Annex Load

[Ref.2]

Further Info

A4- Objectives of Design & Design Process:

 Objectives:
• A structural engineer in the case of a building design individual
systems
• Four major criteria to be satisfied:
 Appropriateness (Justesse et convenance): spaces, spans, ceiling
heights, access, must complement the intended use.
Structure  environment and aesthetically pleasing.
 Economy: Cost of the structure and the client’s budget
 Structural adequacy: means of
1. Strong enough to support intended loads.
2. Avoid the deflection (limits) tilt, vibration and cracks 
impairs its usefulness.
 Maintainability: Minimize the maintenance frequency, if needed
and make the maintenance simple. 2

A4- Objectives of Design & Design Process:

 Design Process: Iterative decision-making process

• Client needs and Priorities: Functional, Aesthetic, and budgetary

requirements. (LCC, including initial cost, construction & operation
and maintenance)

• Development of project concept: feasibility study, modifications, and

preliminary verification of structure analysis.

• Design of individual systems: Layout done  Structure design

(Constructability, Aesthetics, coordination, and then execution
drawings)

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A5- Limit States And The Design Of Reinforced Concrete:
 Limit States: When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its
intended use, it is said to have reached a limit state. Three limits to be
considered: (Ultimate limit states ULS, Serviceability limit states SLS,
Special limit states)

• Strength (Ultimate) limit states: Structure Collapse control (Loss of

equilibrium, Rupture, Progressive collapse, Formation of a plastic
mechanism, Instability, Fatigue
• Serviceability limit states: Disruption of functions (Excessive
deflections, Excessive crack widths, Undesirable vibrations).
• Special limit states: abnormal conditions or abnormal loadings
(damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes, structural effects of fire,
explosions, or vehicular collisions, structural effects of corrosion or
deterioration, and long-term physical or chemical instability). 4

A5- Limit States and The Design of Reinforced Concrete:

 Limit-States Design: Limit-states design is a process that involves:
• Identification of all potential modes of failures (Materials)
• Acceptable level of Safety (load factors and combinations)
• Structural Design for the significant limit states. (Ultimate design,
check for serviceability)

 Basic Design Relationship: Analysis

of a Beam under the self-Weight and
applied loads P1, P2 and P3. Bending
is shown, and other internal forces
could be existed (Shear, Axial, Torsion)

A5- Limit States and The Design of Reinforced Concrete:

 Basic Design Relationship: cont’d
• Internal resisting moment (Moment
strength or resistance).
• Resistances  Load effects
• Security issues - To allow for the
possibility that the resistances will
be less than computed or the load
effects larger than computed,
strength-reduction factors, , less
than 1, and load factors, α, greater
than 1, are introduced:

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A5- Limit States and The Design of Reinforced Concrete:
 Basic Design Relationship: cont’d

Throughout the ACI Code, the symbol U is used to refer to the combination
(αD.D+αL.L+…)This combination is referred to as the factored loads. The
symbols Mu, Vu, Tu and so on, refer to factored-load effects calculated from the
factored loads.
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A6- Structural Safety, Probabilistic and Design procedures according to ACI 2014:
 Structural Safety: Three main Reasons:
• Variability in strength:
 variability of the strengths of concrete and
reinforcement,
 differences between the as-built dimensions
and those shown on the structural drawings,
and
 effects of simplifying assumptions made in
deriving the equations for member strength.
• Variability in Loading:
 Live load values considered into calculation
 50psf is considered for offices.

A6- Structural Safety, Probabilistic and Design procedures according to ACI 2014:
 Structural Safety: Cont’d
• Consequences of failure: Subjectivities factors to be considered.

 The potential loss of life.

 The cost to society in lost time, lost revenue, or indirect loss of life
or property due to a failure—for example, the failure of a bridge
may result in intangible costs due to traffic congestion that could
approach the replacement cost.
 The type of failure, warning of failure, and existence of alternative
load paths. Beams have warning period (lower load factor), while
columns fail immediately (higher load factor)
 The direct cost of clearing the debris and replacing the structure
and its contents.
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A6- Structural Safety, Probabilistic and Design procedures according to ACI 2014:
 Probabilistic Calculation:

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A6- Structural Safety, Probabilistic and Design procedures according to ACI 2014:
 Design Procedures ACI 2014:
•  considered as resistance factor or strength-reduction factor.
• Rn is the nominal resistance.
• Process called: Strength design
• For the steel design, AISC, the strength design  LRFD (Load and
Resistance Factor Design).
• Theses methods are considered as Methods of limit-states Design.
• ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states to be checked.
 Working-stress Design:
• Before ACI 2002, Appendix provided method for working stress design.
• ACI sect1.2  allows to use this method (as exception).
• Chapter 9 – ACI, serviceability  based on working loads / services
loads / un-factored loads.
• In flexure, the maximum elastically computed stresses cannot exceed 11
allowable stresses or working stresses of 0.4 to 0.5 times the concrete
and steel strengths.
Loads & Load factors & Standards

A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
Chapter II - Design Process /

 ACI 318-11 Sect 9.2.1 – 9.2.5:ACI318-14 – 5.3: Load factors and load Combinations

 Based on ASCE/SEI 7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures with slight modifications.
 Factors to be used with strength-reduction Factors Sect 9.3.1-9.3.5 21.2
 NB: Refer to ACI Code

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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 ACI 318-11 Sect 9.2.1 – 9.2.5:ACI318-14 – 5.3: Load factors and load Combinations

 Based on ASCE/SEI 7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures with slight modifications.
 Factors to be used with strength-reduction Factors Sect 9.3.1-9.3.5 21.2
 NB: Refer to ACI Code

Material Characteristics:

• Minimum Compressive Strength for

concrete at 28 days. f’c
• Minimum yield Strength of
deformed reinforcing steel/rebars. fy
• Minimum yield Strength of plain
reinforcing steel/rebars.
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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Terminology and Annotation:

 Load factors and Combinations: The load combinations in ACI Code

Section 9.2.1 are examples of companion action load combinations chosen
to represent realistic load combinations that might occur.
• Attention to the factor 1.0: the
load factor of 1.0 for the
earthquake loads corresponds
to a strength-level earthquake.
• Dead Loads that Stabilize
Overturning and Sliding
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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Example2.1:

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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Example2.1: cont’d

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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Strength-Reduction Factors, , ACI Sect 21.2.1:

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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Loading and Actions: refer to Structural Analysis GCV401
(An action is anything that gives rise to stresses in a structure)

• Permanent Loads: Dead Loads (SW) DL and Super-Imposed dead

Loads SIDL. (ASCE/SEI 7-10)
• Live loads – Tables and Functions. (ASCE/SEI 7-10)
• Accidental Loads (collusions and Explosion)
• Live Load reduction

• Difference between Tributary Area and Influence Area. Refer to P.31 & 18
P.32;
• Wind Loads, Construction Loads, Earthquake, Roof and Rain loads

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A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Economy:
• Cost and Financing of the project.
• Cast-in-place – floor cost covers 90% of the total building cost.
• The cost of a floor system is divided between the costs of building and
stripping the forms; providing, bending, and placing the reinforcement;
and providing, placing, and finishing the concrete. In general, material
costs increase as the column spacing increases and the cost of the forms
is the largest single item, accounting for 40 to 60 percent of the total
costs.
• How to control the formwork cost???
• Dimensions of structural elements – unified.
• Avoiding dropped beams.
• Slabs with different sections.
• Avoid using special materials (high-strength materials, Fiber reinforced 19
Concrete) and special formworks

A7- Load Factors & Load Combinations ACI, Actions, Economy, Sustainability:
 Sustainability:
• Sustainability and green buildings - durability and longevity –
Environment impact.
• Economic impact is one of the three primary components of 
sustainable construction
• Aesthetics and occupant comfort are major factors in evaluating the
sustainability of a building.
• Reducing the carbon footprint is a major concern for all new
construction
• IBC and other international codes incorporate the Sustainability.

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A8- Customary Dimensions, Tolerance and Calculation Accuracy:

 Customary Dimensions & Tolerance:
• Increment Values – 1inch and ½ inch
• ACI acceptable errors in formwork and dimensions: ½ in for columns
and beams; ¼ in for slabs and wall; other values are defined by ACI347
• Other parameters of tolerances for effective depth d, rebar length, etc…

 Inspection:
• Inspection of the works – Periodically and as needed
• Certification for Engineers or qualified Inspector
• Report of Inspection.

 Accuracy of Calculations:
• Most mistakes in structural design arise from three sources: errors in
writing down numbers, errors due to unit conversions, and failure to 21
understand fully the statics or behavior of the structure being analyzed
and designed