6101 HW 1

Conner Herndon August 25, 2014

Derivation 4: The equations of constraint for the rolling disk

dx − a sin θdφ = 0
(1)
dy + a cos θdφ = 0

are linear differential equations of constraint of the form

n
X
gi (x1 , ...xn )dxi = 0. (2)
i=1

A constraint condition of this type is holonomic only if an integrating function f (x1 , ..., xn ) can be found
that turns it into an exact differential. Clearly the function must be such that

∂(f gi ) ∂(f gj )
= (3)
∂xj ∂xi

for all i 6= j. Show that no such integrating factor can be found for either of the equations of constraint
for the rolling disk.

Let

g1 = 1
g2 = 0 (4)
g3 = −a sin θ

with x1 , x2 , x3 being x, θ, φ, respectively. Then we have three equations from application of equation 3:

∂f
=0
∂θ  
∂f ∂f ∂θ
= −a sin θ + f cos θ (5)
∂φ ∂x ∂x
∂(f sin θ) ∂f
−a = −af cos θ − af sin θ =0
∂θ ∂θ
∂f
But since ∂θ = 0, our third equation becomes

f cos θ = 0, (6)

which must be true for all θ. Since we earlier determined that f has no explicit dependence on θ, f must
be zero. For the second equation, we have functions

g1 = 1
g2 = 0 (7)
g3 = a cos θ

for variables y, θ, and φ, respectively. By application of equation 3 we then have

 ∂f
=0
∂θ
  (8)
∂(af cos θ) ∂f
= a cos θ − f sin θ = 0,
∂θ ∂θ

which may be combined to give

f sin θ = 0. (9)

This must again be true for all θ, so f must be zero.

Derivation 5: Two wheels of radius a are mounted on the ends of a common axle of length b such that
the wheels rotate independently. The whole combination rolls without slipping on a plane. Show that
there are two nonholonomic equations of constraint,

cos θdx + sin θdy = 0

1 (10)
sin θdx − cos θdy = a(dφ + dφ0 ),
2
(where θ, φ, and φ0 have meanings similar to those in the problem of a single vertical disk, and (x, y) are the
coordinates of a point on the axle midway between the two wheels) and one holonomic equation of constraint,
a
θ = C − (φ − φ0 ) (11)
b

where C is a constant.

We see that

dx
= − tan θ (12)
dy

by inspection of the geometry. From there, we may manipulate the equation to give

cos θdx + sin θdy = 0. (13)

With the no slip condition, the velocities are

v = aφ̇
(14)
v 0 = aφ̇0

and so the x and y velocities are

1
ẋ = v sin θ = aφ̇ sin θ = (vx + vx0 )
2 (15)
1
ẏ = −v cos θ = −aφ̇0 cos θ = (vy + vy0 ).
2
which means
 1
dx = a sin θ(dφ + dφ0 )
2 (16)
1
dy = − a cos θ(dφ + dφ0 ).
2
If we multiply the first equation by sin θ and the second by cos θ then subtract the second from the first we
receive
1
sin θdx − cos θdy = a(dφ + dφ0 ). (17)
2

We may also see how the movement of angles affect each other. The movement of θ must correspond to
the same movement of the wheel using the no slip condition:
1
bdθ = adφ
2 (18)
1
bdθ = −adφ0 ,
2
which we may combine to give

bdθ = a(dφ − dφ0 ). (19)

Then we may integrate which yields

a
θ = C − (φ − φ0 ), (20)
b

where C is a constant.

Exercise 13: Rockets are propelled by the momentum reaction of the exhaust gases expelled from the
tail. Since these gases arise from the reaction of the fuels carried in the rocket, the mass of the rocket is not
constant, but decreases as the fuel is expended. Show that the equation of motion for a rocket projected
vertically in a uniform gravitational field, neglecting atmospheric friction, is

dv dm
m = −v 0 − mg, (21)
dt dt

where m is the mass of the rocket and v 0 is the velocity of the escaping gases relative to the rocket.
Integrate this equation to obtain v as a function of m, assuming a constant time rate of loss of mass.
Show, for a rocket starting initially from rest, with v 0 equal to 2.1 km/s and a mass loss per second equal
to 1/60th of the initial mass, that in order to reach the escape velocity the ration of the weight of the fuel
to the weight of the empty rocket must be almost 300!

The total force on the rocket is due to the force due to the ejection of fuel, Ff , and gravity. The fuel feels
a force of

dp d (mv 0 ) dm
Ff = = = v0 . (22)
dt dt dt

By the third law, the rocket will feel −Ff due to mass ejection. Thus

dv dm
m = −v 0 − mg. (23)
dt dt
 dm
To get v(m), we can use the chain rule on the left side and assume constant dt ≡ ṁ

dv dv
m =m ṁ = −v 0 ṁ − mg
dt dm
dv v0 g
=− −
Z mdm mZ ṁ
m (24)
g m
Z
0 dm
dv = −v − dm
m0 m0 m ṁ m0
 
0 m g
v(m) = −v ln − (m − m0 )
m0 ṁ

Escape velocity ve may be found by

1 GM m
mve2 = = mgR
2 pR √ √
ve = 2gR ' 2 · 10 · 6 · 106 = 12 · 107 (25)

ve ' 11 · 103 m/s = 11 km/s.

If we set v 0 = 2.1 km/s and ṁ = −m0/60, then to reach escape velocity,
 
m 10 · 60
1.1 · 104 ' −2.1 · 103 ln + (m − m0 ). (26)
m0 m0

Let m be the weight of the rocket after all the fuel is gone, and mf be the weight of the fuel. Then
 
m + mf m − m − mf
1.1 · 104 ' 2.1 · 103 ln + 600
m m + mf
(27)
 m f
 mf
' 2.1 · 103 ln 1 + − 600
m m + mf

The problem statement asks to prove that m is two orders of magnitude smaller than mf , so it’s safe to
approximate to
m   
4 3 f mf
1.1 · 10 ' 2.1 · 10 ln − 600
m mf (28)
m 
3 f
' 2.1 · 10 ln − 600
m
which gives us

1.1 · 104 + 600

 
mf
' exp ' 250. (29)
m 2.1 · 103

Exercise 14: Two points of mass m are joined by a rigid weightless rod of length `, the center of which is
constrained to move on a circle of radius a. Express the kinetic energy in generalized coordinates.

Let α be the angle to the location of the center of the rod on the main circle. From the rod, we de-
fine a cartesian system (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ). In terms of spherical coordinates with the same origin,
 `
x0 = sin θ cos φ
2
`
y 0 = sin θ sin φ (30)
2
`
z 0 = cos θ
2
therefore our velocities are

`h i
ẋ0 = θ̇ cos θ cos φ − φ̇ sin θ sin φ
2
`h i
ẏ 0 = θ̇ cos θ sin φ − φ̇ sin θ cos φ (31)
2
`
ż 0 = θ̇ sin θ.
2
If we square each of these,

`2 n 2 o
ẋ02 = θ̇ cos2 θ cos2 φ + φ̇2 sin2 θ sin2 φ − 2θ̇φ̇ cos θ sin θ cos φ sin φ
4
02 `2 n 2 2 2 2 2 2
o
ẏ = θ̇ cos θ sin φ + φ̇ sin θ cos φ + 2θ̇φ̇ cos θ sin θ cos φ sin φ (32)
4
`2
ż 02 = θ̇2 sin2 θ
4
thus

`2  2 
ẋ02 + ẏ 02 + ż 02 = θ̇ + φ̇2 sin2 θ (33)
4

which means that our kinetic energy on the rod is

m`2  2 
TR = θ̇ + φ̇2 sin2 θ . (34)
8

We add this to the kinetic energy of the rotation on the circle as well to finally give

`2  2
 
2 2 2 2
T = m a α̇ + θ̇ + φ̇ sin θ . (35)
4

Exercise 20: A particle of mass m moves in one dimension such that it has the Lagrangian

m2 ẋ4
L= + mẋ2 V (x) − V 2 (x), (36)
12

where V is some differentiable function of x. Find the equation of motion for x(t) and describe the physical
nature of the system on the basis of this equation.

We need to solve the Euler-Lagrange equation

d ∂L ∂L
= (37)
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
The right hand side is

∂L ∂V ∂V ∂V
= mẋ2 mẋ2 − 2V ,


− 2V = (38)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x

and the left is

m2 3
 
d ∂L d
= ẋ + 2mẋV
dt ∂ ẋ dt 3 (39)
2 2 2 ∂V
= m ẋ ẍ + 2mẍV + 2mẋ .
∂x
So we have

∂V ∂V
mẋ2 − 2V − m2 ẋ2 ẍ − 2mẍV − 2mẋ2


=0
∂x    ∂x

∂V ∂V ∂V
mẋ2 − mẍ − 2 − 2V mẍ + =0
∂x ∂x ∂x
    (40)
1 2 ∂V ∂V
mẋ mẍ + + V mẍ + =0
2 ∂x ∂x
  
1 ∂V
mẋ2 + V mẍ + = 0,
2 ∂x

which has two solutions:

1
mẋ2 + V = 0
2 (41)
∂V
mẍ = − .
∂x
This is perfect because F = − ∂V
∂x , so the first solution is energy conservation and the second is Newton’s
second law. Either must be satisfied for an equation of motion. This is really cool how that fell out actually.