INTELLIGENT TECHNOLOGIES

IN VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT
 Engineering Centers

Founded in 1978, FEV has become an internationally
recognized leader in the design and development of
internal combustion engines and a supplier of ad-
vanced test and instrumentation systems. FEV has
consistently expanded its range of expertise into
powertrain, calibration, electronics / electrification,
vehicle NVH and chassis mechanics.
Today, more than half of the FEV’s 1,800 employees
are working on vehicle system projects. They are
primarily placed in FEV’s engineering centers located
in Aachen, Detroit, Dalian and Pune. In addition, FEV
also offers its engineering competency in the form of
resident engineers who are placed at client locations.
This brochure provides examples of FEV’s develop-
ment capabilities in vehicle-related systems, which in
Germany are concentrated in Alsdorf, near Aachen.
These capabilities are also provided by FEV’s other
engineering centers.

FEV Vehicle Application Center near Aachen, Germany

FEV has access to a new test track that is located

within a 10 minute driving distance of FEV’s Vehicle
Application Center. It includes a 3.0 km autobahn
loop and skidpad. Additional driving trials as well as
hill climbing test areas are also under development.

2 Test track near FEV Vehicle Application Center

 Vehicle Development

Modern vehicle development has to be quick,

efficient and reliable. FEV provides superior develop-
ment quality for any form of vehicle development FEV’s unique experience includes:
program.
 Benchmarking database of over 100
FEV’s engineering portfolio contains many aspects of vehicles
 Vehicle powertrain integration
performance and vehicle subsystems. Our portfolio
 Chassis, ride and handling
is also complimented in all vehicle body and struc-
 NVH, sound design
ture-related topics with the engineering expertise of
 Homologation
FEV’s preferred partner, EDAG.  Future vehicle concepts

 Full vehicle development with partner EDAG

 Derivative vehicle development

FEV Vehicle Development Portfolio

Active Chassis
Safety
Project
Durability Management
Testing

Package Ride & 
DMU Handling
FEV Scatter-bands Noise
Vibration

Electrics / 
Thermal
Electronics

Intake Homolo-
System gation

Heating / 
Air Conditioning

Exhaust
Energy
System
Management

Powertrain
Powertrain Calibration
Mounting
Driveline
Development
Engine
Development

Opel Meriva development in

cooperation between GM, EDAG, FEV 3
 Chassis

The chassis team consists of qualified engineers,

who have gained valuable experience working for
FEV, OEMs and Tier1 chassis / vehicle dynamics
teams. FEV’s chassis experts have proven their
competence to many satisfied customers.
The test facilities available consist of workshops
with divided areas (allowing confidentiality for each
customer), proving grounds with a vehicle dynamic
platform, as well as measurement equipment for all
of the relevant vehicle dynamic parameters,
FEV’s chassis engineering capabilities include:
 Chassis development from concept up to SOP
 Chassis tuning for optimized ride and handling
performance
 Benchmarking and target setting based on FEV’s
worldwide accepted scatter-bands
 Troubleshooting to obtain the best short-term
solution
 Development and calibration of active chassis

such as: devices, e.g. active damper and active steering

 CAE and testing support

 Steering wheel angle

 Steering wheel torque
 All 6 Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

for the complete vehicle Chassis Development Tasks

(position, speed and acceleration)
Concept Layout Design
 Brake pedal force and travel

 Additional equipment for measuring force, dis-

placement or acceleration regarding any desired

component or system of the vehicle

The following CAE tools are used to provide

strong simulation performance: Kinematics and Prototype
Compliance Workshop

 ADAMS/ADAMS Car, Motion View

 Nastran, Ansys
 Hypermesh, I-DEAS
® ®
 MATLAB   / Simulink 

 Design of Experiments (DoE)

 In-house coding for quick and easy set-up Vehicle Dynamics Tuning and
Evaluation Measurement

Validation Chassis Electronics

SOP Temp.-Sensor 2
Phone System

Navigation

Entertainment
MOST

Gateway
Diagnostics
Tester Communication

Release
Temp.-Sensor 1 Air Conditioning
LIN Body CAN
Sunroof CU Display Cluster

Door CUs Engine CU Powertrain CAN

Transmission

ABS / ESP

4
 Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH)

FEV can manage overall vehicle NVH development
programs. These programs are typically conducted in
close cooperation between OEM specialists, suppliers
and FEV. FEV provides all of the necessary testing
and CAE facilities, as well as 40 years of experience in
NVH development.
FEV’s project managers are skilled in coordinating
activities between the different working groups,
ensuring a streamlined development process.
FEV has successfully covered programs from small
motorcycles up to heavy-duty trucks.

Interior NVH Quality:

Sound Insulation
Squeak and Rattle
HVAC Noise
Electro-Servo Motor Noise
Audio and Entertainment Systems
...
NVH “fingerprint” Campbell diagram

Aero Acoustic:
Body Shape
Sealing
Windows
Side Mirror(s)
Chassis NVH: Wipers
Stiffness of Axles ...
and Subframes
Bushing Insulation
Tire Noise Powertrain-induced NVH:
Steering NVH Engine and Transmission
Brake NVH Driveline
... Body NVH: Powertrain Mount
Global Stiffness Intake and Exhaust System
Stiffness of Front-End Section ...
Impedances at Interface Points
Vibro-Acoustic Transfer Functions
Heavy Layer Distribution
...

FEV’s NVH engineering capabilities include:

 Interior and exterior noise development

 Full responsibility for vehicle NVH development

 System and component level target setting

 Development for the OEM, according to

specific processes and strategies

 NVH robustness for production

 Sound design

 CAE and testing support using FEV’s unique

in-house tools and methods MBS driveline model

5
 Automotive Software

Integrated Model-Based
Requirements Software Development and Calibration Process Acceptance Tests
for the Development of Control Units by
Feasibility Studies
System Simulation

System Design Integration

Detailed Simulations Vehicle

Calibration
Control Design Component

Model-in-the-Loop (MiL) Calibration on the Test Bench

Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL)
ECU Code
Software Design SiL/PiL Unit Testing
MiL Unit Testing Prototype or Base Calibration
Software-in-the-Loop (SiL)
Production Target Processor-in-the-Loop (PiL)

Coding

FEV is experienced in developing software functions,
from initial concept to production code, for engine
control, hybrid-electric powertrains, transmissions,
engine-generator sets and other systems.
FEV offers the design and implementation of standard
control concepts, as well as model-based methods
for advanced technologies, such as CAI, HCCI, Flex-
Fuel, turbocharged CNG, new hybrid and exhaust gas
aftertreatment concepts, and even fuel cell systems.
Specially designed human-machine interfaces, such
as the display in a hybrid vehicle, facilitate consumer
The models can be used as “executable specifica-
tions” and can be applied to simulations, control
design, verification and validation. This enables an
early understanding of the challenges and can provide
direct responses for each phase of development,
as well as help define appropriate testing.
Functional Development and Integration
 Model-based control concept and
software development
 Rapid control prototyping for demonstrators

acceptance and promote their identification with  Production vehicle software code

new products and technologies. Software quality  Diesel, gasoline, alternative fuels

is ensured by using standardized and managed  Automated transmissions

processes throughout the development process,
from requirement specifications to acceptance tests
for the vehicle. FEV software development is CMMI
Maturity Level 2 certified.
 Hybrid electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles
 Advanced technologies (HCCI, SCR, etc.)
®
 Simulink  / Stateflow / RTW /TargetLink, ASCET SE, C
 CMMI process model for software and

hardware development
6
Validation and Verification
Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL)

Based on experience from a number of

production vehicle projects, FEV is capa-
ble of generating relevant test cases for
validation and verification using Model-
in-the-Loop (MiL), Software-in-the-Loop
(SiL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL)
simulations.

FEV can complete functional, commu- FEV Model Library

nication, network, I/O- and regression

tests on HiL test benches or on-site. Our
extensive experience in simulation and
calculation with MATLAB ® / Simulink ®
can provide the detailed modeling of
control systems for internal combustion
engines, hybrid drives, all electric drives
or fuel cell systems.

Hardware-in-the-Loop Support

 Real time model development

 HiL-test bench setup
 Test plan generation
 Test execution and documentation
 Support of test automation
 Network testing
 Offline vehicle calibration

7
 Calibration
Passenger Cars
FEV’s diesel and gasoline calibration knowledge is FEV uses standards and tools (TOPexpert Vehicle
based on many years of calibration experience with Suite) for the calibration tasks, to ensure an effective,
a large number of OEMs and other clients. This broad robust, fast and cost-efficient calibration process.
base of project experience affords
FEV engineers the opportunity to
work with different project require-
ments and applications in a variety of
target markets. This experience con-
tributes to FEV’s capability to serve
as a proven development partner for
production calibration and turnkey
development solutions. Emission chassis Dynamometer
Cold climate test trip
Meeting customer requirements
for drivability, engine performance
and robustness, emissions and fuel
economy, among others, is a key to
ensuring customer satisfaction. In
addition to the calibration of control
strategies using modern standard
software architectures, FEV has also Hot /Altitude trip
developed advanced controller con-
cepts in conjunction with its partners.
FEV’s Passenger Car Calibration
 Turn key
 Global emissions and fuel consumption
requirements
 Drivability (highest customer expectations)
 Certification and post-launch support
 Function development
 Automated test bench and in-vehicle
 Tool supported calibration process
8
Design of Experiments (DoE)
methods and dynamic measurement
procedures are used to calibrate the
complete engine map.
Additionally, a global optimization of
specific map areas leads to a target
focused development on the following:
Climatic test cell
✓  Limiting emissions
✓  Fuel consumption
✓  Combustion noise
✓  Calibration stability
✓  Interactions between
different calibration
parameters
One of the main topics in the course of modern ve-
hicle development is achieving a robust calibration of
the exhaust gas aftertreatment system control maps.
Independent of whether the system is a catalyst, a
particle trap or NOx-reduction device, FEV’s experts
offer the expertise to provide optimal cost-effective
aftertreatment production calibrations.
In order to fulfill the strong emission durability
requirements, FEV provides aftertreatment systems
that are aged on FEV’s advanced hot gas aging test
benches.
Calibration
Trucks and Commercial Vehicles

From its inception, FEV has focused on the develop-

ment of heavy-duty and industrial diesel engines.
To initiate development, we have generated a wide
range of technologies and procedures, dedicated to
the specific demands of commercial vehicles and
industrial engines. In addition to the classical emis-
sion and performance tasks, FEV is accustomed to
working on engine integration, hybrid drivetrains and 0.5
NVH optimization.
0.4
FEV engineers perform diesel combustion system
development projects for high fuel efficiency and low
PM [g/kWh]

0.3
emission engine concepts, as well as special services,
such as engine certification and emission deteriora-
EURO I
tion factor evaluation programs. Great emphasis is 0.2 EURO II
placed on the development of control strategies and EURO III
software functional design to implement effective and 0.1
EURO IV
robust advanced exhaust gas aftertreatment technolo- EURO V
EURO VI
gies.
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Calibrations for altitude correction, hot and cold NOx [g/kWh]
operation, and the vehicle’s starting and warm-up
phases will be optimized and validated under real-life
conditions. Engine certification
in close cooperation with
As a special task during the truck calibration process,
the different engine brakes are also tested and
calibrated on the truck.

Truck and Commercial Engines

 Integration
 High efficiency combustion layout
 ECU calibration for all existing

- emission scenarios
- control strategies
- exhaust gas technologies
 Functional development

 Certification

© Team de Rooy - all rights reserved

9
 Transmission
and Hybrid Powertrain Calibration

FEV’s unique production calibration approach allows

calibration of the transmission, engine and diagnostic
 functions to be combined under the direction of a
FEV enables rapid and effective calibration
with the following modern tools and processes: single team of experts. This close interaction between
the different subjects guarantees a very effective
 FEV Shift Analyzer: Effective model-based application process. FEV has gathered a tremendous
calibration of shift strategy amount of experience through AT, CVT, DCT, AMT
 FEVos: Objective shift quality evaluation
and hybrid system calibration.
and optimization
 Automated calibration testing using HiL test

benches
 Use of transmission test benches

 Universal TCU and rapid prototyping systems

(MATLAB ® / Simulink ®, dSPACE, ASCET)

for a fast application of initial prototypes and
demonstration vehicles
 Support for all common calibration systems,

such as INCA, ATI, CANape and CalDesk

 Effective and reliable requirement-based

parameter set handling

Supporting all common calibration systems

FWD / RWD transmission test bench

10
Calibration of New Powertrain Concepts
and Demonstrator Vehicles
In today’s market, the continually increasing
customer and legislative requirements demand
new powertrain concepts. These concepts must
employ new control functionalities, due to the
growing number of influencing parameters.
FEV has developed a variety of powertrain
concepts, which have been shown in demonstrator
vehicles. Some of these concepts include:
 Downsizing with charging concepts,
direct injection and CAI
 Alternative fuels (see page 16)
 Mild and full hybrids
 Plug-In Electric Drive with range extender
 Advanced Diesel Combustion and controls
(HECS: High Efficiency Combustion System)
Gasoline two-stage turbocharger
Plug-In electric vehicle with Wankel range extender
FEV provides these Calibration advantages:
 Expertise in all future engine and trans-
mission technologies
 Benchmarking analysis to compare and
assess all state-of-the-art technologies
 Rapid prototyping for components and
controller hardware and software
 Rapid design and optimization of a variety
of demonstration vehicles
 Close interaction between simulation,
combustion development and calibration
departments for the best compromise
between vehicle performance, fuel
consumption and emissions.
Diesel Demonstrator with High Efficiency Combustion System
11
Full hybrid vehicle with electric torque converter
 On-Board Diagnostics (OBD)

In addition to legislative conformity, On-Board Diag-
nostics (OBD) also have a strong impact on customer
satisfaction and the OEM’s image, upon which the
commercial success of the vehicle depends. Increas-
ingly strict emissions limits, advances in combustion
technology, aftertreatment systems, alternative fuels
and hybrid/electric vehicle developments create more
and more challenges in implementing a successful
OBD system. These ever tightening OBD regulations
demand significant changes in OBD development
processes. For example, In-Use-Monitoring-Perfor-
mance-Ratio (IUMPR) legislation stipulates that OBD
monitoring must be effective over a broad range
of engine modes and driving conditions. Thus, the
robustness and reliability of the OBD monitors and
calibrations is of utmost importance.
250
Monitoring Enable Conditions
Number of Monitoring Events
FEV offers significant knowledge and experience in
OBD calibration for any type of powertrain, engine
management system and vehicle market.
The increasing complexity of OBD systems makes
the use of numerical solvers and tools essential to the
development process. These tools and methods are
not only implemented for time and workload reduc-
tion, but also to ensure a sound calibration which
fulfils all legislative and customer requirements.
One example of a tool that has been designed and
developed at FEV is the Diagnostic Failure Simula-
tion (DFS) Box. The tool allows On-the-fly simulation
of Lambda-sensor failures without influencing the
engine management system or hardware changes.
Thus, accurate and comprehensive testing of all
Lambda-sensor related monitors can be easily ac-
complished, safeguarding legislative compliance.

Regular Operation Narrow Range Monitoring

200 Wide Range Monitoring Influence of enable conditions
on monitoring results
150 Fault Case

100 Overlap inhibits

clear monitoring results
50

0
- 1.0 - 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Governor Deviation

FEV OBD calibration capabilities:

 OBD II and (E)OBD calibrations integrated into turn-key

calibration projects or individual solutions
 Broad knowledge of many types of engine management systems,

from a variety of powertrain control system suppliers

 State of the art and advanced vehicle and emission concepts

 Software functional development

 High level calibration tools, off- and online

 Validation programs and test programs/facilities for worldwide markets/

OBD fleet verification Diagnostic Failure

Simulation (DFS) Box
 Homologation / certification support and preparing certification

documentation at FEV or on-site

12  Excellent contact with global legislative governing bodies
Fleet Testing

FEV has been performing vehicle testing for many
years, with a focus on performance, fuel consump-
tion, emission, durability, NVH, and ride & handling.
Robust vehicle testing programs are still a key to
developing successful vehicles for the marketplace.
FEV has served the demand for quality and reliabil-
Intensive testing programs, covering a variety of
driving profiles can be applied with the following
options:
 Professional drivers and technicians
 Test operations 24 hours a day / 7 days a week
 Data recording and processing on client’s demand

ity with a close collaboration between its durability  Automatically controlled vehicle safety limits

team and the calibration specialists. FEV employs  Established data analysis procedures

a specially trained and experienced driver pool that  Transportation and preparation of the

has performed more than 35 million kilometers of vehicles on site

durability runs with the highest levels of safety. The
examination program, which is conducted by a fleet Hot Test track at City / Highway and Cold-Test in
Nardo, Italia Overland, Germany Sweden
management group and driven on specifically defined
worldwide test routes, offers statistically confirmed
results.

These routes can lead our team through the cold

temperatures of Scandinavia, the high altitudes of
the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the heat of South Af-
rica, and the demanding roads and low quality fuels
of China, Brazil, Russia and India. Testing can also
be conducted on-site at our customer’s facilities, as
well as on the challenging Nürburgring Nordschleife,
which is near Aachen. FEV offers the service of direct
collaboration in vehicle testing on customer-approved
test routes and on accessible proving grounds.
Test program
Testing under
race conditions
on the Nürburg-
FEV fleet testing capabilities: ring Nordschleife

 Experience and contacts within all

global markets
 Access and driving experiences on a

variety of proving grounds

 Professional and skilled drivers

 Robust program control in close

cooperation with our clients

 Calibration and durability experience

within one team

13
 Test Facilities

The workshop contains divided areas, allowing

confidentiality for each customer.

Divided workshop areas Emission chassis dyno

Climate chassis dynamometers are available with a tem- Emission chassis dynamometers are available, which
perature range capability from -30 °C up to +50 °C. are capable of measuring low future emission levels.

Climatic chassis dyno Anchoic chassis dyno

A new test track is available within a 10 minute driving

distance of the FEV vehicle center in Alsdorf / Aachen,
Germany:

 3.0 km loop and skid pad in use (2010)

 Additional trials and climbing hills being planned
 Directly located near the FEV Vehicle Center

 Shielded from external viewing

 Initial driving trials and drive-by noise measurements

 Access to several large test tracks including F1

circuits within a short distance (e.g. Circuit de

Spa-Francorchamps, Belgium ➞ 30 min.
14
Nürburgring, Germany ➞ 60 min.)
Test track near FEV Vehicle Center
 Calibration Tools
FEV’s long history of calibration knowledge has been
incorporated into the TOPexpert Vehicle Suite, which
is the central platform for all of the vehicle calibration
tools used by FEV.
TOPexpert Vehicle Suite (Commercially available)
The TOPexpert Vehicle Suite provides model-based
calibration tools for both base and OBD calibrations
(e.g. misfire detection, thermal diagnostics, dynamic
AFR compensation, engine warm-up adjustment,
exhaust temperature models, cold start analysis,
particle filter load estimation and oil dilution). The
Vehicle Speed Tracer provides real-time images of
individually configurable driving profiles. Additional
TOPexpert tools enable the flexibility of data to be
imported, filtered and exported. It also contains tools
that can perform numerous other data processing
operations and simulate any function of the control
unit for offline calibration.
Calibration Methods:
 Model-based calibration solutions
 Well-defined and tool-aided calibration process
 High quality standards
 TOPexpert Vehicle Suite
 PROcal for DoE-based modeling and optimization
 Sensitivity analysis of control and sensor concepts
 Tailored automotive calibration trainings
 Customized tool development
The TOPexpert Vehicle Suite is commercially available
to customers and is delivered with calibration guide-
lines, individual training courses, service and main-
tenance. It can also be customized to accommodate
customer requirements.
Combined multi-criteria
map optimization
Based on their calibration expertise, FEV engineers
have designed the PROcal tool for model-based test-
bench calibrations. Its intuitive nature enables FEV’s
engineers to efficiently deal with the continuously
increasing complexity of ECU calibration.
PROcal provides routines for optimal test planning,
model-based engine analysis and automated calibra-
tion optimization.
Sensitivity analysis
FEV also offers a range of workshops, which enable
our customers to apply cutting-edge DoE methodol-
ogy to their projects. As a customer you will gain
valuable insight into exactly what is needed in the
field of statistics and optimization. The participants
gain hands-on experience, using real-world calibra-
tion examples.
15
 Alternative Fuels
Alternative fuels are gaining importance worldwide,
as a substitute for oil-derived fuels, to increase re-
source diversification, and to reduce greenhouse gas
and toxic emissions. FEV has developed a variety of
alternative fuel concepts for production and gathered
vital experience in research programs, such as the
new cluster of excellence for tailor made fuels from
biomass.
Cluster of excellence for tailor made fuels at RWTH Aachen
FEV has investigated the following alternative
fuels:
 Alcohol fuels, such as ethanol, butanol, methanol
and various blends
 Natural gas, biogas and liquefied petroleum gas
 Hydrogen in combustion engines and fuel cells
 Diesel substitutes as: GTL, HVO, 2nd and 3rd
Generation Biofuels, Naphtha, Gasoline / Diesel
blends
Combination of Flex-fuel and VCR – maximized benefit
16
A special focus is given to the interaction of these
alternative fuels with powertrain technology. FEV
demonstrated the benefits of combining ethanol E85
turbocharging and a variable compression ratio.The
prototype vehicle demonstrated additional benefits
through a reduction in CO2 emissions.
Shell/Audi/FEV GTL Demonstrator car
Fuel Cell Range
Extender Module
FEV´s experience with alternative fuels:
 Natural gas, GTL, LPG, alcohols, HVO, 2nd and
3rd generation biofuels, naphtha, hydrogen,
gasoline / diesel blends
 Research, mixture improvement and combustion
system development and production develop-
ment and including advanced combinations
(e. g. natural gas and lean burn, ethanol and CAI,
ethanol and VCR)
 Software development and ECU calibration,
including advanced functional development for
multi-fuel control gasoline and diesel; closed
loop combustion control, and model-based air
loop control
 E-Mobility

The battery development process at FEV consists of FEV has built up a special test bench for batteries, with
a variety of different technical tasks as shown in the a power unit cycler.
E-Mobility Development Process figure. FEV’s experi-
ence covers each element of that development process.
Simulation tools are available, which have proven to be
FEV LiionMan Key Functions:
successful for establishing the system layout. FEV’s
battery design includes underbody packs, which of-  Protection of battery-cells from critical operating
fer the advantage of virtually no interference with the
points (voltage, current, temperature)
vehicle´s infrastructure. The FEV LiiONMAN system is
 Calculation of important system variables
available, offering a number of key functions, shown in
(such as SOC, SOH, power prediction)
the figure below.
 Cell- and system-diagnostics (such as detection

of worst cell, short circuit detection)

 Advanced cell diagnostic functions (such as
E-Mobility development process at FEV
model-based condition estimation, parameter
adaption concepts)

Performance Vehicle
simulation and Module and Battery manage- Battery assembly integration
requirement Cell election and
pack design ment system and testing
specification calibration

Battery Test Bench Equipment:

 Available as a container system

 Power unit (Cycler): up to 240 kW
FEV underfloor battery
 Climate chamber: -30°C up to 80°C design
 Simulation of various cooling systems

 FEV Control and Measurement System BEHR battery module with

FEV LiiONMAN
 Battery management simulation

 Separate control center

 Li-Ion Safety System

17
 References

Vehicle Physics and Acoustics Development

 Saab 9-3 XWD

NVH AWD integration

 Mercedes Sprinter
Vehicle NVH development support
Chassis tuning and testing for ride and handling

© Volkswagen AG

 VW Transporter T5
Chassis / Road noise analysis

Gasoline Engines Calibration

 Mercedes 55 SLK AMG engine calibration

BMW 1.6L 4 cylinder Valvetronic



engine and transmission calibration

 Fiat Coupe 5 cylinder turbo, engine,

vehicle and OBD calibration

18
Transmission Calibration and Hybrid Development

Alfa Brera transmission calibration



Engine and hybrid calibration for



BMW X6 V8, software development in

cooperation with BMW

 Development and build of

15 ChangAn Jiexun parallel
hybrid demonstrator vehicles,
used as taxi cabs during the
2008 Olympics in Bejing, China

Diesel Engine Calibration

 Integration and calibration of Renault 3.0L V6 diesel engine

into Nissan Pathfinder and Navara, Infiniti EX, FX and M.
➞ SOP 2010

 CO2 reduction through calibration of actual

Volvo 1.6D DRIVe-vehicles

 CO2 reduction through calibration

of Peugeot 207 Blue Lion towards
99 g/km CO2 (3.8L / 100km)
 DPF Calibration development with

PSA vehicles, including the first

production program in 2000
99g CO /km 2
19