age due to creep. Fig. 30. Relaxation of a concrete beam as support at right
Reference 39. settles.

17

h rlnstantaneaus strain occurs
Shear
in
Slab
v
I I I 1 I I
a) Age, years
I ate created within concrete and it is unable to adjust to
Ik- Gradual strain occurs
1 I I 1 I I
b) Age, years
Fig. 31. Variation of shear in slab next to support that is
displaced (a) instantaneously and (b) gradually.
shortening of concrete, (c) creep of concrete, (d) shrink-
age of concrete, (e) relaxation of tendon stress, and(f) fric-
tion loss due to intended or unintended curvature in post-
tensioning tendons. A report of American Concrete Insti-
tute Committee 423 in 1958 stated lump sum losses of
35,000 psi (241 MPa) for pretensioning and 25,000 psi
(172 MPa) for post-tensioning, and these generally give
satisfactory results for many applications.
To quote from Commentary on Building Code Re-
quirements for Reinforced Concrete, AC1 3 18-77:“”
Actual losses, greater or smaller than the computed
values, have little effect on the design strength of the
member, but affect service load behavior (deflections,
camber, cracking load) and connections. At service
loads, overestimation of prestress losses can be almost
as detrimental as underestimation, since the former
can result in excessive camber and horizontal move-
ment.
Data have been assembled and analyzed to permit
computation of the stress loss due to relaxation of ten-
dons composed of stress-relieved wires. Subsequent
work on stress-relieved strand conforming to ASTM
A416 indicates relaxation losses of about the same
magnitude.
Stabilized strand or wire has smaller relaxation
losses than conventional stress-relieved tendons. While
the strand is at the elevated temperature used for the
stress-relieving operation, it is subjected to a high ten-
sile force which produces a specific amount of perma-
nent elongation, thus resulting in low relaxation losses
18
after the tendon is put into service. For specific relaxa-
tion values of a particular steel, the engineer should
consult the steel manufacturer.
RESTRAINED EXPANSION
AND CONTRACTION
Volume changes that are restrained may create large
stresses.
When nonuniform temperature or moisture conditions
these variations, internal stresses exist (Fig. 12). In such a
case there is restraint. Where there is no restraint, there
is no stress and no cracking. There is movement, but if it
Is not restrained it will do no structural harm. As part of
a building, though, unrestrained volume changes may
result in leakage of moisture, heat, and sound.
External restraint of concrete often develops from
friction with the ground. If a long concrete wall is cast
without any joints and if after moist curing it is allowed
to dry, it tends to shorten but the friction of its footing on
the ground restrains the shrinkage. As drying progresses,
tensile stresses build up in the wall, and when they equal
the tensile strength of the concrete, the wall cracks. A
uniform temperature is assumed in the wall.
This phenomenon is illustrated by Fig. 32 for concrete
cured 7 days under laboratory conditions and then al-
lowed to dry at a uniform temperature with the ends of
the wall fully restrained from moving. The curve for dry-
ing stress peaks out much higher than the curve for ten-
sile strength, showing the certainty of cracking when the
concrete is highly restrained against shrinkage. The con-
crete wall cracked at the age of 40 days, but the time
would vary with different concrete mixtures, different
aggregates, different wall thicknesses, and different
ambient humidities. Perhaps more important is the dura-
tion of good curing conditions, without which the strength
curve will rise more slowly, cracking occur at a lower
stress, and more cracks develop in a long wall.
Temperature changes likewise will crack concrete
members that are highly restrained by another part ofthe
structure or by ground friction. Consider a long canti-
levered concrete canopy cast without joints that after
moist curing is allowed to drop in temperature. As the
temperature drops, the canopy tends to shorten, but it is
restrained longitudinally from doing so by the interior
of the building and the resulting forces cause the concrete
to crack. Since tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
of concrete both may be assumed proportional to the
square root of the concrete strength, calculations show
(Fig. 33) that a temperature drop of a certain number of
degrees (depending upon type of aggregate) will crack
the concrete regardless of its age, provided that the coef-
ficient of expansion does not vary with the temperature.
However, in Fig. 7 it is shown that the coefficient may
vary considerably. At lower temperatures a larger tem-
perature drop, perhaps 30” F (17” C), would be requited
to crack the canopy. At higher temperatures, perhaps
only a 20’ F (11” C) temperature drop would crack the
 Tension, psi canopy. The same principles apply to any slab, beam, or
wall that is prevented from shortening.
Another instance of restrained temperature expansion
or contraction occurs during winter construction. As-
sume that a structural concrete floor in a multistory
building is cast in cold weather, and the floor tempera-
ture is maintained at a minimum of 55” F (13°C). The
lqwer floors of the building, however, are exposed to
Drying stress including weather that might be well below the freezing mark. The
shrinkage ond creep 55” F temperature is supplied for several days, and then
the temporary heat is stopped. The temperature drop that
follows may cause a measurable change in length and can
be easily calculated. Such changes in length of floors and
roofs during the winter construction season cause secon-
dary effects, but current design practice does not treat
this problem separately for ordinary structures.
For a slab resting on the ground, Fig. 34 illustrates the
subgrade drag formula for stresses due to shortening
caused by temperature or drying shrinkage.‘40’ In this
I 7 28 40 60 case the slab is not fully restrained against moving. The
friction force is calculated and equated to the tensile stress
Age, days
in the concrete or reinforcement.
Example problem 1 shows the common use of the for-
Fig. 32. Graph showing how drying stress converges on mula-that is, to determine the amount of reinforcement
tensile strength for a concrete wall or slab that is fully
restrained. Temperature and ambient humidity are
to be used. Reinforcing steel or mesh will not stop a crack,
constant. 100 psi = 0.7 MPa. but it can hold it together so that it will not be so wide
and conspicuous. The coefficient of subgrade friction
may vary from 1 to 2.5 and 1.5 is a commonly used value.
Example problem 2 in Fig. 34 is for a slab with no steel
and determines the spacing of cracks that might develop
if the slab were protected until an age of 28 days from dry-
ing shrinkage or temperature contraction. It is based on
The coefficient of thermal contraction for concrete = e concentric axial contraction and will not explain the
Assume t = 5.5 X 10-6/0F common crack spacing in plain concrete floors and exte-
If held tightly against contraction at its ends, the tensile rior slabs. An explanation of this cracking follows:
stress in the concrete is During the first night after placing an unjointed plain
f= EE concrete slab, the temperature of the concrete declines
E = 57,000 fi = 3,120,OOO when f f = 3000 psi due to both reduced hydration activity and lower air tem-
perature. Contraction of the slab from these sources is
5.5 X3.12X l,OOO,OOO
Thus tension f = = 17.2 psi/OF resisted by subgrade friction and tensile stresses are
l,OOO,OOO created that cause transverse cracks. Spacing of the initial
Tensile strength of concretefi = 7.5& cracks varies from about 40 to 150 ft (12 to 46 m) depend-
ing on concrete properties, point-to-point variations in
f, = 410 psi when fL = subgrade friction, and climatic conditions during and
3000 psi after placement.
Temperature drop necessary to crack concrete = A, and After the concrete floor or slab hardens, stresses are
A,=$ 24’F when concrete has 3000 psi strength created by temperature and moisture gradients in the
concrete. At and near the bottomoftheslab,dailychanges
in temperature and moisture content are small. The ex-
The general formula for At at any age is posed top surface, however, undergoes fairly large daily
fl 7.5&Y 1. - variations in temperature and moisture. At night the top
A’=~=tX57,000fl=- 76OOe of the slab is usually cooler than the bottom, thus the top
tends to contract and curl the slab edges upward. This
And when E = 5.5 X 10m6, A, = 24’F at any age or tendency is resisted by the weight of the slab, creating
strength of concrete tensile stresses in the top of the slab and compressive
Metric equivalents:
stresses in the bottom. During the day, the stress pattern
9°F = 5°C is reversed.
IOOOpsi = 6.9 MPa Differences in moisture content between the top and
bottom of a slab produce similar but less severe stresses-
lower moisture contents cause contraction and higher
Fig. 33. Temperature drop required to crack a slab or wall moisture contents cause expansion. The influence of
that is fully restrained against shortening. restrained curling stresses on joint design is complicated

19
 because moisture and temperature differences often pro-
duce opposite effects. When the top of the slab is warmer
than the bottom, causing the top to expand, the bottom
of the slab will usually have a higher moisture content
causing it to expand. Hence, the amount of restrained
curling stress will be less than stress due to temperature
differences alone.
Because of these opposing factors and others, curling
stresses computed from formulas that take account only
of temperature gradients are higher than actual meas-
Given: ured values. Curling stresses measured on one research
A slab rests on a subgrade with a coefficient of friction, F. project were only one-half the values computed on the
The tension, T, resulting from contraction is basis of temperature.
T = wFLI2 When other calculations of stresses (based on formulas
where w = weight of concrete + permanent live load that take account only of temperature gradient) are com-
F = coefficient of friction pared to flexural strengths obtained at 8,16,and 24 hours,
L = length of slab indications are that there should be transverse cracks at
spacings of 15 to 20 ft (5 to 6 m) or less during the first
Example problem I: For a 6-in.-thick slab, determine the night of the concrete’s life. Since this cracking does not
amount of reinforcement necessary to hold any cracks normally happen, it is another demonstration that calcu-
tightly closed, assuming L = 50 ft to free ends of the slab, lations based on temperature gradients alone do not pro-
and live load is 10 psf. duce values that agree with field experience.
In plain floors with joint spacings of 15 to 25 ft (5 to
T= A,fs = wFLI2 8 m), cracks do not generally form beneath all joints for
A, = required steel area, sq in./ft width of slab a few weeks to several months after the floor is opened
fs = allowable steel stress, psi, or 2/3 of yield point to traffic. In floors where distributed steel is used between
Use fs = 40,000 psi = 2/ 3 X 60,000 psi and F = 1.5 joints spaced at 40 ft (12 m) or more, intermediate trans-
Then T= 40,000 A, = 85 X 1.5 X 5012 verse cracks between joints may not develop for several
A, = 0.08 sq in. = # 3 bars at 16.5 in. on months to several years after the floor slabs are opened to
center traffic. When intermediate cracks do occur, they are
spaced about 15 to 25 ft (5 to 8 m) apart; and they are the
If welded deformed wire fabric is to be used, result of the combined effect of restrained curling and
fs = 46,700 psi = 2/3 X 70,000 load stresses.
Restrained curling is complex and repetitive loads
Then A, = 0.068 sq in. = 6 X 6 - D4 X D4 welded-wire
compound the problem. Performance shows that re-
fabric
strained curling in combination with loads will cause
additional transverse cracks between the initial contrac-
Example problem 2: Determine maximum length that
tion cracks. The interval between transverse cracks is
the same slab could have between cracks due solely to normally about 15 to 30 ft (5 to 9 m), depending on fac-
axial contraction.
tors such as shrinkage properties of the concrete, sub-
T = Acfc base and subgrade conditions, and climatic conditions.
where A, = cross sectional area of the concrete = 72
sq in./ft of width
fc = tension in the concrete, or tensile strength of
the concrete. Assume a value after 28 days of
moist curing
7.5 & = 410 psi when fi = 3000 psi
w 1 75 psf + 10 psf live load = 85 psf
Then
L = -2AJc _- 2X72X410
= 463 ft
wF 85 X 1.5
Obviously this does not explain the ordinary untracked
length of slabs. See discussion at end of Chapter Two.
Metric equivalents:
1 in. = 25.4 mm
I in.2= 645 mm2
I ft = 0.305 m
I psf = 4.88 kg/m*

Fig. 34. The subgrade drag formula for slabs on ground.

20
CHAPTER 3.
Movements Due To Special Loading
Conditions
Unexpected and unconsidered loads also cause building
movements, as do certain construction procedures. Build-
ing design and construction would be easier if these
factors could be fully anticipated, but they can not be-
cause buildings and construction procedures involve
many variables.
The design loads for buildings include applied dead,
live, wind, and earthquake loads. Loads that occur dur-
ing construction are sometimes overlooked in design, but
they have a bearing on how the building should be built
and how it will perform. Errors made in the design and
construction process will affect movements, strains, vol-
ume changes, stresses, and cracking later on.
Structural engineers are very conscious of the deflec-
tions of beams and slabs under certain loads. But they
are less conscious of the fluctuations of certain design
loads, fluctuations that cause movements where none
may be expected.
DEAD LOADS
Dead loads can generally be closely determined and are
fairly constant in buildings. There are cases, though,
where dead loads may be more or less than the estimated
values, and the discrepancies can add to other move-
ments. One example is when a floor topping is superim-
posed on a structural floor. If the floor topping is finished
with its surface dead level, it will be thicker at midspan
because of the initial deflection of the floor plus the added
deflection caused by the topping. Assume a l-in. (25-mm)
topping is planned for a one-way structural floor with a
30-ft (9-m) span. The dead-load deflection of that struc-
tural floor might be l/2 in. (12 mm). With the weight of
the topping, the floor might deflect another l/ 16 in. (1.5
mm); and altogether, the topping will be 59% thicker at
midspan than planned. This added thickness is where it
will add the most to bending stresses.
Another example of variable dead load is the weight
of the concrete. Published weights for concrete with 3/4-
in. (19-mm) coarse aggregate and 6% air entrainment
range from 137 to 145 pcf (2192” to 2320 kg/m3), and
without deliberate air entrainment, these values could
increase to 152 pcf (2435 kg/m3), not including rein-
forcing steel. Thus there is a range of 11% that can affect
the deflections, stresses, and cracking of structures.
The weights of concrete masonry walls are usually
based on values calculated at a standard section of the
wall and do not take into account extra mortar that oozes
from the joints into the cells, mortar thrown into the cells,
door and window jambs slushed with mortar, the thick
mortar bed in the first course, and so on. Masonry con-
tractors usually order three to five times as much mortar
as the typical joint requires, and some of this excess ends
up in the walls. The weight of the masonry units is usually
estimated by the structural designer. There are no stand-
ard weights for concrete masonry units; each producer
decides the density of the concrete and the interior dimen-
sions of the mold for his masonry products.
The dead loads of partitions in buildings are usually
approximated in pounds per square foot (kilograms per
square meter) of floor. To calculate accurately the weight
of each partition and take account of its exact position
on a floor would overtax structural engineers. Admit-
tedly the effects on the movement of structures have a
tolerance for error.
When large-scale alterations are made in buildings,
there is a readjustment in the shape of the structure. The
amount of movement could only be predicted through
an exhaustive study because so many imponderables are
involved.
21
LIVE LOADS

t
Live loads can only be predicted within certain ranges, Live
and they vary every day, especially in warehouses (Fig. IOOd
35) where they may have a real influence on the cracking
of the floor. The shrinkage force in a slab on ground is
usually calculated using the weight of the slabs alone.
However, as loads are added to the slabs, shrinkage
stresses due to ground friction increase proportionately.*
For example, a 6-in.-thick (152-mm) slab 20 ft (6 m) long
Time, yeors
may by itself develop a friction force for which the unit
stress would be only 16 psi (110 kPa), certainly not a sig-
nificant tensile stress. However, if a warehouse load of Fig. 35. How live load can fluctuate in a warehouse.
500 psf (2400 kg/m*) is superimposed, the friction force
is multiplied greatly. The increased stress, added to the
nonuniform stresses from temperature, moisture, and
flexure due to gravity loads might be more likely to pre- Story Actual
cipitate cracking. II 8 lood
Fig. 36 shows how average live load varied on each IO IO
floor of an 1 l-story office building. At the time of the sur-
vey there was only a 13 psf (63 kg/m*) difference between 9
maximum and minimum averages. However, the floors 8
had an allowable live load of 70 psf (340 kg/m*), about 7
six times the average load actually present, and there was
nothing to prevent any tenant from increasing the loads 6
to that level or more at any time. Increasing the live load 5
to the maximum allowable might increase the existing 4
deflections by 50% or say 0.20 in. (5 mm), which will
3
easily cause cracking in partitions unless they are built in
a manner to accommodate such movements. The state of 2
the art in the design of tall buildings requires that a degree I
of freedom should be allowed for the partitions to adjust 0 20 40 60 70
to the movement of the structure.
Live lood, psf
Table 5 shows how the live load actually varied in an-
other office building, not only by floor but within each
floor. The live load was generally well under the allow- Fig. 36. How live load varied in an office building.
able load; but on some floors the loads did vary widely Reference 41. 10 psf = 490 Pa.
and it is there that deflections could cause partition
cracking. As the live load varies, deflection increases or
decreases, not only from elastic strqin but also from
creep. As deflection varies, movements in partitions vary;
and if the range is wide, there may be doors sticking, door Table 5. Distribution of Actual Live Loads by Area
locks not engaging, and cracks forming. Percentages of total floor area with actual live loads
In a multistory building the changes in live load will (psf) in the stated ranges
cause different amounts of column shortening. Measure- L
8GlOO 100-110
ments of column shortening in one tall concrete build-
ing amounted to 3/ 16 in. (4.8 mm)for every loft (3.05 m) 6 -
5 -
of height during the first three years after construction. - -
This movement could be enough to cause a visible crack -
in a partition. 3
Other variable live loads are heavy snows on roofs, -
-
auditorium crowds, water levels in tanks and pools, re-
modeling that changes the usage for a floor, and equip-
Allowable live load: 100 psf
ment changes. The ponding of rain on sagging roofs has Source: Reference 42
received great attention in recent years, to the extent that 1 psf = 4.9 kg/m*
the phenomenon is now recognized in some building
codes.
Water pressure has been known to buckle basement
floors. This happens when an ordinary slab on ground
has not been designed for hydraulic uplift. With or with- *See Fig. 34 for subgrade drag theory example.
out a membrane under the floor, a rapid rise in ground-

22
water levels may not be relieved by seepage through tem-
perature and shrinkage cracks. Better drainage under the
floor and at its perimeter will help avoid water pressure
if the drains themselves do not become overloaded.
CONSTRUCTION LOADS
During construction, stockpiles of materials may exceed
design loads and so cause deformations or structural
movements that will leave their marks. These are transi-
tory loads, but their effects may not be. For example, if
one floor is heavily loaded with construction materials,
the deflection recovery of the floor may occur after the
partitions in a lower floor have been installed and thus
upset the tight fit between floor levels.
Heavy bundles of reinforcing bars are usually lifted by
crane onto a formwork deck where they may create ex-
cessive concentrated loads at the base of the formwork on
the new concrete floors below, especially if there isa three-
day construction cycle per story. The same effect results
when a bucket of fresh concrete is emptied into the forms.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Standard A 10.9, Safety Requirements for Concrete Con-
struction and Masonry Work, specifies the total live and
dead load to be used for formwork design.
WIND AND EARTHQUAKE
Wind is the best recognized source of movements in build-
ings, but for typical low-rise concrete frame buildings the
problem is minimal. The perception of wind movements
can be divided into two parts: the emotional impact on
the occupants and the impact on partitions, veneers, and
mechanical equipment.
A common rule is that horizontal wind movement or
drift should not exceed l/500 of the height of the build-
ing. One five-hundredth of a IO-ft-high (3-m) story is
about 0.25 in. (6 mm). This rule is based on the stability
of the structure as a whole. Studies have shown that
tenants will not perceive wind movements when this re-
striction is observed in design.
Concrete buildings, as usually built, have an inherent
stiffness and low damping coefficient so that wind move-
ments are very small. Fig. 37 shows lateral displacements
that may occur at each story with two framing systems,
illustrating the effect they may have on walls, windows,
doors, and so on. As might be expected, the movement
per story for a frame only is greater in the lower stories
than in those above, because of the accumulation of loads.
The opposite can be true for shearwalls because of more
reinforcement in the lower stories.
A study has been made of the wind drift of high-rise
concrete office buildings. There is very limited data on
actual field measurements of concrete buildings, but cal-
culations bear out the lack of tenant complaints because
of the stiffness of the buildings. Of 2 1 buildings studied’43’
the greatest lateral movement was l/740 of the total
height. In general the computed drift ranged from I/ 1000
E
0-
0 0.10 0.20
Displacement per story, in.
Fig. 37. Relative lateral wind displacement per story of two
types of concrete building framing.
to l/2500 of the total height, depending on the slender-
ness of the structure.
Earthquakes have caused the most severe movements
of buildings and damage to structural elements, parti-
tions, and architectural features. Ground displacements
of earthquakes are measured in inches. The actual dis-
placement per story height is on the order of 0.75 to 1 .O in.
(18 to 25 mm), though calculated values are usually much
less. Modern building codes (44’ limit the calculated drift
to l/200 of the story height, unless it can be demonstrated
that greater drift can be tolerated.
The intensity of earthquakes is measured by the hori-
zontal acceleration of the ground and values may reach
50% of gravity acceleration. In addition, damage from
earthquakes depends on the duration of the large-ampli-
tude acceleration pulses, the frequency of the ground
motion, and the dynamic properties of the structure.‘45’
The seismic risk maps of the United States (Figs. 38
and 39) are based on the severity of ground motion and
divide the United States into Zones 0, 1,2,3, and 4. Fig.
40 is a corresponding map for Canada.
FLOOR VIBRATIONS
Cast-in-place concrete floors in office buildings are not
prone to objectionable vibrations though they have been
known to develop. Long spans of 40 to 60 ft (12 to 18 m),
characteristic of prestressed or precast construction, are
more likely to develop noticeable vibrations, depending
upon the type of occupancy. In a factory, strength to re-
sist vibrations could be a consideration.
The perception threshold for vibrations has been re-
ported at different levels by different authors. Values are
23
Fig. 38. Seismic risk map 01 the continental United States.
Reference 46. Seismic risk level is usually designated by
areas of equal probability of risk or damage related to the
intensity of ground, so that in Zone 0 there is no damage to
buildings, in Zone 1 minor damage, in Zone 2 moderate
damage, and in Zones 3 and 4 major damage.

in the range of a one vibration per second at O.OOl-in.

(0.025mm) displacement amplitude to 20 vibrations per
second with zero amplitude. At the same time, the peak
acceleration is something less than 0.01 g.“”
One of the more serious cases of floor vibrations devel-
oped in a precast concrete stadium with simply supported
floor units weighing 100 psf (490 kg/m’). During a rock
concert, there was enthusiastic clapping and stomping.
Resonant vibration developed and a peak acceleration of
34% of gravity was measured. For special structures
where crowds assemble, the natural frequency should be
calculated and compared with published data.‘49 50)

ALASKA

)(AWAII
PUERTO RICO

Fig. 39. Seismic risk maps for Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto
Rico. Reference 46.

24
Fig. 40. Seismic risk map for Canada. Reference 47.

25
CHAPTER 4.
Movements Due to Foundations,
Construction Procedures, and
Combined Effects
FOUNDATION MOVEMENTS

The welfare of any structure depends upon its founda-

tion. A certain amount of foundation movement is to be
expected in all buildings; and if all the movement is equal,
little harm is done. Where there is more settlement in one
part than another, partitions will suffer, tenants will be
aware of high spots in the floors, tables may not be level,
and other maladies may develop to make tenants dissatis-
fied with the building. Careful attention to the weight of
the building and its occupancy loads and help from ex-
perienced geotechnical engineers are needed to assure
acceptable foundation movements.
Several basic types of foundation situations are illus-
trated in Fig. 41:

a. Many one- and two-story buildings are constructed

without the benefit of soil borings and it is later dis-
covered that they are resting on two or more differ-
ent types of soil.
b. Sloping sites may require cutting and filling. The till
must be well compacted so that the foundation and
floor will settle no more there than at the cut end.
Even if deep foundations are used, the floor needs
support; if it does not rest on a well-compacted fill,
it may have to be built as a supported or structural
floor. This would be the case for a building to be lo-
cated over an old dumping ground.
c. When groundwater levels drop, uneven settlements
occur. Fast-growing trees are known to desiccate the
soil, causing settlements at one side or corner of a
small building. The process may develop over a
period of 5, 10, or 20 years; and if the trees are re- Fig. 41. Foundation conditions that may lead to
moved, the soil may take another 5 or 10 years to differential settlement: (a) different soil types, (b) sloping
rebound.“” sites, (c) desiccated soils, (d) mining subsidence.

26
 d. Another case of settlement is from mining subsi-
dence, where the ground surface may settle while
mining occurs below. Structures in the Midlands of
England are designed to anticipate subsidence. In
one case there, a school settled two ft (0.7 m) while
the subsidence occurred in wave fashion, but the
teachers and students in the school were not aware
of any movement.
A foundation problem not shown in Fig. 41 is that of
expansive soils taking on water and causing considerable
heaving in small buildings. In house construction, dif-
ferential heaving up to 6 in. (150 mm) is not uncommon.
In small concrete buildings the hazard would be to slabs
on ground and would result in unsightly cracks in floors
and partitions and disruption of doors and plumbing.
While all clays undergo a certain amount of expansion
and contraction during wetting and drying, those with
higher plasticity indexes are most troublesome. The per-
centage of clay in the soil is also important. Soils with a
plasticity index of 30 and a clay fraction above 30% are
known to cause serious problems.‘s2’
There are three general methods of coping with expan-
sive soils: (1) Excavate the soil or build around it, seat
foundations below the bad soil and elevate structural
floors and grade beams so that they will not be affected
by any soil expansion. (2) Use a mat foundation on ex-
pansive soil or a ribbed waffle slab. These should support
the entire structure rigidly despite nonuniform support,
and lift or tilt it in one plane. (3) Articulate the structure
so that relative movement and damages will occur only at
predetermined panels or joints.
could readily lift many buildingsandclearlydemonstrates
that frost penetration cannot be permitted in frost-suscep-
tible soils where heaving cannot be tolerated. Frost-sus-
ceptiblesoilsarethosewithahighpercentageofsiltthatdo
not drain well. If water can continue to enterthesoil, there
will be a buildup of ice lenses with increasing amounts of
heaving. Without physical restraint, there is no apparent
limit to the amount of heaving that can occur.
Frost heave can also develop in cold storage ware-
houses and under artificial ice rinks if proper precautions
are not taken. Fig. 42 is a plan for an indoor rink show-
ing its cracking. The rink was well constructed with 3 ft
(1 m) of drained pea gravel for a subgrade. Every summer
the rink was shut down and thawed for several months
for use as a roller skating rink. However, after six years of
use and while the slab was still in excellent condition, the
ice rink was used through the summer because of its pop-
ularity. The subgrade froze very deeply and the cracking
shown in Fig. 42 developed during a heave of 6 in. (150
Lc 87 ’
N
a -

Frost Heave
While it is commonplace to build foundations below the
frost line, they will sometimes be heaved by frost for these
reasons: (1) During a very cold winter with little snow to
insulate the ground, frost will penetrate much deeper
than the building codes recognize. (2) During construc-
tion when shallow footings in the interior of the building
are exposed to subfreezing weather, they can suffer frost
heave. (3) When foundations for a part of the building
are outside the heated area, frost will penetrate deeper
there than at the walls. These footings should be placed
deeper.
What is not common knowledgeisa phenomenoncalled
adfreeze. This is the adhesion of freezing ground to a pile,
pier, or wall with subsequent heaving. Thus, “placing
footings below the depth of frost penetration does not. . .
protect foundation structures from heaving unless ad-
freezing of the soil to the structure is prevented or the
load on the structure exceeds maximum uplift forces.““”
An adfreeze stress of 25 psi (173 kPa) on a nominal 12-
in-diameter (300-mm) pile has been found by field tests.
On an g-in. (200-mm) concrete masonry wall, theadfreeze
stress was 3.5 psi (25 kPa). Simultaneous tests on a 12-in.-
diameter (300-mm) horizontal plate anchored rigidly at
the ground surface yielded a heaving pressure well above
2 1,000 psf ( IO00 kPa) during the winter when the average Fig. 42. Plan of a concrete skating rink after 6 in. (150 mm)
frost heave for the site was 3.5 in. (90 mm). This pressure of heaving. Some crack widths are dimensioned.

27
mm). The slab continued to heave another 2 in. (50 mm)
before the freezer was shut down. Fortunately the slab
contained a high percentage of reinforcement, which
helped to close the cracks as the slab settled back to near
its original level.
The subject of foundation movements on permafrost is
beyond the scope of this text.
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
Movements are affected by various construction proce-
dures such as reshoring, by the sequence of erecting vari-
ous features, and by prestressing.
Reshoring
A common method of reshoring is to lengthen the orig-
inal shores or posts a fraction of an inch (a few milli-
meters). This is done with a wrench or wedges and a re-
assuring pat to see if they are tight. Using this concept, a
laborer or carpenter depresses the lower floor a certain
amount at the same time that he lifts the upper floor to
“take the load off it” until the concrete has gained suffi-
cient strength to carry itself. Several tall buildings have
had severe failures because the reshores were not han-
dled properly.
The reshoring operation is a crucial step in construct-
ing multistory concrete buildings and has a far-reaching
effect on the deflection of the floors as well as on their
strength. If the reshoring does not prevent or relieve the
stresses in the new concrete, the creep effect will multiply
the eventual deflection because, as has been shown, the
sooner a concrete slab is loaded, the greater will be its
total deflection. If the reshoring is tightened too much, it
may create harmful stresses in the new concrete floor and
it could throw excessive loads onto the lower floors and
amplify the added creep deflection.
Thus it can be seen that there is a real need for some
sort of test device to determine the loads in reshores.
Also, a careful study is needed to determine how many
lower floors can safely carry the loads, and for what
length of time.
Form removal may result in more flexural cracking
than should develop. This in turn will alter the stiffness
of a beam or slab, leading to even greater deflections.
Prestressing
Prestressing builds in compression stresses that are par-
tially relieved by creep and drying shrinkage over a long
period of time.
Prestressing concrete beams and slabs causes three
movements that differ in amount and extent from those
found in reinforced concrete construction: elastic and
creep strains that develop over the full length of the mem-
ber (or the length of the tendons) and drying shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage is slightly greater in prestressed con-
28
Crete than in reinforced concrete because the tendons do
not interfere with the shortening, whereas reinforcing
bars resist the shrinkage of ordinary reinforced concrete.
The AC1 Building Code states: “Provisions shall be
made for effects on adjoining construction of elastic and
plastic deformations, deflections, changes in length, and
rotations due to prestressing. Effects of temperature and
shrinkage shall also be included.“‘32’
In some prestressed buildings excessive camber of
floors has caused partition cracking and bowed floor sur-
faces. The problem can be partly corrected by better posi-
tioning of the tendons, by close control of the concrete
strength (and its modulus of elasticity), by control of the
moisture condition or rate of evaporation, and by proper
timing of the prestressing operation.
For prestressing to be effective, the ends of the units,
or floors, must be free to move. The concrete cannot be
prestressed unless it can shorten when the tendons are
tightened. This means that walls and columns away from
the center of movement must be flexible or the floor or
roof unit must be free to slide. Prestressed floors and
roofs also need flexible or sliding supports that will yield
to the very strong forces created during prestressing.
These forces are intended to go into the prestressed unit,
and supports that offer too much resistance may be se-
verely fractured.
ConstructionSequence
Craftsmen and builders have known for centuries that
the sequence of installing or assembling the parts of a
building makes a difference. Movements may take place
that interfere with a tight fit. This is very apparent in re-
modeling work where it is found that joints have opened,
beams have sagged, and walls have racked because of
foundation settlement. Wherever different materials
meet and wherever temperature and humidity conditions
change, the builder can expect to find movement.
The sequence of installing exterior masonry curtain
walls in a two-story building makes a difference in how
much load goes onto the ground story. Being a curtain
wall and not a bearing wall, it is not intended to support
much load. If the wall is built snug under the second floor
spandrel, it will have to take the weight of the wall above
and the floor live load near the wall (plus some roof live
load). To avoid this, many builders will lay up the wall in
the second story before the wall in the first story.
A buoyant basement will also have movement unless
the contractor first builds enough superstructure above
it before letting the water table rise around the basement.
On the other hand, to prevent flotation, earth or rock
anchors can be provided as they sometimes are for tanks
that are set into the ground.
In tall concrete buildings with a mixture of columns
and concrete walls, close attention must be paid to the
sequence of construction and to the time when the two
types of framing are connected. This is to minimize the
difference in axial shortening of columns and walls so
that beams and slabs will not be subject to large shearing
stresses.
 COMBINED EFFECTS
Rarely does one type of volume change or movement
occur by itself. Several of various factors are apt to occur
simultaneously and cause excessive strains and cracking
or cause movements that are incompatible with adjacent
building materials and members.
As an example of the compounding of influences to the
detriment of a structure, consider the open post-ten-
sioned parking structure shown in Fig. 43. It has unusual
proportions as buildings go, and is exposed to severe
weather fluctuations. Its one-way concrete slabs span-
ning about 20 ft (6 m) are supported by prestressed con-
crete girders spanning about 60 ft (18 m). The floors in
adjoining bays ramp up so that the girders meet the col-
umns at staggered levels.
Longitudinal section through ramps of garage
II II
L A
Section A - A
a) b) d) e)
Fig. 43. Deformations of a rigid concrete structure.
a) As constructed
b) After post-tensionlng
c) With live load
d) And shrlnkage and creep added
e) Accumulated deformations with cold-weather
shortening
The columns between the ramps are usually quite short
and stiff because of the building proportions and because
they must resist large bending moments and shears. The
moments and shears in the columns are also increased by
frame action normal to the girders, particularly because
of volume changes.
Several deformation conditions of the column-girder
frame are illustrated in Fig. 43. The concrete is con-
structed as in (a). Post-tensioning of the girders may
cause a camber of perhaps 0.75 in. (19 mm) at midspan
and a shortening of the span as in (b). The dead load of
the floor is supported by the post-tensioning. A live load
causes a downward deflection of the girders and reverses
the bending of the frame (c). Creep and shrinkage may
again bow the girder upwards 0.75 in. (19 mm) at mid-
span reducing bending in the column, but causing addi-
tional shortening of the girders with additional offsets
and bending of the columns (4. Cold weather will short-
en the girders and further offset and bend the columns (e).
Perhaps the worst condition exists during a very cold
night when there is no live load but some shrinkage and
creep have developed.
At the same time there may be additional strains due
to construction procedures and even some foundation
movements to compound and confound a design prob-
lem that is by nature composed of approximations and
subject to comprdmises during construction. Conven-
tional building frames would usually accommodate these
cumulative effects. This unusual structure, however, with
long spans and short stiff columns is vulnerable to com-
bined effects. In one case significant cracking developed
in the columns and an investigation attributed it princi-
pally to temperature variations.‘5”
The combined effects of volume changes in the upper
parts of tall structures has a definite effect on the floors.
Differential shortening of columns will cause warping or
tilting of the slabs, and affect their structural perform-
ances. This problem can be anticipated by careful design
of the structure and careful control of the construction
procedures. The matter is investigated in depth in Refer-
ence 54.
Another outstanding example of combined effects is
the stability of wall cladding on concrete frame buildings
(Fig. 44). Very expensive repairs have been necessary on
a number of buildings because provision was not made
for differential movement between the cladding and the
building frame,“@ and the cladding buckled. This is not
a new problem brought on by the advent of high-rise
buildings. The practice of providing an elastic joint under
the shelf angles of multistory buildings goes back many
years and recognizes that the volume changes of the
veneer and frame are different for several reasons, such as
Elastic shortening of the columns
Creep
Shrinkage
Temperature
Moisture changes
Wind effects
The combined effects of various movements are of real
significance. If exhaustive, detailed calculations are made
for moments, shears, and forces in buildings, it is just as
29
Fig. 44. Veneer on building frame may buckle if provision
is not made for differential movement.

important to study the effects of creep, shrinkage, tem-

perature, and settlements. The difficulty, however, is that
much of the technology is based only on laboratorycoef-
ficients. Even with elaborate computer facilities, the state
of the art for the design and construction of most struc-
tures does not lend itself to precise predictions of move-
ments. Their control then must depend heavily on recog-
nition of their magnitudes (Fig. 45) and a general allow-
ance for them as proposed in the following chapters.

Sufficient data
far ranges ore
Percentage lacking ,
of
height ar length
O.lOOj

0.025-

Fig. 45. Examples of movements. Values for high-rise

columns are for five different columns at six different floor
levels. Reference 57. The averages or extremes do not
represent simultaneous values.
1000 psi = 6.9 MPa = 6.9 N/mm2.

30
 Part Two: Controlling
Cracks in Concrete
CHAPTER 5.
The Need for Crack Control
Because of concrete’s low tensile strength, cracking in
some areas of reinforced concrete structures is inevitable.
Structural systems designed with low steel stresses under
service loads may have very limited cracking; and fre-
quently no cracks are visible. However, with high serv-
ice-load steel stresses, common with the use of high-
strength steel and high service loads, some cracking can
be expected at the service load. The cracking at service
loads should not spoil the appearance of the structure or
contribute to corrosion of the reinforcement.
ESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
The width of a crack that will not distract from the
appearance of a concrete member depends on the posi-
tion, length, width, and illumination of the crack and on
the surface texture of the concrete. The criteria for ac-
ceptability are difficult to set because of differences in
personal opinion. The maximum width of a crack that
will neither impair the surface appearance nor alarm the
viewer is probably in the range 0.010 to 0.015 in. (0.25 to
0.38 mm), but wider cracks may be tolerable.
CAUSES OF CRACKING
Causes of cracking are numerous as stated in Part One,
but most cracks are a result of the following:
Settlement of Plastic Concrete
Cracks are sometimes observed on the top surface of
slabs, in beams, and over the stirrups and other top steel.
These cracks are initiated when the plastic concrete set-
tles away from the reinforcing bars that are supported
and tied in a fixed position. This type of cracking can be’
Structures
avoided by a good concrete mix design and revibration of
the plastic concrete.
Plastic Shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage cracks appear when water evaporates
from freshly placed concrete faster than the concrete can
bleed or water can rise naturally to the surface. These
cracks appear soon after the concrete has been placed and
while it is being finished. Plastic cracking is usually asso-
ciated with hot-weather concreting,* but it can occur at
any time when atmospheric conditions result in an exces-
sive evaporation rate. When excessive evaporation oc-
curs-especially in flatwork or where the freshly cast con-
crete surface is exposed to the vicissitudes of atmospheric
conditions-rapid drying shrinkage and tensile stresses
in the surface often result in short, tearing cracks.
The following conditions, either singly or collectively,
increase the evaporation rate and the potential for plas-
tic shrinkage cracking:
l High concrete temperature
l Low humidity
l High winds
l Low ambient temperature
When these factors combine to result in an evaporation
rate that exceeds 0.2 lb per square foot per hour (1 kg/
m’/hr), precautionary measures must be taken to pre-
vent plastic shrinkage cracks and loss of strength in the
concrete near the surface. Cracking is possible even if the
evaporation rate exceeds only 0.1 lb per square foot per
hour (0.5 kg/m’/hr).
To minimize plastic shrinkage cracking:
l Increase relative humidity
l Reduce concrete temperature
l Reduce wind velocity
*See Her- Wearher Concrering, Portland Cement Association publi-
cation IS014T. 1980.
31
 Following are specific simple precautions to minimize
the possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking. They should
be considered while planning for hot-weather concrete
construction or while dealing with the problem after con-
struction has started. Most of them are just good con-
struction practices that should be used at all times.
1. Moisten the subgrade and forms.
2. Moisten aggregates that are dry and absorptive.
3. Erect temporary windbreaks to reduce wind velocity
over the concrete surface.
4. Erect temporary sunshades to reduce concrete sur-
face temperatures.
5. Keep the fresh concrete temperature low by cooling
both aggregates and mixing water.
6. Protect the concrete with temporary coverings, such
as polyethylene sheeting, during any appreciable
delay between placing and finishing.
7. Reduce the time between placing and start of curing
by eliminating construction delays.
8. Protect the concrete immediately after finishing to
minimize evaporation. This is most important to
avoid checking and cracking. Application of mois-
ture to the surface by fog spray is an effective means
of preventing evaporation from the concrete. Fog-
ging should be continued until a suitable curing
material such as a curing compound, wet burlap, or
curing paper can be applied.
If plastic shrinkage cracks should appear in the fresh
concrete, the cracks can be closed by striking each side
of the crack with a float. However, the cracking will recur
unless the causes are corrected.
Volume Change of Hardened Concrete
Initial drying shrinkage, moisture, and temperature
changes cause volumetric changes that will create tensile
stresses in the concrete if it is restrained, and will lead to
cracking. There are a number of ways that concrete is re-
strained against volume change. For example, concrete
near the surface of a member dries and shrinks more rap-
idly than the concrete deeper in the member; therefore
the inner concrete will restrain the shrinkage of the outer
concrete creating tensile stresses near the surface that
may cause surface cracking.
Also, shrinkage of structural slabs may be restrained
by their continuity with beams, columns, foundations,
and the presence of reinforcing steel. This restraint can
introduce tension and cause cracks at the junction of
those members with dissimilar ratios of surface area per
unit volume of concrete and at reentrant comers orblock-
outs for holes. Temperature changes also will cause ten-
sion in a similar manner if the movements of the member
are restrained.
Cracking due to initial drying shrinkage of the con-
crete can be controlled by reducing the potential for
shrinkage with a good concrete mix design that keeps the
total water content as low as possible and by properly
placing the reinforcement. Reinforcement will not pre-
vent cracking. The restraint added by the reinforcement
32
will tend to encourage it, but the shrinkage strains are
distributed by bond along the reinforcing bars and a
number of fine cracks should occur instead of a few wide
cracks.
The minimum amount and spacing of reinforcement
that may be used in slabs and walls is stated in AC1 318,
Building .Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.
This reinforcement is intended to be adequate to control
the widths of cracks caused by tensile stresses due to dry-
ing shrinkage and temperature change.
Recommendations for the design of temperature rein-
forcement usually are based on the total strain caused by
thermal movements (initial and seasonal) plus drying
shrinkage and on the strength of the concrete when ma-
ture, that is, whenfS equals or exceeds the specified 28-
day strength. This approach, however, overlooks the fact
that the concrete may already have cracked to an unac-
ceptable degree at an earlier age, particularly if curing
was inadequate.
Control joints purposefully placed in slabs and walls
are intended to eliminate unsightly, uncontrolled, un-
wanted cracking in large expanses of concrete. Such
joints normally are grooves in the concrete to cause the
crack to occur there. Sawed joints are common in floors
on ground and in pavements while inserts forming rusti-
cations are common in walls.
Flexural Stresses Resulting from
Applied Loads or Reactions
Cracking will occur in the tension zone of members sub-
jected to flexure from external loads or reactions once
the modulus of rupture of the concrete (its ability to hold
itself together) is exceeded. There are structural design
procedures for dealing with flexural crack control.*
Corrosion
Corrosion of the reinforcing steel in concrete can lead
to volume changes and cause cracking, spalling, and rust
stains in the concrete. The reinforcement is usually pro-
tected against corrosion by the high alkalinity of the con-
crete. This corrosion-inhibiting property is reduced if
chemical agents capable of neutralizing the alkalinity
penetrate to the concrete surrounding the reinforcing
steel. Chlorides in deicing chemicals, seawater, admix-
tures, and liquid wastes are extremely corrosive chemi-
cal agents. The positioning of reinforcing bars too close
to the surface in a poor-quality, weak concrete of high
permeability is an invitation to corrosion.
The basic protection against corrosion of reinforce-
ment in concrete is an adequate thickness of protective
cover, a high-strength concrete of low permeability, and
a specified maximum allowance for crack widths.
*The permissible values recommended by AC1 Committee 224 are
given in ‘Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures,” Reference Il.
CHAPTER 6..,
Control Joints
in Walls
All concrete and concrete masonry shrinks and swells
upon loss and gain of moisture in much the same manner
as wood, except to a lesser degree. These volume changes
set up stresses of considerable magnitude in any structure
because there is always some restraint against free move-
ment between components. These stresses exist in all con-
crete buildings and should be taken into account in the
design, especially for concrete that will be permanently
exposed to view. In walls of large areas it would be im-
possible to provide sufficient reinforcement to prevent
cracking entirely. For all practical purposes, however,
unsightly cracks can be eliminated by controlling their
location and making them so inconspicuous that they do
not detract from the appearance of the building. Thiscan
be done effectively and inexpensively by providing con-
trol (contraction) joints in the walls at proper intervals.
Control joints in walls are made by fastening project-
ing strips opposite each other on the form sheathing to
create narrow vertical grooves on the inside and outside
of the concrete wall. Strips of wood, plastic, or a piece of
noncorrosive metal can be used. The grooves reduce wall
thickness at predetermined locations, forcing the crack-
ing at those locations and thereby relieving the stress in
the wall. The narrow groove on the outside of the wall is
filled with a nonstaining, concretecolor sealant to pre-
vent penetration of moisture.
LOCATING CONTROL JOINTS
No exact rules can be stated for the location of control
joints. Each job must be studied individually to deter-
mine where joints can be placed without endangering
structural integrity. It has been demonstrated in practice
that control joints should be not more than 20 ft (6.1 m)
apart in exterior walls with frequent openings. In walls
without openings the joint spacing may be a little greater
but should never be more than 25 ft (7.6 m) to be most
effective, and it is desirable to have a joint within 10 or 15
ft (3 or 4 m) of a corner if possible. Joint spacing in any
exposed cast-in-place interior walls should be identical
to joint spacing in outside walls.
Openings in walls are logical locations for control
joints. Where small openings are more than 20 ft (6.1 m)
apart, at the first-story level there should be a joint in line
with each jamb below the openings. Above the first-story
openings, a single joint at the centerline of each opening
will generally suffice, but joints on jamb lines are prefer-
able if shear in the spandrel will permit. Joints should be
provided in the solid wall between openings so the maxi-
mum spacing will not be more than 25 ft (7.6 m). In the
case of openings less than 20 ft (6.1 m) apart or where
several windows are grouped together with narrow con-
crete mullions between them, joints should be provided
as described above at not more than 20-ft (6. l-m) inter-
vals (see Fig. 46).
Sometimes window openings are very wide. If such
openings are separated by shallow spandrels and narrow
piers so the wall becomes essentially a frame of columns
and spandrels, control joints are not necessary. If such
an opening is more or less isolated and the height of wall
above the opening is at least one-fourth of the width of
the opening, or if the spandrel can be satisfactorily de-
signed as a cantilever, a control joint should be located
at the center of the opening unless the opening is in the
first story in which case there should be joints in line with
the jambs below the opening.
Scuppers or other small holes through the walls should
be in line with the centers or jambs of window openings
where control joints are located. Where steel columns are
embedded in the walls and may weaken the wall section
even more than nearby openings, joints should be placed
in the planes of the columns and at intermediate sections
33
A. 20 ft (6r-n) apart in walls with frequent openings.
B. Never more than 20ft (6m) apart, walls with no openings.
C . Within IO to 15 f t (3 to5mj of q corner, if possible.
0. In line with each jamb at first-story level.
E. Above first story at centerline of opening
F. Jamb lines are Dreferable.

Fig. 46. Location of control joints (only) in a building.

Wood strip to be Unexposed or plostered
left in place interior surface

-Point all surfaces

in line with openings if the columns are more than 25 ft of column with
(7.6 m) apart. Bonding of the concrete to the steel col- ospholtic point
umns at control joints should be prevented by coating the
columns with an asphaltic paint and no mesh or other re- Note : Horizontal
inforcing steel should pass through the joint. At such bors to be hooked
locations if there is a pilaster encasing the column, the in plone of
wall reinforcement should extend into the pilaster as reinforcina
shown in Fig. 47. Remove wood strip)
Control joints should begin at the top of the wall foot- ond colk with concrete
ing and should extend on the outside of the wall to the top colored nonstoining mastic
of the parapet, thence over the top of the parapet and
down the back of the parapet to the reglet strip. On the Fig. 47. Form assembly for pilaster at steel column.
inside face the joint extends from floor to ceiling as in
Fig. 48. It has not been customary to provide control
joints in the floor or roof slabs where they join the walls.
In buildings of several stories with a setback at one or Control joint down
more floors, the joints need not be continuous from one
level to another, but may be offset at each roof line in
order to locate the joints at the best sections in the re-
spective walls. Control joint from
top of wall footin
to top of porape

CUTTING REINFORCEMENT AT
CONTROL JOINTS
Except where needed for structural strength, one-half of
the horizontal reinforcement should be stopped off or cut
at control joints to further induce cracking at those sec-
tions. When cutting the bars, they should be cut exactly
on the line of the joint. It is especially important that
there be no lapping of bars at control joints. At openings
where control joints are located, extra reinforcement nor-
mally is provided to control cracking at the comers. This
extra reinforcement should be stopped off at the joints Fig. 46. Control joint in wall section.

34
 or omitted altogether, depending on whether the control
joints are at the center or at the jambs of the openings. Extra corner bars
Fig. 49(u) shows the arrangement of reinforcement at lap 2ft (0.6m) at
an opening when the control joint is at the center. The corners
extra bars at sill and head are stopped 2 in. (50 mm) from
the joint. Fig. 49(b) shows a control joint at the center
above an opening and in line with both jambs below the For openings less-
opening. Under such conditions the arrangement at the than 4i ft (1.5m)
head is the same as in Fig. 49(a) except that the extra ver- wide, hook extra
tical bars extend only 2 ft (0.6 m) below the head as well bars at control
as above. The extra bars are not needed at the sill because joints
the control joints are at the jambs. Fig. 49(c) shows an
opening with control joints at the jambs above the head
and below the sill so that none of the extra bars normally
provided around openings are needed. Fig. 49(d) is simi- (a)
lar to Fig. 49(u), but with diagonal bars as the additional
corner reinforcement.

FORMING CONTROL JOINTS IN WALLS

ra
Numerous ways have been devised for forming control
joints, depending upon materials available and job condi-
tions. Whatever method is used, the thickness of the wall
section at the joint should be reduced at least 20% by the
depth of the joint; and the sum of the depths of the inside
and outside grooves should not be less than 2 in. (50 mm).
Where the jointing of the plywood can be arranged so
that it is not necessary to cut the plywood, a detail such
as shown in Fig. 50(a) or (b) is satisfactory. These details
are also satisfactory where board sheathing is used if
there is not too much waste entailed from cutting the
boards. No extra bars
Where it is not feasible to cut the sheathing, the strips around openings
forming the joints must be fastened to the surface of the
sheathing in a way that will hold them securely against (b) (cl
impact from placing the concrete and from vibrators.
Fig. SO(c) shows a satisfactory method of attaching a
wood strip to the sheathing if the joint is to be located in
a flute. If a soft, close-grained wood is used for the strip
it can be nailed to the sheathing as shown in Fig. 50(6),
and it will remain in proper position during the placing
of concrete if reasonable care is used in consolidating the Cut or stop every other
concrete to avoid hitting the strip a hard blow from one bar at control joints, (a)
side. - a Extra bars: (Shown heavy line)
A method for inducing cracks in thick walls is shown
in Fig. 51. For 6 in. or 8 in.( 150 or 200mmI
At window sills and the tops of parapets it is advisable walls use I-No. 5 bar
to seal the control joints to be sure they will not leak. A For IO in. or I2 in.(250 or 300mm)
line across the sill or parapet in the plane of the control walls us 2- No.5 bars
joint should be tooled and filled with calking compound.
Only sealants definitely known to be nonstaining, to re- Bars provided as beam rein-
tain their plasticity, and to adhere tightly to the sides of forcement (not shown here) over
the joint should be used. opening should be continuous
through control joints. Alternate
wall bars and corner bars should
be cut or stopped at control
JOINTS IN TILTUP WALLS joints.
(d)
Their performance over the past 5 to 10 years has demon-
strated conclusively that concrete tiltup wall panels can Fig. 49. Arrangement of reinforcing around opening at
completely fulfill their structural function without being control joints.

35
 Use this detail for unexposed Cut every other bar here
or plaster interior surfaces. \

Wood strip to be left in Minimum cover,C

place.

Minimum cover, C Remove wood strip ana

24 pa. noncorrosive metal
with continuous woodfiller.
Remove and talk with
concrete colored non -
staining mastic.
talk with concrete colored
non-staining mastic
(c) Form assembly using wood strip control joint
in flute

(a) Form assembly using removable

metal control joint strip

ut every other bar here Cut every other

Notch strip
bar “‘;~kjL&+
Minimum cover, C 6 in.(200mm)
0.c. to permit
nailing
Minim
Remove wood strip and cover,
talk with concrete colored View A-A
non-staining mastic 6d casing nailsA

(b) Form ossembly using wood strip control (d) Form ossembly using wood strip control joint
joint held between plywood panels nailed to surface of sheathing

Fig. 50. Methods of forming control joints in walls.

Vanes f t o 2 i n . (6 t o 5 0 m m )

thick.
prowe. which can be 7@in.~4OfnmIvories
sealed if required
See detail at right

Up to 30 in Varies 4 to I+
9 tn. 6 to 40 mm)
(750 mm) t h i c k .
Width to depth ratio must be consistent with extension
and compression movement of seolont
6 m (I50 m m ) dla P V C
pope (filled wth concrete
If shear key required)

Dl
Bdd more pipes
for thicker walls.

I’
\ I,

Not*: Crack control steel (not shown

for clarity) should be curtolled
at the joint

Fig. 51. Inducing cracks in thick walls.

 rigidly tied together. By keeping the panels separated, Cylindrical cardboard sleeve
enclosing top diaphragm chord
which is normal practice in nonearthquake zones, each reinforcement at both ends
panel is unrestrained and free to accommodate move-
ments without cracking from drying shrinkage or ther-
mal expansion and contraction. Preventing independent
panel movement by interlocking the panels with cast-in-
place columns or pilasters or by welding the panels to-
gether at metal inserts can be the cause of unsightly cracks
and leaks in many wall panels. When all the wall panels
are locked together any movement in length is restrained
and cracks are inevitable.
Two systems that have been successfully used in earth-
quake zones for controlling cracking (there may be other
variations) are described here. Both systems can be de-
signed to withstand wind and earthquake lateral forces
as well as light or heavy roof loads.
In the first system (in addition to the regular horizontal
Continuous footing Place c o n t r o l j o i n t s
and vertical reinforcement) the outer one-third of the top at ends of oan+l
chord reinforcing steel bars are enclosed in cardboard Interior Elevot ion ’
sleeves or plastic tubes (Fig. 52). The panel is then free
to move from either end toward the middle without being
cr or foam plastic
restrained by bonding to this reinforcement. A blockout
at each end of the reinforcement permits welding it to a
steel angle, which then provides a continuous chord Elostomcric joint
around the top perimeter of the structure. This continu- SCaIant or talk
ous chord is essential for the roof to act as a horizontal
diaphragm to transmit lateral loads to the shearwall ele-
ments in the building. The wood ledger is not continuous Section B-B Alternate section B-B
and cannot serve as a chord member for the horizontal (For fire ratad walls)

roof diaphragm. Block out, use

In the second system, a steel channel (or angle) is used
as a horizontal ledger to support the roof framing mem-
bers (Fig. 53). This ledger serves the same structural pur-
pose as the chord reinforcing steel used in the first sys-
tem. The steel channel is rigidly attached in the center
portion of the wall panel by welded stud connectors or ~$dmi~~~lcheck wcldability
similar devices embedded in the concrete. Slotted holes
kept completely free of cement paste are provided in the Detail I Section C-C
end portions of the channel through which the ledger is
bolted to inserts in the wall panel. The rigid connection
Fig. 52. Joint in tiltup wall, continuous reinforcing bar.
at midlength of the steel channel must transfer in-plane

Channc,
L=lanath
Weld

Slotted holes for Anchor studs

bolts as raquircd
cmbeddcC’- ~~ ~.

I::--------------------‘
-------_---__ _ _ _ ----_-_ Splice plate
Continuous footing-r Tilt-up panel&&

Interior Elevation :;ingxi steal

Section B-B
Fig. 53. Joint In tiltup wall, continuous steel channel ledger.

37
 diaphragm forces. The bolts in the slotted holes transfer
vertical and transverse loads from roof to wall. As in the
first system, the wall panel is free to move from either
, end toward the middle without restraint. At the joint be-
tween panels, the adjacent steel channels are rigidly con-
nected by welding on a steel splice plate to provide a con-
tinuous chord for the horizontal diaphragm action of the
roof.
In some tiltup buildings, a floor closure strip of con-
crete 3 to 4 ft (0.9 to 1.2 m) wide is placed around the
perimeter of the slab to lock the walls to the floor slab by
embedding the reinforcing steel protruding from both
elements. Weakened-plane control (contraction) joints
should be placed in this closure strip opposite the joints
in the wall panels to reduce the incidence of cracking in
the floors.

Although continuous footings are more commonly used

to support tiltup walls, some walls are designed as deep
beams and are supported at each end on isolated footings.
Shrinkage and thermal movements then tend to produce
diagonal cracks as shown in Fig. 54(a). The use of an
elastomeric pad between the isolated footing and one end
of the panel as shown in Fig. 54(b) has been effective in
reducing this cracking.

Tilt-up panel Tilt-up panel

Diagonal Elastomeric
pads,

?sTz f
-I r c
19 Mortar -
bedding
(a) (b)

Fig. 54. Isolated footings with tiltup walls.

38
CHAPTER 7.
Expansion Joints in Concrete Buildings
Most buildings of simple rectangular shape that are rela-
tively short-200 to 300 ft (60 to 90 m) in lengthdo not
require expansion joints. If, however, it is decided that
the extent of movement for the whole building could
cause cracking in the structural frame, consideration
should be given to the possible need for an expansion
joint or joints at some point in the building.
The purpose of expansion (isolation) joints in rein-
forced concrete buildings is to permit the separate seg-
ments of the structural frame to expand and contract
with temperature and moisture changes without adverse-
ly affecting the building’s structural integrity or service-
ability. If the structural frame is free to expand and con-
tract, no stress capable of cracking the concrete will
develop from such movement; in actual practice restraint
is present in all structural frames. For the most part build-
ings of ordinary size and regular in plan can be designed
to resist the stresses caused by volume change without
recourse to expansion joints, but control joints should
be provided in all buildings as described in the chap-
ters “Control Joints in Walls” and “Joints in Slabs on
Ground.” Under certain conditions of size, shape, and
plan, however, it is desirable to provide joints that actu-
ally separate (or isolate)a building into independent units
so that the stresses developed will not cause damage detri-
mental to the structure’s utility or appearance. (The
movement of masonry buildings is explained in a sepa-
rate chapter.)
Differential foundation movement and dimensional
changes due to applied load are added factors that in-
fluence the need for expansion joints, so definite rules
cannot be established as to either their size or location.
Consideration of the causes of volume change and obser-
vation of buildings in service should guide the designer.
CAUSES OF VOLUME CHANGES
Moisture Changes
In general, most buildings continue to dry out through-
out their lives, so the volume change due to variation in
moisture content is shrinkage only. Rain on the walls of a
building, unless of very long duration, will not cause an
appreciable gain in moisture content of the concrete.
There may be a slight gain or loss of moisture because of
seasonal changes in atmospheric humidity, but for prac-
tical purposes concrete in buildings may be assumed to
shrink and not swell.
Temperature Changes
Temperature variations cause buildings to expand and
contract, on a daily cycle or a seasonal one. The expan-
sion and contraction of a building from any cause is re-
strained and affected by many conditions and therefore
cannot be computed accurately. A rough indication of
the amount of movement caused by temperature changes
is obtained by multiplying the average thermal coeffi-
cient of expansion of concrete (O.OOOOO55 to O.OOOOO6)
by the length of the structure and by the degrees change
in temperature. In other words, movement that might be
be anticipated at expansion joints in a building divided
into 200-ft (61-m) sections for a 25°F (13.9oC) change
in temperature will be on the order of )/8 in. (9.5 mm).
If the 200-ft (61-m) wall section is exposed to a thermal
variation from summer to winter of 50°F (27.S°C), the
total thermal movement will be about 0.720 in. or % in.
(19 mm).
39
DRYING SHRINKAGE EFFECT
ON TOTAL MOVEMENT

The shrinkage of concrete due to loss of moisture varies

with the concrete mixture and with atmospheric condi-
tions. In actual practice, because of incomplete drying
and the restraint offered by reinforcement, the shrinkage
that occurs is materially less than that determined by
laboratory experiments on plain concrete. A typical coef-
ficient of shrinkage determined in the laboratory may be
about 600 millionths. Thus, for a lOO-ft-long (30.5-m)
wall, the contraction could be about )/s in. (19 mm). The Differences in foundation
pr~rrurr , joink needed
shortening varies with the mass of the concrete. Mass is
not usually considered in calculating expansion-joint IO)
movement and may explain why observations of build-
ings in service indicate the total movement at less than
half that anticipated by combining shrinkage with the
contraction due to temperature drop. The restraining
effect of the reinforcing steel also undoubtedly plays a
part in the reduction of this movement. It appears safe
to consider that the maximum movement at joints located
200 ft (61 m) apart will not exceed 1 in. (25 mm) under
most unfavorable conditions.

FOUNDATION MOVEMENTS

Major differences in foundation loading at different

parts of a building can produce a tendency for significant
parts of the building to move. This kind of movement will Non - compreeribb
Movement
material
prevented,
determine the need for, and location of, major joints di- joints not needed.
viding the building into blocks. Each block can move as a
separate unit, Fig. 55(u); or foundation movement can
be prevented by founding the building on an uncompres-
sible material, Fig. 55(b); or the added stress can be re- (b)
lieved by the weight of the earth removed from a base-
ment excavation, Fig. 55(c).

SPACING EXPANSION JOINTS

Buildings under 200 ft (61 m) long are seldom provided

with expansion joints. The need for thermal expansion
joints in longer buildings is first determined empirically.
If the results are not sufficiently comprehensive to be
applicable to the type of structure being studied, a more
precise analysis should be undertaken. As a minimum,
each of the following factors should be taken into ac-
count for expansion joint location and design:
1. Dimensions and configuration of the building asement
2. Design temperature change - Net added pressure
3. Provisions for temperature control
4. Type of structural frame, connection to the founda- Relief o f foundetlon preeeure
by boeement excavation.
tion, and symmetry of stiffness against lateral dis- joints not needed
placement
5. Materials of construction
ICI
-

Empirical Approach for Determining Need

The following criteria taken from Reference 58 should be

used in the absence of more rational approaches: Fig. 55. Differences in foundation pressure.

40
 a. For buildings with a beam-andcolumn or slab-and-
column structural frame,* the maximum length of
the building** without expansion joints should be
determined in accordance with Fig. 56 on the basis
of the design temperature change (At) in the locality
of construction.
b. For buildings supported by continuous exterior re-
inforced masonry, expansion joints should be placed
at intervals not exceeding 200 ft (61 m). In addition,
intermediate subjoints should be positioned and
spaced in accordance with the recommendations of
i ~~~~~\rv material
Nonrectangular configuration
Design temperature change, OF (‘XI
Fig. 56. Maximum allowable building length without useof
expansion joints for various design temperature changes.
These curves are directly applicable to buildings of beam-
and-column construction, hinged at the base, and with
heated interiors. When other conditions prevail, the fol-
lowing rules are applicable:
(a) if the building will be heated only and will have hinged-
column bases, use the allowable length as specified.
(b) If the building will beair-conditioned as well as heated,
increase the allowable length by 15% (provided the en-
vironmental control system will run continuously).
(c) if the building will be unheated, decrease theallowable
length by 33%.
(d) If the building will have fixed-column bases, decrease
the allowable length by 15%.
(e) If the building will have substantially greater stiffness
against lateral displacement at one end of the plan
dimension, decrease the allowable length by 25%.
When more than one of these design conditions prevail in
a building, the percentile factor to be applied should be
the algebraic sum of the adjustment factors of ail thevari-
ous applicable conditions.
*A building is considered to have a beam-and<olumn or slab-and-
column structural frame even if intermittent interior shearwalls or other
stiffening elements are incorporated in the frame and even if the frame
is supported on an above-grade, reinforced concrete, continuous-
perimeter base wall. This does not apply to buildings with fully exposed
exterior frames placed outside the cladding elements.
**The maximum diameter or diagonal of a round, elliptical, or closed
polygonic building is considered its maximum dimension.
the Brick Institute of America and the National
Concrete Masonry Association.
In order to be effective, expansion joints should ex-
tend entirely through the building, completely separating
it into independent units. Column footings that are lo-
cated at expansion joints need not be cut through unless
differential settlements or other foundation movements
are anticipated; and in that case, separate smaller build-
ings should be built on separate foundations to allow for
those movements. Expansion joints should be carried
down through foundation walls; otherwise the restrain-
ing influence of the wall below grade, without a joint,
may cause the wall above to crack in spite of its joint. Re-
inforcement must never pass through an expansion joint.
The architectural treatment of the exterior walls will
determine to some extent where joints can be located
without marring the appearance of the building. It is ad-
visable to place expansion joints where they can be ob-
scured by a pilaster or other architectural detail. When
so located two purposes are served: the joint is less con-
spicuous, if visible at all, and it is easier to make the joint
weathertight because of the protection afforded.
Expansion joints should always be made as simple as
possible without sacrificing effectiveness. They must be
designed to move freely. Care should be taken in detail-
ingand installation to avoid possible damage to the build-
ing or to the joint itself through failure to operate prop-
erly. The flow of wind and water through the joint must
be stopped by weatherproofing. An example of a simple,
weathertight joint is shown in Fig. 57. In thisjoint, (1) the
ribs deflect rainwater away from the joint, and (2) the air
seal forces any water that leaks into the joint to run down
within it and outside through an open horizontal joint be-
low. Many gasket and sealant products are available to
maintain a complete seal while accommodating move-
ment of the expansion joint. Success will be realized when
the joint detail includes all the features of the joint in
Fig. 57.
Expansion joints usually are shown fully open on con-
struction drawings. The temperature at the time of joint
construction, however, will determine the width of the
joint opening. Allowances for temperature variations as
shown on the drawings must be made when forming the
c I in. min. (25 mm 1
t-7
r Aw seal
Back - up rod
Compression
sea I
Fig. 57. Expansion joint detail in wail.
41
 joint. The actual width of an expansion joint must be Filler strip7 JC0v.r plate

greater than the computed maximum joint closing to pro-

Pnchor
vide for construction tolerances and for the width and
compressibility or expandability of the joint sealant and
compression seal.
Expansion joints in structural floors or suspended
slabs must be designed to prevent water from leaking to
the floor below, and to provide for a smooth traffic sur-
‘ I i n . min.( 25mm)
face. Water seals should be included unless it is definitely
known that there will be no water on the floor. Sliding
plates flush with the floor surface will interfere least with Fig. 58. Expansion joint detail in floor.
traffic. Thresholds that project above the floor surface
except in doorways are objectionable. An example of a
floor joint is shown in Fig. 58.
The roof at an expansion joint is always a critical place Waterproof shaetmg
or metal florhing
rlvl ”I ‘“Ywj
CI^..*l- . . b. --
3 nn (7Smm 0.0.)
because of the possibility of leakage. Details such as are -+G .a
Compreswbta msulotlon
Built-up roofing
illustrated in Fig. 59 are positive in action and do not Provide moisture
depend on the integrity of the roofing for success. Ex- vents if needed?

truded-metal and sheet-metal expansion cover assem-

blies also are available.
Wall and roofjoints must be continuous over parapets.
The water seal or flashing must be continuous so there
-1in. min.{25 mm)
will be no place for leakage. Various modifications can be
adapted to parapets and copings of different types.
If the computed expansion joint width exceeds 2 in. (50 Curb- type expan Sheet metal I lashing

mm), special corsideration should be given to the mate-

rials and methods ofjoint construction to ensure that the Wood nailer insert CompresslMe 1nsulot10n

joint itself will be able to withstand the distress caused by

such a substantial movement.
Expansion joint design should permit fully free move-
ment of the abutting building segments, prevent the
entrance of water or debris, and allow for easy mainte-
nance and inspection.
Fig. 59. Expansion joint detail in roof.

CLOSURE STRIPS
2 X 4 in hanger@ 16 in. O.C.
Instead of joints that may be difficult to install because (50 X IOOmm hanger@400mmO.Cl
of structural requirements for reinforcing, somedesigners
use closure strips in concrete buildings. These extend
7
completely through floors and walls and are about 3 to 4
ft (1 m) wide. Concrete for the building component is
placed on each side of this closure strip and after proper
curing is allowed to air dry and shrink as long as prac-
tical-at least 30days is suggested. The normally required
reinforcing steel protrudes from each side into the clo- \A Hanger bolts
sure strip where it is lap spliced. The slabs on each side of 2 X 4 in. brace@ 16 in.O.C.L
the closure strip are free to contract independently. At the (50 X IOOmm brace@400mm O.C.)
end of the waiting period, concrete is placed in the clo-
sure strips to complete the floors and walls of the build- Form for closure strip on floor
ing, as shown in Fig. 60. (no sharing needed)
Wall form similar but with plywood sheathing on
bath surfaces

Fig. 80. Closure strip.

42
CHAPTER 8.
Construction Joints in Walls
A true construction joint is the surface where two suc-
cessive plaxments of concrete meet, across which it is
desirable to develop and maintain bond between the two
placements and through which any reinforcement is not
interrupted. Stopping places where the process of placing
concrete is suspended for 30 minutes or more are called
cold joints and should be handled as construction joints.
A true construction joint provides full restraint against
movement.
Construction joints are necessary because it usually is
impractical to build forms for an entire structure and
place the concrete in one continuous operation. They
should not be confused with expansion joints and control
joints, which are placed in large structures to allow for
movement due to expansion and contraction.
By the nature of its construction, an expansion joint
also acts as a control joint and can function as aconstruc-
tion joint (stopping place). Control joints also can be
located to coincide with construction joints.
LOCATION OF JOINTS
Construction joints should be located where they will
least impair the strength of the finished structure, will be
suited to the architectural design, and will facilitate the
construction of forms and placing of concrete. To leave
their location to chance or convenience with little con-
sideration for their effect on the strength or appearance
of the completed structure is bad practice. From the point
of view of strength in floor systems, desirable locations
for construction joints are at points of minimum shear
or points of contraflexure. This applies only to construc-
tion joints perpendicular to the main reinforcement in
floor slabs. Joints parallel to the main reinforcement
may be made anywhere in the slab except within the sec-
tion that is considered to be the flange of an L- orT-beam.
Construction joints in columns and bearing walls
should be located at the undersides of floor slabs, beams,
or girders and at the tops of footings and floor slabs.
Beams, girders, haunches, column capitals, and drop
panels are placed monolithically with the slab system and
should not be cut through by construction joints. Joints
should be indicated on the plans or their location decided
upon by conference of architect, engineer, and contrac-
tor, and prohibited at any other place.
If the placing of concrete is interrupted for a time and
the batch begins to set before the next batch is added, the
surface between the two should be considered a construc-
tion joint and treated as such.
HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Many factors contribute to the practical heights to which
concrete can be placed. Prominent ones include the size
of formwork materials, the repetitive use of formwork
(particularly in multistory buildings), placing the rein-
forcing steel, placing the concrete, vibration, and setting
time. It is general practice to limit concrete placements
to a height of one story. With concrete placement in one-
story increments, horizontal bands, grooves, or ledges
can be useful architectural features for concealing con-
struction joints. Horizontal joints can also be aligned
with window heads or sills or both. The joints are short-
ened by the width of the openings and can be architec-
turally developed to continue the window lines across the
facade.
If V-shaped grooves are used, the joints should be
made at the point of the V. If rectangular or slightly
beveled grooves are formed, the joints should be made
at the top edge of the inner face of the groove, as illus-
trated in Fig. 61, to avoid a ragged, irregular arris (or
edge). Horizontal joints should be straight and level.
43
 /1.
-0
.* ” .?” .D @ VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Dimrnrion Construction
Construction
The distance between vertical construction joints in cast-
Joint bus in-place concrete buildings depends on the amount of
\ I
formwork in place or the production capacity of the plac-
ing crew and equipment. In walls, a horizontal length of
Varier wtth wdl placement in excess of 40 ft (12.2 m) is not normally
recommended. Vertical joints can often be located at or
near reentrant corners of walls alongside columns or
. /I D.L pilasters, or at other places where they become part of the
architectural treatment of the building. In long sections
tb) of walls and other places, it might be necessary to form
vertical joints in the flat wall. surface of the concrete.
Fig. 61. Horizontal construction joint. These joints may also be required to allow movement (as
a control joint) and it would be prudent to include a
waterstop to ensure a weatherproof joint.
Essential details for the construction of horizontal and
vertical construction joints are shown in Fig. 62.
Contact surface must be free of loitonce and
present clean aggregate faces t o d e v e l o p b o n d ,
interlocking and friction. To clean faces:
I. Brush off loitonce
2. Stiff wire broom
3. Scobble
4. Grit or woter - jet blast
5. Retarder on form face (vertical)
6. Expanded metal or fine mesh as stop-end fvcrticol)
7 Use profile form liner on stop-end (vertical)

STAGE I

Good compact ion

Water, grout,
or mortar Chamfered edges will
not necessary improve appearances

STAGE 2
Typical Horizontal Typical Vertical
Construction Joint Construction Joint
(flat wall surface) (flat wall surface)
I. Make joints square to line of member
2. Clean and roughen properly
3. Be sure joint is roughened or reinforced
to transmit shear forces
4. If necessary, weatherproof the joint

Fig. 62. Essential details of construction joints.

44
CHAPTER 9.
Joints in Slabs on Ground
A portland cement concrete slab on the ground can move
horizontally because of a change in temperature or mois-
ture; it can curl (warp) because of a difference in the tem-
perature or moisture gradient between the top and bot-
tom of the slab; it can deflect under traffic loads; or dif-
ferential settlement can occur. Because the slab is re-
strained in various ways against moving freely in response
to these influences, stresses arc induced that can cause
cracking. Joints therefore should be designed and spaced
in the slab to control cracking principally due to drying
shrinkage, to permit relative movement (expansion), and
to aid construction.
The designer must have knowledge about the magni-
tude and direction of slab movement in order to design
the joints properly. The effect on movement of the fol-
lowing significant items should be considered: type and
size of joint, slab length, slab thickness, type of subgrade,
type of load-transfer device (if used), material proper-
ties, reinforcement (if used), type and amount of applied
load, and the environment in which the slab is placed and
will serve.
TYPE OF JOINTS
Control joints in floors (also called contraction joints)
are designed to control random cracking attributable to
initial drying shrinkage, thermal and moisture changes,
frictional stresses, warping, and load stresses by pro-
viding a deliberately weakened plane so that the crack
forms along a line at the preselected location.
Isolation joints for floors (also called expansion joints)
are designed primarily to allow for expansion and con-
traction attributable to thermal and moisture changes
by providing a complete separation for the full depth of
the slab to allow free movement between abutting sur-
faces. It is advisable to provide an isolation joint around
the perimeter of the slab where it abuts on walls, grade
beams, or any structural element that would restrict
movement of the slab in a horizontal plane.
Construction joints are located to establish the bound-
ary of the concrete placement. They are designed and
located to align with and move the same as contraction
or expansion joints.
Details of each type of joint are illustrated in Fig. 63.
SUB LENGTH
The amount of opening and closing of a crack or joint is
a direct function of the distance (length or width) of the
slab between joints. Long slabs result in larger openings
at joints than short slabs. Slabs longer than 20 ft (6.1 m)
also tend to develop midslab cracks. Wider openings
more easily allow entrance of incompressibles. Openings
wider than 0.035 in. (0.90 mm) have a marked loss in ef-
ficiency of the aggregate interlock to transfer load, thus
increasing the likelihood that traffic will cause faulting
and spalling of the concrete edges at the opening. Using
shorter slabs will avoid these undesired consequences.
Maximum spacing between joints depends primarily on
l Slab thickness
l Shrinkage potential of the concrete
l Curing environment
l Absence or presence of distributed reinforcement
l Desirable width of joint opening
Slabs made of high-slump concrete improperly cured
in a dry environment, with or without reinforcement,
will shrink excessively and crack extensively. Slabs made
of low-slump concrete properly cured in a moist environ-
ment, with or without reinforozment, will have minimum
shrinkage and few cracks. Jobsite practices are some-
where between these extremes.
Joint spacing* too often is determined by structural
bay size, with the joints placed on column lines only. This
*See Resurfacing Concrere floors, Portland Cement Association
publication IS144T. 1981, for joint spacing in bonded and unbonded
concrete overlays.
45
ThIckened e d g e t o r e d u c e deflection Use CAY at undoneled
under wheel load, hold surface m Jointe aid abutting
ohgnment, p e r m i t w h e e l t o roll wolle, o r floore (It
smoothly over joint. doorways .

Lubricate this end to prevent bond

First dab / LSecmd l lab

Typr A - A l t e r n a t e expmeion (irolation) j o i n t
Deformed tiebarr
#4’r-24”(610mm)long@ 30’(760mmlctr.

Type E-Emergency tie tmnsveree constructmn pint

(Used I” panel at middle third of normal jomt spocmg)

N o t a contractlon ( c o n t r o l ) j o i n t !

i’ ( 4 mm) radue --, r Joint eeoler

T-w* ;‘Lyoy- fa. rid mm than 6 in (1SOmm)th~ck. Use butt joint1

c-j Type 6 - Longitudinal

Tie bare may be may be used
jointr when necessary to hold
conetructim joint
otroee t h e s e
slobs together.
0.2 d

Keywayr for t y p e B a n d E conetruction jomte

Flush with eurface3,t’-$ (3-6mmI So w cut, tooled, or premolded etrip

Type C - Sawed. tooled. Q prernolded etrlp

Longitudinal or tronrveree
Contraction (contrd) joint

f(4mm)rodiue -,, (FLtt?!!te one end to prevent bond

Butt joint formed with ’

header to cmee aectim shape

Type D - Ptomed trmeveree cmetructim joint

Weed at rwmal joint epacing, will function os

cmtrectim (control 1 joint )

Fig. 63. Details of joints for floors on ground.

46
 Area. A,, in
practice usually results in large panels with intermediate Sq. in. per 11.
cracking within the panel and in poor joint performance. (mm2 per 3OOmm)
A rule of thumb for plain (no-reinforcement) slabs is 0.200 r
that joint spacing should not exceed 24 slab thicknesses 11290) IO in. slab
~250mm)
for concrete made with less than g-in. (19-mm) top-size
coarse aggregate; 30 slab thicknesses for concrete with 8 in. slob
(200mm)
greater than %-in. (19-mm) coarse aggregate, or 36 slab
thicknesses for low-slump concrete. Suggested joint spac- 6 in. slab
(ISOmm)
ings are given in Table 6.
4 in. slob
II00 mm)

REINFORCED SLABS ON GROUND

For reinforced slabs on ground, joint spacing normally 0.000 L n 1 ,

&, 30 40 50 60
varies from 30 to 80 ft (9 to 24 m). The percentage of rein- (9.lml (12.2m) 052m) (18.2ml
Joint spacing, ft (m)
forcement increases with an increase in joint spacing. In a
continuously reinforced concrete slab that is without Fig. 64. Reinforcement for floors on ground.
joints except for construction and expansion joints where
needed, the percentage of distributed reinforcing steel is To be effective in controlling cracks, the steel must be
0.6 and higher. positioned at or above the middepth of the slab. Distrib-
Slabs with joint spacings longer than those in Table 6 uted steel placed in a slab onground forcrackcontroldoes
usually will crack in the middle with the cracks generally
not increase significantly the load-carryingcapacityofthe
held tightly closed by the reinforcement. The amount of floor.
steel (Fig. 64) needed to hold a crack tight can be calcu-
lated using this subgradedrag-method equation:
/,
I
- WFL CURLING (WARPING)
?4-

where A, = required cross-sectional area of steel in square
inch per foot of width of slab (mm*/m)
W = weight of slab only, pounds per square foot
(kg/m’)
F = coefficient of resistance to movement (gen-
erally assumed to be 1.5 but can vary from
about 1.0 to 2.5)
fs = allowable stress in steel, commonly assumed
to be 30,000 psi for welded-wire fabric (200
MPa)
L = length of slab between free ends (A free end is
any joint where horizontal movement is per-
mitted.)
In addition to horizontal movement caused by a change
in moisture and temperature, curling of the slab can be
caused by differences in moisture and temperature be-
tween the top and bottom of the slab.
The edges at the joints tend to curl up when the surface
of the slab is dryer or cooler than the bottom. The slab will
assume a reverse curl when the surface is wetterorwarmer
than the bottom. When the edges are curled upward, in-
dustrial truck traffic passing over the joint causes a repeti-
tive vertical movement that creates a great potential for
fatigue cracking in the slab. The amount of vertical move-
ment (curling) is small with a short, thick slab.
Based on the geometry of the curved slab, the following
rational formula for curling can be derived:

Table 6. Suggested Spacing of Control Joints

in Floors on the Ground
Slump- qreater than 4 in. (100 mm
Less than Less than Slump
Slab K-in. (19-mm) %-in. (14mm) less than
thickness, aggregate: aggregate: 4 in. (100 mm):
in. (mm) spacing, ft (m) spacing, ft (m) spacing, ft (ni)

4 (100) 8 (2.4 m) 10 (3.3 m) 12 (3.9 m)

5 (125) 10 (3.3 m) 13 (4.3 m) 15 (4.9 m)
6 (150) 12 (3.9 m) 15 (4.9 m) 18 (5.9 m)
7 (175) 14 (4.6 m) 18 (5.9 m) 21 (6.9 m)
A = upward curling of slab in inches (mm)
8 (200) 16 (5.2 m) 20 (6.6 m) 24 (7.9 m)
9 (225) 18 (5.9 m) 23 (7.5 m) 27 (8.8 m)
SC = difference in linear unit shrinkage between topand
10 (250) 20 (6.6 m) 25 (8.2 m) 30 (9.8 m) bottom of slab
L = length of slab in inches (mm) (Use length of diag-
NOTE, Given spacings also apply to the distance from control jomts to onal to get corner curling.)
parallel lsolatlon lolnts. Spacings greater than 20 ft (6 6 m) show marked
loss in effectiveness of aggregate Interlock or tongue-and-groove Inter- r = slab thickness in inches (mm) (Slab assumed to be
actton to prowde load transfer across the joint unreinforced.)

47
 The linear shrinkage of concrete varies between 400
and 600 millionths 0; 1% to % in. per 100 ft (12 to 18
mm/ 30 m). These values are for typical job concrete, al-
though higher or lower values can be determined under
certain conditions. Neglecting the effects of temperature,
if the base of the slab is moist it will have less shrinkage
than the top, which is usually drier. As an example, let it
be assumed that the top of the slab has attained a full
shrinkage of 0.0006 while the bottom has shrunk only
half of this amount or 0.0003. The difference in linear unit
shrinkage is then 0.0006 - 0.0003 = 0.0003 in. per inch
(1.062 mm/mm). Under these conditions, a Gin.-thick
(lOO-mm)slab, 15by15ftwithdiagonalof21.21ft(5by5
m, diagonal = 7.06 m), would have corner curling calcu-
lated by the formula as follows:
A = 0.0003 X(21.21 X 12)* = 0.61 in. or about % in.
8X4
0.0003 X(7.06X lOOO)* = 18 7 mm
A metric =
8X 100
Even though designers are aware of moisture effects
and the existence of curling slabs, they tend to use only
temperature-range changes as the design factor when
determining slab length and the size of joint openings.
CHAPTER 10.
Masonry Materials
Concrete masonry and clay masonry units have been
used together for many years. Concrete masonry began
as a backup material for brick masonry in the 1940’s and
has grown to the extent that concrete block has almost
totally replaced structural clay tile as the backup material
in masonry walls. Concrete masonry and brick construc-
tion is popular for curtain and panel walls in low-rise and
multistory buildings as well as loadbearing masonry
walls in both low- and high-rise buildings.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Concrete and clay masonry materials exhibit different
properties. Each has its own moisture, thermal, elastic,
and plastic flow (creep) properties that must be recog-
nized and taken into account in design, or the masonry
wall may not give satisfactory performance.‘59’
MOISTURE MOVEMENT
Building materials, except for the metals, tend to expand
with increases in moisture content and,contract with dry-
ing. For some materials these movements are reversible;
for others they are not-or are only partially reversible.
Fired-clay products such as brick expand upon contact
with water or humid air, and this expansion is not revers-
ible by drying at normal atmospheric temperatures.
Currently the Brick Institute of America recommends
a coefficient of moisture expansion of 0.02% (2.0 X 10e4).
Concrete masonry units such as concrete block expand
with a moisture gain and contract with a moisture loss.
Of greater immediate concern is the initial drying shrink-
age of these units. Many factors affect the volume change
of concrete masonry. The major controllable ones are
type of aggregate and method of curing. Standard units
made with normal sand and gravel aggregate generally
have less shrinkage than those produced with various
lightweight aggregates. Units cured by high-pressure
steam (autoclaving) have one-third or less shrinkage than
units cured by various commercial methods in atmos-
pheric pressure. The presence of high-strength-wire joint
reinforcement does not eliminate shrinkage, but does dis-
tribute the shrinkage stresses and helps control the num-
ber and distribution of drying shrinkage cracks. Values
for shrinkage of concrete masonry can vary from a low of
0.01% (1.0 X 10m4) to as high as 0.1% (1.0 X IO-‘).
THERMAL MOVEMENTS
Theoretically, thermal expansion and contraction move-
ments are reversible if the member is unrestrained. The
coefficients for thermal movement can be determined
from measurements of length change in prisms by labora-
tory tests. The generally accepted coefficient for clay
masonry is 0.036%(3.6 X 10m4) per lOO”F(55.6”C). Ther-
mal movements occur both horizontally and vertically.
Concrete masonry also undergoes external expansion
and contraction. The coefficients are 0.043% (4.3 X 10m4)
per 100°F (55.6OC) for lightweight concrete masonry and
0.052% (5.2 X 10m4) per lOOoF (55.6OC) for dense, nor-
mal-weight units.
For stresses permitted in brick masonry, the relationship
between deformation of the structural elements and their
stress is approximately linear. The reduction of length
of axially loaded masonry elements due to design loads
am seldom in themselves critical; however, because these
dimensional changes are in addition to those caused by
other factors, they must be considered.
49
 Elastic deformations for concrete masonry are similar
to those found in brick masonry. They are important and
must be considered in the design to assure the proper per-
formance of the masonry wall.
PLASTIC FLOW (CREEP)
Some materials when continuously stressed gradually
yield in the direction of the stress application. This is re-
ferred to as creep or plastic flow. In cluy masonry con-
struction, the clay units themselves are not subject to flow
although the mortar joints are. The joints, however, sel-
dom comprise more than 15% to 27% of the volume in
compression. A design value of 2.0 (IO-‘) per unit of
length per pound per square inch (6895 N/m’) is suggest-
ed for clay masonry plus mortar.
Creep in concrete masonry is much larger than in clay
brick construction. For high-strength concrete masonry
units, the design value for creep will be somewhat lower
than the value for conventional cast-in-place concrete.
The ultimate magnitude of creep of plain concrete ranges
from 2.0 X IO-’ to 2.0 X 10m6 but is ordinarily about 1.0 X
10m6 per unit of length per pound per square inch (6895
N/m ). Creep is not only a function of stress and time, but
is also affected by the physical properties of the concrete
and the conditions of exposure.
COMPOSITE WALLS
The use of clay and concrete units is a popular combina-
tion in composite masonry walls. As pointed out, they
respond in different ways to moisture content, tempera-
ture, elastic deformation, and plastic flow, with the
movement in concrete units greater and generally oppo-
site to that in clay units. Differential movements within
the wall can cause cracking when the stresses created by
the wall movements exceed the tensile strength of the
masonry. The designer can control these stresses and
minimize the incidence of cracking by the use of bond
breaks, flexible anchorage and control joints.
DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT
A building is a dynamic structure and its successful per-
formance will depend on the designer’s (and builder’s)
understanding of how all the separate parts interact. The
performance of the walls, for example, is dependent on
the materials of construction. All of these must be taken
into account and a realistic assessment made of their rela-
tive effects in service.
In the case of cavity walls, any restraints of the differ-
ential movement between the exterior and interior wythes
could lead to stresses and strains causing distress in the
masonry system or lateral deflection (bowing orincreased
curvature) of the walls. Some type of metal ties connect-
ing the two wythes should be used to accommodate dif-
ferential movement.
50
BOND PREVENTION
Masonry walls are usually supported by concrete foun-
dations. If the walls are of clay brick and the bottom
wythe is fastened to the foundation wall with strong mor-
tar but with no provision for the opposing dimensional
movement of the two materials, the result will inevitably
be cracking at the foundation corners. In other instances,
shrinkage cracks that sometimes originate in the founda-
tion wall can extend up into the masonry wall. These
problems can be minimized by a bondbreaker between
the foundation and the masonry wall. This can be a layer
of building paper or smooth flashing placed under the
bottom wythe of bricks in buildings where it is not nec-
essary to anchor the walls to the foundation, as in Fig.
65(u). The detail shown in Fig. 65(b) is suggested for
grouted masonry walls.
FLEXIBLE ANCHORAGE
Masonry walls tied rigidly to the structural frame for
lateral support often crack because of differential move-
ments between the two components. These movements
can be controlled by flexible anchors that will resist ten-
sion and compression but not shear. This flexibility will
permit the wall and the structural frame to move inde-
pendently of each other, within certain limits.
(0) (b)
-Brick and
block wall
ka- Grouted
-Mortar filled
collar joint
Breok bpnd between
fw$dotlon and masonry
Polystyrene sleeve to -/
allow vertical olipnment
of dowel and woli
reinforcement
Fig. 65. Unbonded and bonded anchorage of masonry
wall to foundation.
CONTROL JOINTS
The term “expansionjoint”is used in the clay brick indus-
try because clay units expand. “Control joint” in concrete
terminology is the means to control shrinkage cracking
in concrete masonry units. “Control joints” are used in
this text for both masonry types. “Movement joints”
would be an appropriate descriptive term.
No single recommendation can be made for the loca-
tion of control joints. Each building must be studied on
its own to determine potential movements and the loca-
tion of control joints to relieve the excessive stress that
might result from such movements. Masonry handbooks
contain formulas for calculating total movement and
methods for forming the control joints.
Vertical Control Joints
Vertical control joints are used to divide long walls or to
separate changes in height or thickness at the junctions in
L-, T-, or U-shaped buildings (Fig. 66) at the abutment
of walls and columns, and at one or both sides of all wall
openings.
For buildings supported by continuous exterior unre-
inforced masonry, control joints should be placed at
intervals not exceeding 200 ft (61 m). In addition, inter-
mediate-movement joints (control joints) should be posi-
tioned and spaced in accordance with the recommenda-
tions of the Brick Institute of America and the National
Concrete Masonry Association..
L-7
L-J
F-J-l
1.u
l--k
(1) (U) (L)
Mortar or concrete fill
Fig. 66. Vertical control joints in masonry walls.
Horizontal Control Joints
Horizontal control joints (Fig. 67) are especially impor-
tant in high-rise buildings. Their absence can cause prob-
lems in buildings with reinforced concrete frames and
exterior clay-brick wythes supported on shelf angles at
spandrel levels. The combined effect of drying shrinkage
and plastic flow in the structural frame will reduce the
floor-to-floor height. Any expansion of the clay-brick-
facing wythe will add to the problem. In the absence of a
horizontal control joint between the bottom of the shelf
angle and the top course of the masonry panel below it,
cracking or breaking can occur. Examples of this con-
struction are shown in American Concrete Institute’s
Commentary on Building Code Requirements for Con-
crete Masonry Structures (AC1 531-79).
r Continuous wire
joint reinforcement
Flashing
no mortar o n Shelf angle
Compressible
material I toJ in.
(6 to !Om’~). 080 not
fill space with mortar
Joint reinforcement
Fig. 67. Horizontal control joints in masonry walls.
BOND BEAMS AND HORIZONTAL
JOINT REINFORCEMENT
Bond beams are horizontal structural elements that bind
the components of a wall into a structural unit with extra
strength and stiffness. They are constructed of special
units filled with concrete or grout and reinforced with
embedded deformed steel. The bond beam offers resist-
ance to horizontal movement for 24 in. (600 mm) above
and below its location in the wall. For this reason they
usually are located 4 ft (1.2 m) apart to offer theentire wall
height crack control. They also arelocated above or below
openings and in other vulnerable positions.
Horizontaljoint reinforcement was developed primar-
ily for crack control due to drying shrinkage and temper-
ature change and for this purpose it functions much the
51
same as a bond beam. It usually is a prefabricated (weld-
ed) arrangement of two or more longitudinal and cross
wires that is embedded in horizontal mortar joints at a
minimum vertical distance of 8 in. (200 mm) and a maxi-
mum of 24 in. (600 mm) apart, depending on wall height
and the spacing of any control joints.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STANDARDS
FOR COMPOSITE MASONRY WALLS
Until recently, loadbearing masonry walls were designed
to conform to American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) A41.1 and A41.2. The procedures in these two
standards are based on a combination of experience and
observation of the performance of masonry buildings.
Building Code Requirements for Masonry (ANSI
A41.1) covers requirements for the design and construc-
tion of nonreinforced masonry in buildings. The stand-
ard covers design of masonry of various materials and is
based essentially on minimum wall thicknesses for bear-
ing walls and height-to-thickness ratios that must be
strictly adhered to.
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Masonry
(ANSI A41.2) provides requirements for the design and
construction of reinforced masonry in buildings. It in-
cludes various masonry materials and provides a more
engineered approach to the design.
RATIONAL DESIGN PROCEDURES
The Brick Institute of America in the 1960’s developed
a rational standard for the design of brick masonry. The
current version of this standard, Building Code Require-
ments for Engineered Brick Masonry, was published in
1969.
52
In 1968, the National Concrete Masonry Association
published its Specifications for the Design and Construc-
tion of Loadbearing Concrete Masonry. This standard
applies only to concrete masonry. Rather than the arbi-
trary limits on maximum wall heights of the ANSI stand-
ards, in these rational procedures wall thicknesses are
determined by analysis. Lateral loads can be determined
and shearwalls provided in the building.
These two rational design procedures provide meth-
ods for solid brick masonry walls and for solid or hollow
concrete masonry walls, but not for the two acting in
combination in a composite masonry wall. Therefore,
until recently there was no accepted national standard
for the rational design of composite brick and block walls.
In 1979, American Concrete Institute (ACI) Commit-
tee 53 1 on Concrete Masonry Structures published Build-
ing Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures
(AC1 53 l-79), which provides minimum requirements for
the engineered design of concrete masonry and composite
(brick and block) masonry elements of structures.
The American Society of Civil Engineers and Ameri-
can Concrete Institute 530 Joint Committee on Masonry
is currently in the process of developing a design stand-
ard for masonry that will cover both empirical and ra-
tional methods for the design of all masonry products,
including composite masonry.
CHAPTER 11.
Cracking in Partitions
A partition normally is assumed to be uniformly sup-
ported by a structural floor. This holds true when the
partition is first built; it does not continue true if the floor
subsequently deflects, unless the partition is able to ad-
just itself to the new floor shape. Wall supports after floor
has deflected
If the partition is of rigid construction such as concrete
masonry or portland cement plaster, as the floor deflects
the points of support for the partition will shift to the
ends and the partition must span them as an arch or a (a) (b)
simple beam, see Fig. 68(u). When arch action occurs, the
area below the arch may detach itself, causing horizontal
cracking in the partition. The cumulative width of the When upper floor deflects more
cracks will equal the amount of the floor deflection, Fig. than lower floor, increased load
68(b). is placed on partition
If beam action rather than arch action occurs or if the
upper floor deflects more than the lower, then vertical
cracking is likely at the bottom of the partition, as in Fig. Upper floorJcL- !Ez!!-
68(c). Reverse conditions apply if the effect of prestress- original
ing causes upward movement in the floor slab. ~y-pF!;;gK
position
Such unsightly cracking and damage can be prevented
in one of two ways: the amount of floor deflection can be Rigid partition
limited to an amount the partitioning system can accept;
or a more flexible partitioning system can be selected that
will accommodate itself to the floor deflection.
Where a rigid partition is used, it can be designed with
suitable reinforcement to span the ends after the floor has Lower floor
deflected. The partitions should be built as late as pos- original deflected
sible. Gaps can be left during construction and filled in posit ion position
later after most of the dead load deflection has taken
place. Alternatively, control joints can be incorporated Fig. 66. Effects of floor deflections on rigid partitions.
in the wall.

53
CHAPTER 12.
Earthquake Movements
The general philosophy of earthquake design for build-
ings is well established and seeks to (1) prevent nonstruc-
tural damage in minor earthquakes, which may frequent-
ly occur in the service life of a building; (2) prevent struc-
tural damage and minimize nonstructural damage in
moderate earthquakes, which may occasionally occur;
and (3) avoid collapse or serious damage in major earth-
quakes, which may rarely occur.
Under current design practice the elements of a struc-
ture located in a seismic zone are proportioned to resist
internal forces resulting from a static analysis of the
structure under the code-specified forces. This procedure
does not permit determination of the magnitude and
location of inelastic deformations in the individual struc-
tural members. Thus, although inelasticity may actually
occur only in certain levels and locations, inelastic de-
formability must be provided for throughout the entire
structure.
The inability of this empirical code approach to give a
fairly precise determination as to how much deformabil-
ity to provide for and where can be overcome by taking
advantage of recent advances that permit dynamic inelas-
tic (response history) analyses of structures to be carried
out at reasonable cost.
An economical and structurally efficient earthquake-
resistant design can be achieved by using carefully select-
ed earthquake accelerograms as loading and dynamic,
inelastic response-history analysis to determine member
forces and deformations.* The design approach makes it
possible to (1) predetermine the sequence in which inelas-
ticity spreads to various designated structural members,
(2) provide ductility details only where required, and (3)
balance the strength and deformability requirements of
individual members. Efficiency, economy, and desired
structural performance are achieved as a result.

*See Seismic Resistance of a 16-Story Coupled- Wall Structure: A

Case Study Using Inelastic Dynamic Analysis, Portland Cement Asso-
ciation publication EBOSZD, 1980.

54
CHAPTER 13.
Precast and Prestressed Structures
This publication has dealt with movements and control
of cracking in cast-in-place concrete walls, structural
frames, and slabs on ground. Current requirements and
design procedures for crack control in precast and pre-
stressed (post-tensioned) structures are available in tech-
nical publications issued by other authorities.
PRECAST ARCHITECTURAL
CONCRETE ELEMENTS
The effect of volume changes within precast elements and
the support system is one of the main factors to be con-
sidered in the design of connections to transfer loads.

Controlling Elastic Shortening from Post-Tensioning Forces

(Slabs or Beams)
Vertical reinforcement
Phase I. Before Post-Tensioning
Vertical steel in wall or column is encased in about
6 in. (300 mm) of foam plastic just below the post-
tensioning slab, which is supported by forms and
shoring. (The distribution of the load caused by
camber of the slabs during the tensioning operation -Shoring
can place very high loads on the shoring.)
Phase II. After Post-Tensioning
Tensioning of tendons produces shortening of the Concrete wall or column
slab and causes vertical bars to bend rather than
produce cracks in wall or column. Upon comple-
tion of tensioning, the foam plastic is removed and I Displacement is
that space is filled with dry-pack mortar orconcrete. purposely exaggerated
“-(
I 1 )
After the dry-pack has hardened, the supporting
forms or shores may be removed. There may still be .I__~_-_---------___L
some residual movement in the post-tensioned ele- I I
ment due to incremental shrinkage and creep, but
allowances for the movement have been provided
Dry pack before removal
through bending of the vertical steel. of shoring
I I
I
1 1
I I

55
Information sufficient to permit the safe design of archi-
tectural precast concrete in accordance with commonly
accepted industry practice is contained in PCI Manual
for Structural Design of Architectural Precast Concrete
and Architectural Precast Concrete, Prestressed Con-
crete Institute, Chicago, Illinois.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete structures must

be designed for the following volumechange movements:
1. Elastic shortening resulting from the post-tension-
ing forces (see box)
2. Creep shortening resulting from the post-tension-
ing forces
3. Shortening resulting from shrinkage of the concrete
4. Thermal shortening resulting from winter weather
and possibly thermal expansion from summer heat
Precast concrete structures with prestressed members
in the direction of movement must be designed for move-
ments 2, 3, and 4.
Precast concrete structures with conventionally rein-
forced members in the direction of movement must be
designed for movements 3 and 4.
When designing for forces resulting from volume-
change movements in precast, pretensioned elements,
refer to PCI Design Handbook, 2nd edition, published
by the Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, Illinois.
When dealing with volume changes in post-tensioned,
cast-in-place concrete construction, refer to Post- Ten-
sioning Manual, published by the Post-Tensioning Insti-
tute, Phoenix, Arizona.

56

CHAPTER 14.
Conclusion
The following is excerpted from J. W. de Courcy’s paper
“Movement in Concrete Structures,” in Concrete, Lon-
don, June 1969. De Courcy identified 16 significant fac-
tors that should be considered in the design and construc-
tion phases for the control of movements in concrete
structures:
SITE CONDITIONS AND
ARRANGEMENT OF JOINTS
1. Design temperature
Know or estimate the range of air temperature to be ex-
pected at the site to be used in design for control of
thermal stresses. The designer must estimate where the
temperature of concrete as placed fits into the overall
range. It is helpful to have some idea of the duration
periods for the lowest and highest temperatures. The
probable variation of the actual temperature of the struc-
ture may be greater or less than air temperatures. Tem-
perature of the concrete may not be constant throughout
a structural member, or assembly of members. This is sig-
nificant to warping and curling of slabs. Temperature
differences that may be destructive can occur through dif-
ferences in the mass of various parts of the structure. For
example, projecting edges of exterior roofs and balconies
are exposed to temperature variations different from the
main interior supporting structure.
2. Spacing of joints as a function of anticipated
longitudinal expansion and contraction
Set the maximum distances to be allowed between joints
of various kinds: expansion joints in walls of long build-
ings and retaining walls, and control and construction
joints. Structures not designed to withstand stresses aris-
ing from expansion and contraction should be designed
-1
1% allow
to in. perfor
100some
A (30 mm pertotal
arbitrary 30 m). For ordinary
thermal movement,struc-
say
tures usually no calculations of stress or provision for
movement need be carried out for this purpose. Liquid
retaining structures need special attention.
Expansion of buildings intended for manufacture of
combustible materials or articles, or containing rooms
or storerooms where there is danger of an explosion
should include joints that permit movement but not the
penetration of fire either directly or by overheating.
3. Positioning of joints as a function
of the building’s shape
Stress concentrations that can accompany changes in
section, bulk, exposure, method of construction, or that
can be associated with settlement must be taken into ac-
count when positioning joints.
Where large changes in plan dimensions take place
abruptly is a logical place to provide expansion joints.
Steps should also be taken to counteract and minimize
the movement that occurs at the junction of the roof slab
with the wall structure. The location of expansion joints
in controlling cracking in a building will depend upon the
reason for their exact location. This frequently is a mat-
ter of experience and can be characterized as the place
where cracks most probably would occur. In general,
expansion or movement joints should pass through the
whole building in one plane. This is highly desirable, but
by no means always possible.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
4. Initial shrinkage
Initial shrinkage in normal portland cement concrete
must be accepted as inevitable if expansive cement is dis-
57
counted and if a 100% moist environment is not usual for
most concrete in service. Such shrinkage will almost cer-
tainly lead to cracking of the concrete depending on the
type, quantity, and disposition of any reinforcement
used, and whether proper jointing practices have been
designed to control it.
In statically indeterminate structures the effects of
shrinkage on the statically indeterminate magnitudes can
be taken into account by assuming a shrinkage amount.
5. Coefficients of thermal expansion
While there is much unanimity about the figure for ther-
mal expansion mentioned in item 2, it should be borne in
mind that concretes made with various aggregates can in
fact have coefficients of thermal expansion ranging from
about 4.0 X 10m6 per degree Fahrenheit (0.72 X 10-‘/°C)
to about 7.1 X 10m6 per degree Fahrenheit (1.26 X 10m5/
“C). The use of a single recommended value may be im-
prudent if the actual value can range as muchasindicated.
This also points up the fact that the coefficients for the
concrete can vary considerably from any reinforcement
contained in it.
6. Creep and modulus of elasticity
The effects of creep in controlling structural movement
are the relief of tensile stresses that occur in concrete due
to drying shrinkage or temperature change and the in-
crease in deflection due to sustained loading. An over-
precise examination of creep seems unwarranted because
of the imprecise manner in which actual loading is im-
posed except in structures of great height, long span, or
large deadweight, and in prestressed members generally.
An appreciation of the magnitude of the creep effect
should be borne in mind when considering control of
movements in concrete structures.
The significance of the modulus of elasticity in concrete
design is reduced by the fact that it varies with the age of
the concrete and the magnitude of the imposed load. At
working loads, however, the modulus can be used to esti-
mate deflection due to short-term loading and elastic
deformation due to prestressing. The modulus of elas-
ticity is also useful to forecast the total strain due to long-
term or sustained loading, and it is for this reason that it
is considered here in conjunction with creep.
7. Tensile strength of concrete
The tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural
calculations of reinforced structural concrete except for
estimating the resistance of prestressed concrete to crack-
ing. Values for extreme fiber stress are given in standard
documents, for example, Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete, AC1 318-77.
The tensile strength of concrete is of paramount impor-
tance in the design and construction of concrete slabs on
the ground (floors and pavements). In Concrete Floors
58
on Ground, Portland Cement Association publication
EB075D, a minimum compressive strength,f:, equal to
4000 lb per square inch (28 MPa) at 28 days is advisable
for any type of commercial and industrial floor, with the
average flexural strength not less than 600 lb per square
inch (4 MPa) at 28 days. The term “flexural strength” is
synonymous with “modulus of rupture” of the concrete.
MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL
CONSIDERATIONS
6. Crack widths
Recognition that cracking will occur in reinforced con-
crete structures, coupled with the desire to prevent crack-
ing where it will mar the appearance of the structure or
where it will lead to corrosion of the reinforcement, leads
to establishing maximum widths of cracks. It should be
noted that crack widths normally relate to cracking in
bending or in tension with the direction of the cracks
normal to the direction of the reinforcement. Suggested
limiting values for crack widths selected from the Euro-
pean Concrete Committee, Recommendations for Inter-
national Code of Practice for Reinforced Concrete are-
For internal structural parts in a normal atmosphere:
0.012 in. (0.3 mm)
For internal structural parts in a humid or aggressive
atmosphere and external parts exposed to weather:
0.008 in. (0.2 mm)
For internal or external structural parts exposed to a
particularly aggressive medium or where watertight-
ness is needed: 0.004 in. (0. I mm)
9. Conduits and pipes embedded in concrete
The problem of temperature stresses arising from the
passage of hot liquids, gas, or vapor through pipes em-
bedded in structural concrete is addressed in ACI 3 18-77,
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete,
Section 6.3. Dealing specifically with the problem move-
ments of heated floors and pavements, British practice
(CP204) states: “It is not necessary to provide more ex-
pansion joints in a heated floor than in one that is un-
heated.” The British practice cautions that where heating
elements cross an expansion joint, care should be taken
to see that
l The pipes are wrapped and coated with bitumen (to
prevent bond) for several inches on both sides of the
joint
l Electric cables embedded in the concrete are looped
in a layer of sand and wrapped for several inches on
both sides of the joint
10. Joint assemblies and jointing materials
Information on the detailing of joints, mainly in bridges,
pavements, and liquid-retaining structures, is contained
in many standard publications. By nature of the volume
of printed material, any useful extracts would be too
lengthy to include here. For information on joint seal-
ants, expansion joint fillers, waterstops, types and forms
of joints, load transfer devices, metallic parts for joints,
installation of preassembled joints, metal and elastomeric
bearings, fixed joints, and bearings consult the manu-
facturer’s literature and the appropriate standards and
specifications.
11. Bearing lengths and friction at bearings
In addition to the detailed information available from the
sources mentioned, some reference should be made to
design problems arising at bearings and supports.
The following extract from AC1 3 18-63 refers specifi-
cally to prestressed concrete, but it is broadly applicable
to normal reinforced concrete also.
A. Design and detailing of the joints and bearings shall
be based on the forces to be transmitted and on the
effects of dimensional changes due to shrinkage,
elastic deformation, creep, and temperature. Joints
shall be detailed so as to allow sufficient tolerances
for manufacture and erection of the members.
B. Bearings shall be detailed to provide for stress con-
centrations, rotations,and the possibledevelopment
of horizontal forces by friction or other restraints.
The question of friction can be answered by providing
forthelongitudinalforceduetofrictionatexpansivebear-
ings in the design. Bearing pads are available in various
grades; for proper selection consult the technical bro-
chures available from most pad manufacturers. The static
coefficients of friction for different materials are given in
the table below extracted from PC/Design Handbook of
the Prestressed Concrete Institute.
Static Coefficients of Friction
of Dry Materials
Elastomeric to steel or concrete 0.7
Laminated cotton duck fabric to concrete 0.6
Concrete to concrete 0.8
Concrete to steel 0.4
Steel to steel (not rusted) 0.25
TFE to TFE (tetrafluoroethylene) 0.05*
Hardboard to concrete 0.5
Multipolymer plastic (nonskid) toconcrete 1.2**
Multipolymer plastic (smooth) toconcrete 0.4**
*Repeated movement may increase s by exposmg the
reinforcing fibers in reinforced TFE.
**Courtesy Koro Corp.
12. Further aspects of extreme temperature
Temperature conditions outside the range in the general
recommendations can arise in various ways. Structures
that will be in contact with liquids or gases at high temper-
ature need special design care. Factorychimneysand res-
ervoirs for hot liquids are examples where allowances
must be made for the additional stresses provided by tem-
perature differences between the concrete surfaces. The
effect of sustained high temperatures on the compressive
strength of concrete also should be kept in mind.
13. Insulation
The use of insulation properly placed in the building can
play a large part in minimizing the amount of movement
in concrete members due to temperature variations. The
heating effects of direct sunshine on roofs, walls,and slabs
can be reduced by shading them or by light color reflective
treatments.
14. Vibration, including seismic effects
The installation of industrial machinery and air condi-
tioning equipment within a building may cause vibrations
sufficient to warrant the use of expansionjoints. The prox-
imity to heavy rail or highway traffic can also cause un-
pleasant vibration in a building from the disturbance
transmitted through the ground and foundations.
Earthquake forces usually do not require any jointing
in a building other than that provided to accommodate
other characteristics of the structure. Detailed recommen-
dations for the handling of seismic forces are contained in
the model building codes and other documents.
15. Design of liquid-retaining structures
Formal recommendations for the design of liquid-retain-
ing structures are contained in the American Concrete In-
stitute’s Concrete Sanitary Engineering Structures (AC1
35OR-77). This document contains references to joint de-
sign and construction to control movement while prevent-
ing leakage.
16. Some points in construction
At the construction site, formwork is the principal matter
that will influence the movement of the structure. The
formwork must be designed and erected to compensate
for the following:
l Anticipated deflection or settlement of the formsand
their supports
l Anticipated deflection of the completed structure
under load from the instant it begins to carry its own
weight
l Optical sag (the illusion of sagging in a long member
that is perfectly flat)
Formwork should not hinder the shrinkage movement
of concrete. Cast-in-place slabs that will be post-tensioned
present no special problems with respect to camber if they
are designed properly. Load-balancing techniques can be
used to eliminate any problems with upward camber or
downward deflection.
The blind use of any recommendations without consid-
eration of the circumstances in a particular project would
be imprudent.
59
 References
1. The Reversible and Irreversible Drying Shrinkage of
Hardened Portland Cement and Tricalcium Silicate
Pastes by Helmuth and Turk, Research Department
Bulletin RX2 15, Portland Cement Association, 1967.
2. Thermal and Moisture Deformations in Building
Materials by M. C. Baker, CBD 56, Division of Build-
ing Research, National Research Council of Canada,
1964.
3. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Twelfth
Edition, EBOOlT, Portland Cement Association,
1979.
4. “Influence of Aggregate Restraint on the Shrinkage
of Concrete” by Hobbs, Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, September 1974. (Also see Refer-
ence 12.)
5. “Prediction of Drying Shrinkage” by Hobbs and Par-
rott, Concrete, Cement and Concrete Association,
London, February 1979, page 19.
6. “Causes and Control of Cracking in Unreinforced
Mass Concrete” by Carlson, Houghton, and Polivka,
Journal of the American Concrete Institute, July
1979.
7. Creep and Drying Shrinkage of Lightweight and Nor-
mal- Weight Concretes by Reichard. National Bureau
of Standards Monograph 74, 1964.
8. Concrete Manual, Eighth Edition, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation,l975.
9. Properties of Concrete by Neville, Pitman Publishing
Co., New York, 1963.
10. Influence of Size and Shape of Member on the Shrink-
age and Creep of Concrete by Hansen and Mattock,
Bulletin DX103, Portland Cement Association, 1966.
11. “Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures,” Con-
crete International, American Concrete Institute,
Committee 224, October 1980.
12. Discussion of Reference 4 by Campbell-Allen in Con-
crete International, American Concrete Institute,
May 1981, page 101.
13. “Influence of Specimen Geometry upon Weight
Change and Shrinkage of Air-Dried Concrete Speci-
mens” by Hobbs, Magazine of Concrete Research,
Vol. 29, No. 99, June 1977, and Vol. 30, No. 103, June
1978.
14. Shrinkage Characteristics of Concrete Masonry
Walls, Paper No. 34, U.S. Housingand Home Finance
Agency, Washington, D.C., April 1954. Also Journal
of the American Concrete Institute, November 1953.
15. Rate of Loss in Humidity in a Newly Constructed
Masonry Wall, Technical Services Abstract 17, Port-
land Cement Association, 1968.
16. Dilatometer Method for Determination of Thermal
Coefficient of Expansion of Fine and Coarse Aggre-
gate by Verbeck and Hass, Research Department
Bulletin RX037, Portland Cement Association, 195 1.
/ 60
17. ‘Thermal Expansion of Aggregates and Concrete
Durability” by Callan, Journal of the American Con-
crete Institute, February 1952. Discussion is in Part 2,
December 1952.
18. “Petrography of Concrete Aggregate” by Rhoades
and Mielenz, Journalof the American Concrete Insti-
tute, June 1946.
19. “Thermal Properties of Concrete Under Sustained
Elevated Temperatures” by Zoldners, Temperature
and Concrete, American Concrete Institute Publica-
tion SP25, 1968.
20. Thermal Expansion of Certain Illinois Limestones by
Harvey, Industrial Minerals Notes No. 24, Illinois
State Geological Survey, 1966.
2 1. ‘Thermal Properties [of Aggregates]” by Cook, Sig-
ntjicance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
Concrete-Making Materials, STP169B, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1978.
22. The Physical Structure and Engineering Properties
of Concrete by Powers, Research Department Bulle-
tin RXO90, Portland Cement Association, 1958.
23. “The Modulus of Concrete and the Coefficient of Ex-
pansion of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete at
Below Normal Temperatures’* by Berwanger, Tem-
perature and Concrete, American Concrete Institute
Publication SP25, 1968.
24. Concrete for Massive Structures, IS 128T, Portland
Cement Association, 1979.
25. “Mass Concrete for Dams and Other Massive Struc-
tures,” AC1 Committee 207, Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, April 1970.
26. “Large Pours for Reinforced Concrete Structures”
by Fitzgibbon, Current Practice Sheets No. 28, 35,
and 36, Concrete, Cement and Concrete Association,
England, March and December 1976 and February
1977.
27. “Large Pours” by Bamforth, Letter to the Editor,
Concrete, Cement and Concrete Association, Eng-
land, February 198 1.
28. “Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Reinforce-
ment on Cracking of Massive Concrete,” Report of
AC1 Committee 207, Journal of the American Con-
crete Institute, July 1973.
29. “Plant Drying and Carbonation of Concrete Block-
NCMA-PCA Cooperative Program” by Toennies
and Shideler, Journal of the American Concrete In-
stitute, May 1963 (also Portland Cement Association
DX064).
30. Durability of Concrete Construction by Woods, AC1
Monograph 4, American Concrete Institute, 1968.
3 1. “Strength, Elastic and Creep Properties of Concrete
Masonry” by Ameny, Loov, and Jessop, The Inter-
national Journal of Masonry Construction, March
1980.
32. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con-
crete ACI318-77, American Concrete Institute, 1977.
33. Commentary on Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-77), American Con-
crete Institute, 1977.
34. Notes on ACI 318-77 Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete with Design Applications,
EBO70D, Portland Cement Association, 198 1.
35. Elastic Properties of Concrete at High Temperatures
by Cruz, Portland Cement Association Research De-
partment Bulletin RXl91, 1966.
36. Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates by
Moody, Engineering Monograph No. 27, U.S. Bu-
reau of Reclamation, Denver, 1960 (also revised edi-
tion, 1963).
37. Advanced Topics in Inelasticity and Failure of Con-
crete by Bazant, Swedish Cement and Concrete Re-
search Institute, Stockholm, 1977.
38. Xme-Dependent Behavior of Columns in Water
Tower Place by Russell and Corley, RDO52B, Port-
land Cement Association, 1977.
39. “Time-Dependent Forces Induced by Settlement of
Supports in Continuous Reinforced Concrete Beams”
by Ghali, Dilger, and Neville, Journal of the Ameri-
can Concrete Institute, November 1969.
40. “Design Considerations for Concrete Pavement Re-
inforcement for Crack Control” by AC1 Committee
325, Journal of the American Concrete Institute,
October 1956, page 337.
41. “Techniques for the Survey and Evaluation of Live
Floor Loads and Fire Loads in Modern office Build-
ings,” NBS Building Science Series 16, National Bu-
reau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
1968.
42. “Design Live Loads in Buildings’* by Dunham, Trans-
actions of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
1947.
43. “Deflections of High-Rise Concrete Buildings” by
Fintel, Journal of the American Concrete Institute,
July 1975.
44. Uniform Building Code, Section 2312(h), 1977; or
Blue Book, Section l(H), of the Structural Engineers
Association of California.
45. Analysis and Design of Small Reinforced Concrete
Buildingsfor Earthquake Forces by Derecho, Schultz,
and Fintel, EBOO4D. Portland Cement Association,
1978.
46. Building Code Requirements for Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American
National Standards Institute A58.1, 1982.
47. The Supplement to the National Building Code of
Canada, National Research Council of Canada No.
17724, 1980.
48. Vibrations of Concrete Structures, American Con-
crete Institute Publication SP-60, 1979.
49. “Human Perception of Transient Vibrations” by Wiss
and Parmelee, Journal of the Structural Division,
American Society of Civil Engineers, April 1974.
50. “Vibration Criteria for Long-Span Concrete Floors”
by Allen, Ranier, and Per&a, Vibrations of Concrete
Structures, American Concrete Institute Publication
SP-60, 1979.
5 1. “Trees and Buildings*‘by Legget and Crawford, Cana-
dian Building Digest 62, National Research Council
of Canada, February 1965.
52. “Some Secrets to Building Structures on Expansive
Soils” by Kantey, Civil Engineering, American Soci-
ety of Civil Engineers, December 1980, page 53.
53. Frost-Heave Upltft Forces on Foundations by Pen-
ner, Research Paper No. 635, Division of Building
Research, National Research Council of Canada,
1974.
54. Column Shortening in Tall Structures- Prediction
and Compensation by Fintel, Iyengar, and Ghosh,
EBl08D, Portland Cement Association, 1983.
55. Thermal Movements in the Upper Floor of a Multi-
Story Car Park by Williams and Clements, Technical
Report 539, Cement and Concrete Association, Eng-
land, October 1980.
56. “Facades: Errors Can Be Expensive,” Engineering
News- Record, January 24, 1980.
57. “Time-Dependent Deformations of Vertical Members
in High-Rise Concrete Buildings’* by Russell and
Corley, to be published by Portland Cement Associa-
tion.
58. Expansion Joints in Buildings, Technical Report No.
65, National Academy of Sciences-National Re-
search Council, Washington, D.C., 1974.
59. Composite Masonry: Research Needs by Wintz and
Yorkdale, American Society of Civil Engineers No.
ST6, June 1982.
ADDITIONAL READING
“Cracks, Movements, and Joints in Buildings,” NRCC
15477, Proceedings No. 2, Division of Building Research,
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1976.
Reinforced Concrete Slabs by Park and Gamble, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980, pages 466496.
Handbook of Concrete Engineering, Fintel, editor, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1974.
Proceedings of Symposium on Design for Movement in
Buildings, The Concrete Society, London, 1969.
Strength and Time-Dependent Deformations of Rein-
forced Concrete Masonry, TEK 84, National Concrete
Masonry Association, Herndon, Va., 1977.
‘Volume Changes and Plastic Flow of Concrete” by
Davis and Kelly, ASTM Report on Significance of Tests
of Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1943, page 54.
Differential Movement, Expansion Joints, Technical
Notes on Brick Construction 18A, Brick Institute of
America, McLean, Va., 1963.
Control of Wall Movements with Concrete Masonry,
TEK 3, 1972; and Design of Concrete Masonryfor Crack
Control, TEK 53, 1973, National Concrete Masonry
Association, Herndon, Va.
“Analytical Studies of the Effects of Movements on Steel
and Concrete Bridges” by Ganga Rav and Halverson,
Public Roads, December 1980, pages 103-I 15.
61
 The Language of
Movements, Strains,
and Volume Changes
Autogenous - Change in volume produced by con-
volume change tinued hydration of cement exclusive
of effects of external forces or change
of water content or temperature.
Camber -A slight upward curvature intention-
ally built into a structural element or
form to improve appearance by off-
setting the deflection of the element.
Contraction -A decrease of volume occurring as
the result of any or all processes af-
fecting the bulk volume.
Creep - Gradual time-dependent deforma-
tion due to sustained load. See also
plastic flow.
Curling - Distortion of an essentially straight
or flat member into a curved, warped,
or dished shape due to creep or to in-
ternal differences in temperature or
moisture content.
Deflection - Movement from the original position
of a structural element because of
bending or shear deformation caused
by its weight, applied loads, and tem-
Deformation
perature or moisture changes.
-A change in dimension or shape of a
member due to stress, drying shrink-
age, and temperature changes.
Elasticity - That capability of a material to recov-
er its original size and shape after
deformation.
Expansion
-An increase in volume occurring as
the result of any or all processes af-
fecting the bulk volume.
Faulting - Differential vertical displacement of
a slab or other member adjacent to a
joint or crack.
Flow - Timedependent irrecoverable defor-
mation.
Initial drying -The difference between the ascast
shrinkage length of a specimen and its length
when first dried.
Permanent set -Residual deformation after the re-
moval of all loads (aside from creep
effects).
Plastic - Deformation beyond the elastic limit.
deformation
Plastic flow
-Gradual time-dependent deforma-
tion due to sustained load. See creep.
Restraint
- Restriction of free movement ofhard-
ened concrete; restraint can be inter-
nal or external and may act in one or
more directions.
62
Setting
shrinkage
-A reduction in volume of concrete
prior to the final set ofcement,caused
by settling of the solids and by the de-
crease in volume due to the chemical
combination of water with cement
when an external source of curing
water is not present.
Shrinkage - Volume decrease caused by drying or
chemical changes; a function of time
but not of temperature nor of stress
due to external load.
Strain -Deformation of a material resulting
from external loading.
Swelling -Volume increase caused by wetting
or chemical changes, or both; a func-
tion of time but not of temperature
nor of stress due to external load.
Time-dependent -The deformation of concrete occur-
deformation ring with appreciable time (as days,
weeks, or months); includescreepand
characteristics affected by age and
strength changes such as elasticity,
drying, shrinkage, and temperature
effects.
Volume change -An increase or decrease in volume
(length, width, and thickness).
The Language
of Cracking
(There are many causes of cracking in concrete struc-
tures and their origin can only be determined by careful
investigation.)
Checking -Development of shallow cracks at
closely spaced but irregular intervals
on the surface of mortar or concrete.
See also crazing.
Crazing - Development of tine, random cracks
caused by shrinkage. See also check-
ing.
D-cracking -The progressive formation on a con-
crete surface of a series of fine cracks
at rather close intervals, often of ran-
dom patterns, but in slabs on grade
paralleling edges, joints, and cracks
and usually with a radius at slab cor-
ners. May be accompanied by depos-
its of calcium carbonate.
Delamination -A separation along a plane parallel to
a surface. In the case of a concrete
topping slab or wall panel, the split-
ting, cracking, or separation in a
plane roughly parallel to the surface.
Similar to spalling, scaling, or peeling
except that delamination affects large
areas and can often only be detected
by tapping.
 Pattern cracking - Fine openings on concrete surfaces
in a pattern, resulting from a decrease
in volume of the material near the sur-
face or increase in volume ofthe mate-
rial below the surface, or both.
Plastic cracking - Cracking that occurs in the surface of
fresh concrete soon after it is placed
and while it is still plastic.
Shrinkage -Cracking of a structure or member
cracking due to failure in tension caused by
external or internal restraints as re-
duction in moisture content develops
or as carbonation occurs, or both.
Temperature -Cracking due totensilefailure,caused
cracking by temperature drop in members sub-
jected to external restraints or tem-
perature differential in members sub-
jected to internal restraints.

Index
Adfreeze, 27 Coatings, 8 Deformation, 1, 15,23,25,29,62, Fig. 25
Adiabatic condition, 6, Fig. 8 Coefficient of drying shrinkage, 2,40,49 Delamination, 62
Admixtures, chemical, 3 Coefficient of expansion, 4,39,49,58 Design procedures (masonry), 52
Aggregate, 2, 3, 6, 7, Table 3 Cold joints, 43 Di;Thragm action (roof), 37, Fig. 52, Fig.
absorption, 3 Column shortening, 22,28,29
elastic modulus, 2, 3 Column stiffness, 29 Differential movement, 39,50
gradation, 3 Combined effects, 26,29 Dimensional changes, 1,39
grain texture, 4, Fig. 7, Composite walls (masonry), 49, 50, 52 Dissimilar metals, 8
shrinkage, 2, 3 Concrete masonry, 2, 11, 14,21,49, Fig. 5, Drying shrinkage, 2, 3, 16, 18,28,32,40,
size, 3 Fig. 24, Fig. 45 Fig. 4 (see shrinkage)
type, 2, Table 1 Construction joints, 43,45, Fig. 63
volume concentration, 2,3, Construction joints in structural concrete, Earthquake, 21, 23, 37,54, Fig. 38, Fig. 39,
Alkali-aggregate reactions,7 42,43 Fie. 40
Appearance of structure, 31, 33,41,43 Construction joints in walls, 43, Fig. 61 Elascc deformation, II,49
Autoclaving, 16 Construction loads, 21,23 Elastic strain, 10, 11, 14, Fig. 13, Fig. 22
Autogenous volume change, 2,62 Construction procedures, 26,28,59 Elasticity, 10, 58,62
Construction sequence, 28, Fig. 62 Elastomeric pads, 38
Bearing lengths, 59 Contraction, 18, 57, 62 (see expansion) Embedded items, 58
- .
Bending, 17 Control (contraction) joints,, 32, 33, 38, 43, Expansion (contraction), 6,39,57,62
Bond beams (masonry), 5 I 45, 51, Fig. 46, Fig. 48, Ftg. 63 coefficient of, 4, 5,6, 39, Fig. 7, Table 2,
Bond prevention (masonry), 50, Fig. 65 Corrosion, 8,32 Table 3, Table 4
Building code requirements (masonry), 52 Crack widths, 12,31, 58, Fig. 18 restrained, 8, 10, 18
Buoyancy, 28 Cracking, 1, 12, 19,20, Fig. 32 size effect. 40
Crazing, 62 Expansion (isolation) joints, 39,40,43,45,
Calcium chloride, 8, 32 Creep, 14, 16, 18,28,29,50, 58,62, Fig. 3, 5 1, Fig. 56, Fig. 63
Calking joints, 35 Fig. 23, (seeplusticj7ow) Expansiie soils,-i7
Camber, 12, 18,28,62 Curing, 3, 16, Fig. 26 Extra reinforcement, 34, Fig. 45, Fig. 49
Carbonation, 7 Curling, 6, 19,47,62, Fig. 6
Cathodic protection, 8 Curling formula, 5,47 Faulting, 62
Causes of cracking, 3 I Curtain walls, 28,49 Flexible anchorage (masonry), 50
Cement content, 3 Cutting reinforcement at control joints, 34 Flexural cracking, 32
Cement paste, 2,6 Floor expansion joints, 42, Fig. 58
Check list of controls, 57 Floors on ground, 45
Dead load, 2 1 Flow, 62 (see irrecoverable creep)
Chemical changes, movements, 1, 7 Definitions. 62
Clay masonry, 49 Forming control joints, 35, Fig. 50
Deflection,‘l2, 16, 18, 21, 22, 53, 62,
Closure strips, 38,42, Fig. 60 Fig. 17, Fig. 27

63
Index continued
Foundation movements, 26,28,40, Fig. 41,
Fig. 55
Friction, 19,22
Friction at bearings, 59
Frost heave, 27, Fig. 42
Galvanizing, 9
Glossary of words, 62
Ground water level, 26
Heat of hydration, 6
Horizontal construction joints, 43, Fig. 62
Hot-weather concreting, 4,3 1
Hygrothermal volume change, 6
Initial drying shrinkage, 57,62, Fig. I
Instantaneous deformation, Fig. 15, Fig. 25
Instantaneous recovery, 14, Fig. 22
Insulation, 6,59
Irrecoverable creep (flow), 14, Fig. 22
Irreversible shrinkage, 1, Fig. 1
Isolated footings, 38, Fig. 54
Isolation joints, 6,39,45, Fig. 63 (see
expansion)
Joint assemblies, 58
Joint reinforcement (masonry), 49,51
Jointing materials, 58
Lightweight concrete, 2,4, 11, 15
Liquid-retaining structures, 59
Live load, 21,22, Fig. 35,Fig. 36, Table 5
Locating construction joints, 43
Locating control joints, 33,45
Locating expansion joints, 39,40
Map-cracking, 7
Masonry, 2, 11, 14,49
Masonry design procedures, 49,52
Mass concrete, 6
Mining subsidence, 27
Mix proportions, 2,3
Modulus of elasticity, II, 58, Fig. 16
Moisture, 5, 39,49
Moisture changes, 1, 18,29, 3 9
Moisture gradient, 19
Mortar 6,2 I
Movements, I, 10, 16, 54, Fig. 45
Movement joints (masonry), 51
Movement of slabs on ground, 45
Nonferrous metals, 8
Nonshrink grouts, 9
Parking structure, 29
Partitions, 6, I2,2 1, 53, Fig. 68
Pattern cracking, 63 (see map-cracking)
Permanent set, 10,62, Fig. 13
Plastic cracking, 63
Plastic deformation, 10, Il,62, Fig. 13
Plastic flow, 14, 15, 50,62 (see creep)
Plastic settlement, 3 1
Plastic shrinkage, 4.3 1
Plastic shrinkage cracks, 4,3 1
Poisson’s ratio, 14, Fig. 19
Popouts, 7
Position for reinforcement in slab on
ground, 47
64
Post-tensioned concrete, 8,29, Fig. 43 Vertical construction joints, 44, Fig. 62
Pozzolans, 3 Vibrations, 23
Precast, 23, 55 Volume change, 10, 18,29,32,62
Prestressed concrete, 17,23,28, 55 Volume-to-surface ratio, 2, Fig. 3
Protective cover,32
Wall expansion joints, 41
References, 60 Walls, 12, 29, 33
Reinforcement, 6,8, 16, 19, 23,32, 34,40, Warping (see curling)
47, Fig. 64 Water-cement ratio, 6
Relaxation of stress, 16, 17, Fig. 28, Fig. 29, Water content, 2, 3, Fig. 2
Fig. 30 Weatherproofed joints, 41,44, Fig. 57
Reshoring, 28 Weight of concrete, 2 1
Responsibility for locating joints, 43 Width of cracks (see crack widths)
Restraint, 1,8, 18,32,62 Wind, 21,23,29, 37, Fig. 37
Roof expansion joint, 42, Fig. 59 Winter construction, 19
Sealing joints, 33, 35,42
Seismic (earthquake), vibration effects, 23,
59
Setting shrinkage, 62
Settlement, 26
Shelf angles, 5 1
Shrinkagecompensating cement, 8, Fig. 9
Shrinkage, 1,2,29,62, Fig. 3, Fig. 45
concrete masonry, 2
cracking, 63
irreversible, 1, Fig. 1
plastic, 4
rate (masonry), 6
reversible, 1, Fig. 1
size-related, 2,5
ultimate, 2
Site conditions, 26
Size and shape, 2,3
Slabs on ground, 19,45, Fig. 10, Fig. 34
Spacing control joints, 20
Steel columns, 33, Fig. 47
Strain, 1, IO,62
axial, 10, Fig. 13
creep (see creep)
definition, 62
elastic, 11, Fig. 45
flexural, 12
gradual, 17, Fig. 3 I
instantaneous, 16, 17, Fig. 3 1
maximum usable, 11
shear, 12, 14, Fig. 19, Fig. 31
time, 16, 17, Fig. 29, Fig. 31
Stress-strain, 10, Fig. 13, Fig. 14, Fig. 31
Structural considerations, 12,21
Subgrade drag formula, 19,47
Sulfate attack, 7
Temperature, 1,3,4,6,29,39, 57,63
Temperature changes, 1,4, 5,6, 18, 32.39,
Fig. 33
Temperature gradient, 4, 7, 19
Temperature reinforcement, 6, 32
Tensile strength, 58
Thermal expansion, 49
Thick walls, 35, Fig. 5 1
Tiltup-wall panels, 35, Fig. 52, Fig. 53
Timedependent deformation, 16,62
Trees, effect of, 26
True construction joint, 43