CHAPTER TWO

14- Define reservoir heterogeneity ?

Is the variation in reservoir properties as a function of space.

Reservoir properties may include: (permeability, porosity, Thickness, saturations,

Faults and Fractures, Rock facies.

15- Why the reservoir heterogeneity is important to know?

16- Discuss are the factors affecting reservoir heterogeneity?

1- Changes in facieses, type of sediments, (Transgression, Regression cycles)

2- Compaction and cementations
3- Tectonic effects, Fractures fissures,...
4- Solution
5- Dolomitization

17- State the different methods used for determining the vertical heterogeneity ?

A- Permeability Variation Factor (V) by Dykstra- Parsons

1- Different layer thickness

2- Equal thickness

B- Lorenz Coefficient

18- State the different methods used for determining the areal heterogeneity Well ?
Areal Heterogeneity

1- The polygon Method: This technique is essentially based on assigning the

nearest measured value of the regionalized variable to the designated location.
2- The Inverse Distance Method: With inverse distance, data points are
weighted during interpolation such that the influences of one data point relative to
another declines with distance from the desired location.
3-The Inverse Distance squared Method: This method assigns a weight to each
measured variable by the inverse distance squared of the sample to the point being
estimated.

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CHAPTER THREE
19- What the drive mechanisms for oil and gas reservoirs ?

 Oil Reservoirs
Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Combination drive
Gravity-drainage drive
 Gas Reservoirs
Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)
Water drive
20- What are problems associated with every drive mechanism?

1- Pressure decline rapidly

2- Increase of the GOR will affect the recovery factor so, large amount of oil will
remain in the reservoir
Gas cap:
1- Cannot produce by high rates because of gas coning
Water drive:
1- Cannot produce with high rates because of water coning

21- Compare between different drive mechanisms from the following phases:
I- GOR, II- Pressure decline, III- Water production, and IV- Oil recovery

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22- : An Egyptian sandstone oil reservoir has the following reservoir and fluid
characteristics:

CHAPTER FOUR
23- What is the Analogy method for forecasting the reserve? Which areas of analogy
are important?
The analogy method is applied by comparing the following factors for the analogous and
current fields or wells:
 Recovery Factor (RF)
 Barrels per Acre-Foot (BAF)
 Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR)
 Production model.
 Expected reserves
 oil in place
 natural reservoir energy or drive mechanism
 capital and operating costs.
Analogy is most useful when running the economics on a yet-to-be-drilled exploratory
well. (Orange like Apple).
24- What are the different methods used for estimating the reserve? Briefly state,
which method is more accurate in calculating the OIIP? Why?
o Analogy

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 o Volumetric
o Decline Curve
o Material Balance Equation
o Simulation
the more accurate method is Material Balance equation (MBE).
 it is based on the law conservation of mass.
 it treats the reservoir as one block.
 Mass Produced = Mass original in place - Mass remaining in place OR
 Volume Produced = Volume original in place - volume remaining in place

25- What are uses of MBE? Limitations and difficulties?

Uses of (MBE(:
1. Determining the initial oil or gas in place.
2. Calculating the water influx.
3. Predicting the reservoir pressure.
Difficulties of (MBE):
1. Lack of PVT data for specific reservoirs.
2. The Assumption of constant liberated gas composition.
3. Accuracy of production data.
4. Accuracy of reservoir pressure.
Limitation of (MBE):
1. Thicker formation of high permeabilities and low oil viscosity where the
average reservoir pressures are easily obtained.
2. Homogenous reservoirs composed of strata of nearly the same permeability.
3. In the case of no very active water drive or gas cap which are larger
compared with the oil zone because of the very small pressure decline in the
case of very active water drive and larger gas cap formations.
27- What is the decline curve methods for estimating the reserve? And limitations
and advantages?

28- A gas cap reservoir is estimated to have an initial oil volume N of 110 x 106 STB.
The cumulative oil production Np and cumulative gas- oil ratio Rp are listed in the
following table as functions of the average reservoir pressure over the first few years
of production. Assume that pi = pb = 3330 psia. The size of the gas cap is uncertain
with the best estimate, based on geological information, giving the value of m = 0.6.
Is this figure confirmed by the production and pressure history? If not, what is the
correct value of m?

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 Answer in the Excel sheet
Np
Pressure Rp Bo Rso Bg Bt
MM Eo Eg F F/Eo
PSI SCF/STB BBL/STB SCF/STB BB/SCF BBL/STB
STB
3330 0 0 1.2511 510 0.00087 1.2511 0 0 0
3150 3.295 1050 1.2353 477 0.00092 1.26566 0.01456 0.0719023 5.8073057 398.8534 4.
3000 5.903 1060 1.2222 450 0.00096 1.2798 0.0287 0.1294241 10.671443 371.8273 4.
2850 8.852 1160 1.2122 425 0.00101 1.29805 0.04695 0.2013264 17.301677 368.5128 4.
2700 11.503 1235 1.2022 401 0.00107 1.31883 0.06773 0.2876092 24.093954 355.7353 4.
2550 14.513 1265 1.1922 375 0.00113 1.34475 0.09365 0.373892 31.898123 340.61 3.
2400 17.73 1300 1.1822 352 0.0012 1.3718 0.1207 0.4745552 41.130054 340.7627 3.
410 F/Eo Vs Eg/Eo
400
390
380
370
360
350 y = 58.83x + 108.7
340
330
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

CHAPTER FIVE and CHAPTER 6, 7, 8

29- Why water flooding is the most common method of secondary recovery ?
 General availability of water.
 Low cost relative to other injection fluids.
 Ease of injecting water into a formation.
 High efficiency when water displaces oil.

30- What are factors must be considered in water flooding ?

 Reservoir geometry
 Fluid properties
 Reservoir depth
 Lithology and rock properties
o porosity.
o permeability.
o clay content.
o Net thickness.
 Fluid saturation.

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31- What is the optimum time for water flooding ?
to calculate:
 Anticipated oil recovery
 Fluid production rates
 Monetary investment
 Availability and quality of the water supply
 Costs of water treatment and pumping equipment
 Costs of maintenance and operation of the water
installation facilities
 Costs of drilling new injection wells or converting
existing production wells into injectors.
 Note: the optimum time is to start water injection when
the reservoir pressure is above Pb with 150-200 psi

32- What are main factors needed for flow pattern selection ?
1. Converting existing production wells into injectors Note ’’The best
producer will be the best injector)
2. Drilling infill injection wells.
33- What are the different flow patterns used for water flooding ? Can the
production wells be converted into injection ones? When? Which wells are
preferred ?

34- When the water flooding fails ?

When water does not displace oil '' bad displacement sweep efficiency''
35- What is volumetric sweep efficiency ?
The volumetric sweep efficiency can be decomposed into the product of an areal
and a vertical sweep efficiency.
36- What are the principles of Buckly Leverett and Piston-like displacement
theories?
this theory based on many parameters; saturations, capillary pressures, porosity,
permeability and wet ability.
Assumptions for Buckly- Leverett theory
 Immiscible fluids
 linear flow
 mobility ratio >1
 no gravity effects
 negative saturation gradient for the wetting phase.

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CHAPTER 8

39- What are water Sources in the oil and gas Reservoirs?
1. Connate
2. water of condensation
3. edge water
4. bottom water – WOC moving
5. bottom water - coning
6. flood injection
7. leaks
8. cross flow
40- Define both good and bad water ?
Good Water:
 Needs to be produced with oil
 Cannot be shut-off without shutting off oil
Bad Water:
 Does not help to produce hydrocarbons and reduce the oil production and
accelerate the reservoir depletion.
41- Define water and gas coning ?

42- What are the specific problems of water and gas coning?

43- What are they caused for water and gas coning?

44- Define the critical rate? And state some correlations used for critical rate
calculations?

45- Question for critical rate ?

Assignment 5

CHAPTER 9
46- Define the aquifer ?
Nearly all hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded by water bearing
rocks called aquifers.

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47- What are the aquifer classifications ?
1- Degree of pressure maintenance
2- Outer boundary conditions
3- Flow regimes
4- Flow geometries

48- What are the water influx models ?

49- What is the aquifer mechanisms ?

 Expansion of water in the aquifer
 Compressibility of the aquifer rock
 Artesian flow where the water bearing is located higher than the pay zone.

CHAPTER 10
52- Define of well testing

53- What is well testing interpretation?

54- What are the different flow regimes and flow geometries needed for well testing?

55- Discuss the difference between; well testing, cores and well logging from the
phases (radius of investigation, cost and amount of data).

56- The well testing estimates which type of permeability?

58- What are advantages of well testing for reservoir and production engineer?

59- What is the advantages of type curves?

60- Calculate the skin factor resulting from the invasion of the drilling fluids to a
radius of 3 ft. The permeability of the skin zone is estimated from well testing at 20
md, while the unaffected permeability is 60 md. The well bore radius is 0.25 ft.