LOAD COMBINATIONS

Loads and load combinations applied to structures for analysis and design of buildings in the
United States are prescribed by ASCE 7 “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures”. These notes are not intended to explain the provisions of ASCE 7 in any detail, but
are intended to introduce civil engineering students to fundamental concepts of load, different
types of load, and how loads are combined, or superimposed, on a structure. More detailed load
determination requirements can be found in the current edition of ASCE 7.

Load and Load Combination Learning Objectives

1. Understand LRFD load combination and ASD load combination

2. Be able to identify applicable load combinations
3. Understand that load combinations are a combination of load effects, not loads
4. Be able to proficiently apply LRFD and ASD load combinations and recognize
special situations

What are Load Combinations?

Load combinations are a prescribed set of superposition equations that consider the simultaneous
occurrence of a number of load cases. The load combination equations are presented in the
section below as prescribed in ASCE 7. There are two sets of load combination equations that
represent two different design philosophies – Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).

LRFD as Compared to ASD

Fundamentally, LRFD is founded on a probabilistic evaluation of loads and resistance. As much

as structural engineers would like to precisely define loads and the structural resistance to those
loads, it is not possible. There is always degree of uncertainty in loads, load effects, and
resistance. The LRFD philosophy has gained acceptance in recent decades, gradually replacing
the historically applied ASD philosophy. Fundamentally, ASD philosophy is based on the
application of a factor of safety, the magnitude being determined by past experience. ASD has
no underlying mathematical justification whereas LRFD is founded on well-established
probabilistic principles.

Rn
ASD load combination general format:   Qi


LRFD load combination general format: Rn   i Qi

where
Rn is the member nominal resistance such as shear strength, bending strength, axial strength
or other;
 Qi is the load case(s) as discussed in the load section such as dead, live, roof live, wind, snow
or other;
 is the prescribed ASD factor of safety for the member being designed;
 is the LRFD resistance factor prescribed for the member being designed; and
i is the LRFD load factor that corresponds to a particular load case within the combination.

As a general caution, it is important to always apply the load combination equations, either ASD
or LRFD, in a way that combines load effects (P, M, V, stress, etc.), not loads. Reasons for this
will become clear in examples and practice problems. In addition, always combine load effects
at a consistent member location as is consistent with the principles of superposition. Never
combine maximum load effects obtained from different locations along a member.

ASD Load Combination Equations

ASD load combination equations are presented below. The combination that produces the largest
load effect from the structural analysis must be evaluated for the design. The effects of one or
more loads not acting must also be considered in the situation where a benefit is derived from a
certain load.

1. D
2. D+L
3. D + (Lr or S or R)
4. D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
5. D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
6a. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
6b. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S
7. 0.6D + 0.6W
8. 0.6D + 0.7E

LRFD Load Combination Equations

LRFD load combination equations are presented below. The combination that produces the
largest load effect from the structural analysis must be evaluated for the design. The effects of
one or more loads not acting must also be considered in the situation where a benefit is derived
from a certain load.

1. 1.4 D
2. 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2 D + 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (L* or 0.5 W)
4. 1.2 D + 1.0 W + L* + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2 D + 1.0 E + L* + 0.2 S
6. 0.9 D + 1.0 W
7. 0.9 D + 1.0 E
*The load factor on L in (3), (4), and (5) is permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies in which Lo
in Table 4-1 is less than or equal to 100 psf.
EXAMPLE No. 1 – LOAD COMBINATION

Calculate controlling factored shear at the support for the cantilevered beam above:

VD  5 K VW   25.6 K  unfactored load effects, not loads


VLr 12 K
VS  10 K 