22 Paper No.
99-0626
Structural Numbers for Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement Base and Subbase Course Mixes
JENNIFER A. C. MACGREGOR, WILLIAM H. HIGHTER, AND DON J. DEGROOT
The 1993 AASHTO pavement design guide equation for flexible pave-
ment structures requires the determination of a structural number, which
is a function of the layer coefficient, thickness, and drainage coeffi-
cient of each layer of pavement. Empirical correlations for layer coeffi-
cients have been developed based on resilient moduli. The principal
factor affecting the drainage coefficient is the hydraulic conductivity. The
objective was to determine how the layer and drainage coefficients of
Massachusetts Highway Department (MHD) base and subbase aggregates
would be affected by the introduction of reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP). MHD gray, dense, graded, crushed-stone base and gravel-borrow
subbase were combined with 0 to 50 percent RAP (by weight); 9 mix-
tures were tested, and 27 resilient modulus and 12 hydraulic conductiv-
ity tests were conducted. Results from the resilient modulus tests
indicate that the resilient moduli of the RAP/base and RAP/subbase mix-
tures generally increased with an increase in the percentage of RAP.
Therefore, the layer coefficient and the structural number increased. The
hydraulic conductivity of the RAP/crushed-stone base was not affected
by the percentage of RAP in the mixture, but the hydraulic conductivity
of the RAP/gravel-borrow subbase increased with an increase in the per-
centage of RAP. Nonlinear elastic analyses of typical MHD pavement
structures indicated a small increase in the structural number with an
increase in the percentage of RAP in the base and subbase. Therefore, the
addition of RAP to the base and subbase materials tested is considered
to be beneficial.
Motivated by the increasing scarcity of quality aggregate, environ-
mental impediments to opening new mines and quarries, and the
prohibitive cost of disposing of milled asphaltic concrete pave-
ments, many state agencies have introduced reclaimed asphalt pave-
ment (RAP) into new asphaltic concrete at the plant and mixed RAP
into base and subbase materials (1).
The effect of introducing RAP into base and subbase aggregates
on the structural number layer coefficients and drainage coefficients
has not been quantified for the dense, graded crushed-stone base and
gravel-borrow subbase materials specified by the Massachusetts
Highway Department (MHD). Accordingly, a series of resilient mod-
ulus tests was carried out on mixtures of RAP/crushed-stone base
and RAP/gravel subbase materials. The resilient modulus is corre-
lated with the layer coefficients a 2 and a3 of the base and subbase,
respectively (2– 4). Hydraulic conductivity tests on RAP/aggregate
mixtures of crushed stone and gravel were also performed to get
an estimate of the drainage coefficients m2 and m3 of the base and
subbase RAP mixtures.
J. A. C. MacGregor, GEI Consultants, Inc., 1021 Main Street, Winchester,
MA 01890-1970. W. H. Highter, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 224 Marston Hall, University of Massachusetts–Amherst,
Amherst, MA 01003-5205. D. J. DeGroot, Department of Civil and Envi-
ronmental Engineering, 20 Marston Hall, University of Massachusetts–
Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003-5205.
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1687
MATERIALS TESTED
Samples of RAP, gray crushed-stone base, and gravel borrow sub-
base materials meeting MHD specifications were obtained from
MHD. Nine RAP/base and RAP/subbase mixtures were prepared.
Grain size distributions of the RAP/dense, graded crushed-stone
base mixtures with 0, 10, 30, and 50 percent RAP (by weight) are
shown in Figure 1, along with an envelope of MHD-allowable par-
ticle sizes for base materials. All mixtures were within specifications
except for the 30 percent RAP sample, which had slightly (3 or 4 per-
cent) less material passing the Nos. 20 and 30 sieves than allowable.
The resilient modulus and hydraulic conductivity results discussed
later indicate this did not have a significant effect. Figure 2 shows
the particle size distributions for the RAP/gravel-borrow subbase
mixtures with 0, 10, 30, and 50 percent RAP and the particle-size
envelope defining MHD subbase specifications. The RAP had a max-
imum allowable particle size of 9.5 mm. Table 1 presents grain-size
analysis parameters and the classifications of the nine mixes. The
addition of up to 50 percent RAP to the base and subbase materials
appeared to have little effect on the grain size characteristics. All
mixtures were classified as A-1-a (AASHTO M145). Results from
index tests, including specific gravity, absorption, unit weight, and
compaction, are presented in Table 2.
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Hydraulic conductivity of the nine mixtures was determined gener-
ally in accordance with Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant
Head) (ASTM D2434). One test was conducted for each RAP/
aggregate mixture, and a second test was performed on three of the
mixtures to investigate the repeatability of the data. The permea-
meter used differed from the design suggested in the ASTM spec-
ification. A schematic of the 0.305 m Constant Head Permeameter
manufactured by Trautwein Soil Testing Equipment used in this re-
search is shown in Figure 3 (5). The permeameter can accommodate
a specimen with a diameter of 0.295 m and a height of 0.305 m. A
sample with a diameter larger than that required by the ASTM spec-
ification was used to accommodate particles larger than 19.1 mm. A
200 mesh was used at the top and bottom of the specimen to retain
finer particles. The aggregate specimen was lightly compacted into
the permeameter with the end of a scoop.
The permeameter’s Merriot or bubble tube (Figure 3) had an inner
diameter of 63.5 mm and provided a maximum head of 0.955 m.
The bubble tube was used to develop different hydraulic gradients
across the aggregate specimen by adjusting the distance between the
bottom of the bubble tube and the reservoir overflow. Details of the
operational instructions for the permeameter are provided by Clary (6).
MacGregor et al. Paper No. 99-0626 23

FIGURE 1 Grain size distributions of RAP/dense, graded crushed-stone base mixtures.

Results of the conductivity tests are shown in Table 3. Several dif-
ferent heads were used to find the hydraulic conductivity of the
mixes, and the average constant-head hydraulic conductivity, along
with the standard deviation, is reported in Table 3.
The change in hydraulic conductivity with RAP content is shown
in Figure 4. No regular variation of hydraulic conductivity with RAP
content was observed in the RAP/crushed-stone base mixtures (Fig-
ure 4a). However, Figure 4b shows that the hydraulic conductiv-
ity of the RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixes increased by nearly
an order of magnitude with an increase of RAP from 0 to 50 percent.
Most of the increase in hydraulic conductivity took place as up to
30 percent RAP was added by weight with little increase in hydraulic

FIGURE 2 Grain size distributions of RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixtures.

24 Paper No. 99-0626 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1687

TABLE 1 Grain-Size Analysis and Classification conductivity thereafter. The increase in hydraulic conductivity may
be related to the uniform gradation of the RAP. The percentage of
maximum dry density in Table 3 was generally higher for the RAP/
crushed-stone-aggregate base mixtures than for the RAP/gravel-
borrow subbase mixtures because the angular particles of the crushed
stone compact more easily under minimal effort than did the more
rounded gravel particles. The range in hydraulic conductivity for all
nine mixtures was typical of that of clean sand (7).
Results from the repeatability tests conducted on three of the mix-
tures range from excellent to good (Table 3). The results of the two
tests conducted on 30 percent RAP/gravel-borrow subbase were
nearly identical, while the results of the tests on 0 percent RAP/dense,
graded crushed-stone base and 10 percent RAP/dense, graded
crushed-stone base varied by factors of approximately 2 and 3, respec-
tively. However, this variation is not considered too high given the
nature of this type of testing, especially for materials with such high
hydraulic conductivities. Each repeat test was conducted on a com-
pletely new sample, and the tests on 0 percent RAP/dense, graded
crushed-stone base and 10 percent RAP/dense, graded crushed-stone
base were run at different relative densities. Therefore, some differ-
ences in the measured hydraulic conductivity would be expected.

RESILIENT MODULUS

Resilient modulus tests on RAP/crushed-stone base and RAP/gravel-

borrow subbase mixtures were conducted generally in accordance

TABLE 2 Specific Gravity, Dry Rodded Unit Weight, and Standard Proctor Compaction Results
MacGregor et al.
FIGURE 3 Schematic of the permeameter (5).
with Resilient Modulus of Unbound Granular Base/ Subbase Mate-
rials and Subgrade Soils (AASHTO T294-94). A noteworthy depar-
ture from the AASHTO specification was that the load cell was
mounted externally rather than within the triaxial cell. Thus, both the
friction between the piston and bushing and the weight of the top cap
and piston had to be accounted for in the data analysis. A series of
tests in which friction was measured is described by Clary (6). The
measured piston friction was 1.6 N, and the weight of the piston and
cap was 19.4 N. A total of 27 resilient modulus tests, 3 for each of the
9 RAP/base and RAP/subbase mixtures, were performed. The three
replicate samples for each mixture were prepared at approximately
the same water content and dry unit weight.
Resilient modulus tests were carried out using an Instron Model
8501 dynamic testing system. A Boart Longyear model S-516 tri-
axial cell, which could accommodate the samples that were nomi-
nally 152 mm in diameter and 305 mm high, was used. Compressed
air was used to regulate the confining pressure. RAP/base and
RAP/subbase mixtures were compacted to at least 95 percent of the
standard Proctor dry unit weight using nine layers of equal weight
and thickness, according to Annex A of AASHTO T294-92I. The
loading sequence specified by AASHTO was managed by a LabVIEW
program (6), which controlled the haversine loading pattern, mag-
nitude of the applied deviator stress, and the number of load
cycles. Data acquisition was also performed by LabVIEW. Fol-
lowing completion of each resilient modulus test, the entire sample
was oven-dried to obtain the water content. Due to particle break-
Paper No. 99-0626 25
down, which was detected visually and by grain-size analysis and
caused by vibratory compaction and tamper, samples were dis-
carded after each test and replicate samples were made using fresh
aggregate and RAP.
Figure 5 shows the results of the three resilient modulus tests per-
formed on 100 percent RAP. These data are typical of the other mix-
tures with respect to repeatability. The test results clearly show the
stress-hardening nature of this material, which can be described by
the bulk stress model:
MR = k1θ k2 (1)
where
MR = resilient modulus,
θ = first stress invariant or bulk stress = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 = σ1 + 2σ3
= σd + 3σ3,
σd = deviator stress = σ1 − σ3, and
k1, k2 = nonlinear regression constants.
Application of this model to the data in Figure 5, using least-squares
regression, results in
MR ( kPa ) = 15435θ 0.51 (1a )
with a coefficient of determination (r2) equal to 0.97.
Regression analysis using Equation 1 for the results of all 27 tests
on the 9 different mixtures of 100 percent RAP; 0, 10, 30, and 50 per-
cent RAP/crushed-stone base mixtures; and, 0, 10, 30, and 50 percent
RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixtures are summarized in Table 4. The
regression lines are plotted for the RAP/crushed-stone base mixtures
and the RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixtures in Figures 6 and 7,
respectively. The data plotted in Figures 6 and 7, and summarized in
Table 4, show that the slopes of the regression lines (k2) varied slightly
among the different mixtures. However, there were significant vari-
ations in the coefficient k1, with a distinct trend of increasing k1 as
the percent RAP increased in both the base and subbase materials.
Thus, in all cases, for a given value of bulk stress, increasing the
percent RAP resulted in an increase in the resilient modulus.
EFFECT OF RAP CONTENT
ON STRUCTURAL NUMBER
The AASHTO design equation for flexible pavements is
log W18 = Z R p So + 9.36 p log(SN + 1) − 0.20
∆PSI
log
+ 4.2 − 1.5 + 2.32 p log M
R, SG − 8.07 (2)
1094
0.40 +
(SN + 1) 5.19
where
W18 = predicted number of 18-kip equivalent single axle load
applications,
ZR = standard normal deviate,
So = combined standard error of the traffic prediction and
performance prediction,
∆PSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index
( po) and the design terminal serviceability index ( pt), and
MR = resilient modulus of the subgrade (psi).
26 Paper No. 99-0626
TABLE 3 Summary of Constant Head Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
SN is the structural number indicative of the total pavement thickness
required:
SN = a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2 + a3 D3m3 (3)
where
D1, D2, and D3 = thickness (in.) of the asphaltic concrete, base, and
subbase, respectively;
a1, a2, and a3 = layer coefficients of the asphaltic concrete, base,
and subbase, respectively; and
m2 and m3 = drainage coefficients of the base and subbase,
respectively.
The designer uses Equation 2 by assigning values to ZR, So, and
∆PSI, measures MR, predicts W18 and then solves for the required
structural number, SN. Then, with the layer and drainage coeffi-
cients known, Equation 3 is used to find D1, D2, and D3, taking into
account minimum thickness requirements (2) and economic con-
siderations. Equation 3 shows that for a given required SN, the
required layer thickness are reduced if the layer coefficients a2 and
a3 and the drainage coefficients m2 and m3 are increased.
The layer coefficients (a2 and a3) increase with the log of the
resilient modulus of the base and subbase, respectively (4). Figures 6
and 7 show that, in general, the resilient moduli of RAP/crushed-
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1687
stone base and RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixtures increase with
increasing RAP content. Thus, the layer coefficients a2 and a3 increase
with increasing RAP content.
The drainage coefficients (m2 and m3) are functions of layer thick-
ness, length of drainage path, slope of the drainage layers, and
hydraulic conductivity of the base and subbase (2). With other vari-
ables held constant, m2 and m3 increase as the hydraulic conductivity
of the base and subbase increase. Figure 4 shows that the hydraulic
conductivity of RAP/crushed-stone base mixes remained nearly con-
stant as the RAP content increased, and the hydraulic conductivity
of RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixes increased as the RAP content
increased. Thus, for a given geometry, it is expected that m2 will re-
main constant as the RAP content increases, while m3 will increase
with increasing RAP content.
To evaluate the collective effect of the resilient modulus and
hydraulic conductivity results on design, a nonlinear elastic analy-
sis was performed on a “typical” MHD structural section. For the
same layer thickness, it was determined that the structural number
increased slightly as the percentage of RAP in the base and subbase
layers increased from 0 to 50 percent. For example, by increasing
the RAP content from 0 to 30 percent, the SN increased by about
2 percent. While this increase is not significant for design purposes,
it clearly indicates that the addition of RAP to typical MHD base and
subbase aggregates has no apparent detrimental effects and in fact
is slightly beneficial.
 FIGURE 6 The effect of RAP content on the resilient modulus
of RAP/crushed-stone base mixtures.

FIGURE 4 Variation of hydraulic conductivity with RAP

content: (a) RAP/crushed-stone base mixtures; (b) RAP/gravel-
borrow subbase mixtures.

FIGURE 5 Resilient modulus versus bulk stress for FIGURE 7 The effect of RAP content on the resilient modulus
100 percent RAP. of RAP/gravel-borrow subbase mixtures.
28 Paper No. 99-0626
TABLE 4 Bulk Stress Model Coefficients from Resilient
Modulus Tests
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Nine mixtures of RAP/crushed-stone base and RAP/gravel-borrow
subbase, with RAP content, by weight, of 0, 10, 30, and 50 percent,
were characterized, and a series of constant-head hydraulic conduc-
tivity tests and resilient modulus tests were carried out on each
of the mixtures. It was found that the addition of up to 50 percent
RAP to the crushed-stone base had little effect on the hydraulic con-
ductivity. The hydraulic conductivity of the gravel-borrow subbase
increased by an order of magnitude with an increase in the percent-
age of RAP from 0 to 50 percent. The drainage coefficients (m2 and
m3) were determined based on the appropriate value of the hydraulic
conductivity.
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1687
Generally, the resilient modulus of the RAP/base and RAP/subbase
mixtures increased with an increase in the percentage of RAP. An
increase in the resilient modulus resulted in an increase in the layer
coefficient and therefore the structural number.
For a given pavement structural section, the structural number
increases slightly with increasing RAP content in the base and sub-
base. RAP is therefore considered to be a beneficial additive to the
base and subbase materials tested in this study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded through an Interagency Service Agreement
between the MHD and the University of Massachusetts Trans-
portation Center. The authors wish to express their appreciation to
MHD and to Leo Stevens and Edmund J. Naras, MHD technical
representatives. Michael Mitchell helped perform the hydraulic
conductivity tests.
REFERENCES
1. Banasiak, D. (ed.). States Plane off Excess in RAP Specs. Roads and
Bridges, Oct. 1996, pp. 32–35.
2. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, AASHTO, Wash-
ington, D.C., 1993.
3. Huang, Y. H. Pavement Analysis and Design. Prentice Hall, Englewood,
N.J., 1993.
4. Rada, G., and M. W. Witczak. Material Layer Coefficients of Unbound
Granular Materials from Resilient Modulus. Transportation Research
Record 852, TRB, Washington, D.C., 1982.
5. Trautwein Soil Testing Equipment. 12-Inch Constant Head Permeameter.
Houston, Tex., 1994.
6. Clary, J. A., Structural Numbers for Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Base
and Subbase Course Mixes. Project report submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements of an M.S. degree. Department of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, 1996.
7. Holtz, R. D., and W. D. Kovacs. An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering. Prentice Hall, Englewood, N.J., 1981.
The views, opinions, and findings of this paper are those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect the official view or policy of MHD. This paper does
not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Soil and Rock
Properties.