Existing VAWT Technologies

Uwe Schmidt Paulsen, Troels Friis Pedersen, Luca Vita

Risø-I-2613(EN)

Risø National Laboratory

Technical University of Denmark
Roskilde, Denmark
February 2008
Author: Uwe Schmidt Paulsen, Troels Friis Pedersen, Luca Risø-I-2613(EN)
February 2008
Vita
Title: Existing VAWT Technologies
Department: Wind Energy Department

Abstract (max. 2000 char.):

The report contains a description of existing VAWT

concepts, i.e key aspects in rotor types, blade design
(shape and form), support struts, winglets, key aspects
of controls and bearings.

Contract no.:

Groups own reg. no.:

(Føniks PSP-element)
1125006-01

Sponsorship:

StatoilHydro

Cover:

Pages:61
Tables:
References:45

Information Service Department

Risø National Laboratory
Technical University of Denmark
P.O.Box 49
DK-4000 Roskilde
Denmark
Telephone +45 46774004
bibl@risoe.dk
Fax +45 46774013
www.risoe.dk
Contents
1 Introduction 5

2 Rotor configurations 6
2.1 Darrieus type rotors 6
2.1.1 Guy-wired rotors 7
2.1.2 Self-supporting rotors 9
2.1.3 Rotor shape 10
2.2 Vertical axis type rotors with straight blades (Giromills) 14
2.2.1 Cycloturbine 17
2.2.2 V- and L-shaped rotors 18
2.2.3 Mixed concept rotors 19
3 Aerodynamics 21
3.1 Profiles for VAWTs 21
3.2 Stall control 24
3.3 Self-starting capability 27
3.4 Overspeeding control 28
4 Structure 28
4.1 Blade structure 28
4.2 Blade materials 31
4.3 Rotor support structure 32
4.4 Bearing concepts 33
5 Transmissions and generator 35
5.1 General 35
5.2 Transmissions 36
5.3 Transmission efficiency 39
5.4 The structural analysis and the slip clutch solution 39
5.5 Torque ripple in VAWT 41
5.6 Generators efficiency and design 42
5.7 Direct drive generator (gearless solution) 43
5.8 Multi-pole generators 45
5.9 Transmission components - weights and costs 46
6 Offshore VAWTs 48
6.1 Pioneer I 48
6.2 The Wagner rotor 49
6.3 Olle Ljungström 50
6.4 VAWT 56
7 Summary 57

8 Selected references 58

Risø-I-2613(EN) 3
Preface

StatoilHydro (formerly Norsk Hydro) has shown great interest in the VAWT
technology for offshore application and expressed the concept of the creation of
ideas within offshore (VAWT) applications. This has been expressed as an enquirer
to four leading wind energy groups. The 4 project proposals, one from Risø DTU
were evaluated and Risø DTU was selected for an agreement on the commissioned
research work on floating VAWTs.
The assessment of the task is divided into 5 parts:
• A survey comprehending existing technology on VAWTs and floating
platforms
• The design specifications for VAWT concepts are listed for specific use at
offshore conditions with shallow or deep water, at different wind loads and
conditions due to structural and operational aspects.
• New designs are presented in the project, containing general guidelines,
simple sketches and technical aspects
• A comparison on advantages and disadvantages with existing HAWT
technology
• Recommendations are presented for future work dealing with the proposed
concepts and conditions presented in the project, including a proposed
development path with a listing of potential external key partners in industry
and experts from research institutions

The present report focuses on the basic design of existing VAWTs. The knowledge
is supported by experience from the literature survey, with emphasis on applications
onshore and with an overall objective to translate the technology into offshore
applications.

4 Risø-I-2613(EN)
1 Introduction
A literature survey has been carried out and reported [39]. The following key topics are
described in that report.
1. ETDEWEB VAWT Guidelines
2. ETDEWEB Wing design
3. ETDEWEB Selected Citations
4. ETDEWEB Offshore foundation
5. VAWT Patents
The overview of the existing technology on VAWTs has been put into the sub areas as
shown in Figure 1.1.

VAWTs

Vertical Axis/Straight Seabed foundation: Darrieus rotor:

blades:
Cyclic pitch Self supported
Floating technology
2 or 3 bladed

Fixed pitch Guy- wired

Giro mill(H-VAWTs)

2-90 deg
4-bladed

1-bladed

tandem
V-shaped rotor

L-shaped rotor

Gravity foundation
mixed concepts

Support struts
Controls:
Symmetric/asymmetric airfoils
Self-start
winglets Rotorshape: Troposkien
Assist-start Parabola
Support struts Arc
Overspeed control Caternary

Variable speed

Figure 1.1 Breaking the VAWT concepts into sub areas

The Savonius VAWT wind turbine and other drag based wind turbine concepts have not
been taken into consideration, since these concepts are unlikely for large scale wind
turbine applications. An overview of existing VAWT manufacturers are shown in Table
1.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 5
 Table 1, List of various VAWT manufacturers, from the internet

Vertical Axis
Wind Harvest www.windharvest.com USA 25kW
Sustainable Energy www.sustainableenergy.com/renewable/wind. Canada 250kW
Technologies html
Shield (Jaspira) www.shield.fi/ Finland 20W-10kW
WindSide www.windside.com/ Finland 20W-7.5kW
Ropatec www.ropatec.com Italy 0.5-6kW
Ampair www.ampair.com UK 4W
Terra Moya Aqua TMA does not have a web site USA 20-750kW
The Turby www.turby.nl Netherlands 2 kW
Solwind H-VA www.solwind.co.nz New Zealand 3kW,6kW
Neuhäuser H-VA www.neuhaeuser.de Germany 40 kW
Marc www.marcpower.com Germany 0.3-55kW

2 Rotor configurations
2.1 Darrieus type rotors
The rotors in this report all have in common that a number of blades revolves in a
circular path around a vertical axis. The angle of attack may vary beyond post stall in
both positive and negative ranges as illustrated in Figure 2.1.1. Darrieus rotor shapes
are shown in Figure 2.1.8.

Figure 2.1.1 Darrieus angle of attack variation in the equatorial plane [1]

The upper and lower parts of the Darrieus rotor exhibit aerodynamically less
efficient power output than the middle part in comparison with a straight bladed
VAWT (Giromill),see Figure 2.2.1,Figure 2.2.2Figure 2.2.3Figure 2.2.4Figure 2.2.5,
where the blades all have the same radius at all heights.

6 Risø-I-2613(EN)
The Giromill or H-rotor, with variable pitch (Cycloturbine, see Figure 2.2.6), as
described later, is a potential candidate for windowing this angle of attack variation
even further, provided the actuator is present to do so. In order to assist the reaction
forces created by axial thrust, and to structurally dampen vibrations on the rotor, the
Darrieus types are often guy-wired,see Figure 2.1.3 whereas Giromill VAWTs are
not.

The swept area of a Darrieus VAWT is 4/3 times the rotor height times the rotor
radius. A Giromill exhibits a swept area of 2 times the rotor height times the rotor
radius. In that respect, the VAWT with straight blades performs 1½ times the power
of a Darrieus, for equal aerodynamic and otherwise performance, but the Giromill
additionally needs to have struts to support the blades.

The largest ever built Darrieus machine, EOLE, see Figure 2.1.3, was designed as a
direct-drive variable-speed machine and built by Versatile Vickers shipyard. The
4MW generator was 12m in diameter and power conversion was achieved using a
static- frequency converter with power factor controls.

2.1.1 Guy-wired rotors

Guy-wires are referred to as being more cost effective than a towered support or a
free-standing rotor [2].There are two important consequences of using guy-wires to
support the rotor:
1. Since guy-wires have an initial tension, the vertical component of the
tension is reacted through the tower, the foundation and, in this case, the
bearings. This axial load imposed by the guys impacts the cost of these
components.
2. The consequence of the guy-wire support is lateral vibrations of the wires.
Wire vibration will be excited by the motion of the top of the turbine while it
is operating. There is always excitation to the cables as long as the turbine is
operating in wind. If the excitation frequency is near one of the wire natural
frequencies, then the amplitude of vibration can be quite large. Large
amplitude wire vibrations need to be avoided in order to reduce fatigue in
the wires and their terminations and also to maintain a reasonable blade/wire
clearance distance.

Other aspects of the wire design include the wire sag, the required blade/wire
clearance distance, thermal expansion effects, and wire anchors. Examples are
shown in various figures in this report, see for example Figure 2.1.3.

Another aspect in parallel with adjustment of added stiffness to the rotor is to

provide damping. The technical application is principally shown in Figure 2.1.2

Risø-I-2613(EN) 7
Figure 2.1.2 A wire damper concept [2]

Figure 2.1.3 300 kW FloWind Corp (left) from www.ecopowerusa.com, Sandia DOE-
34m Diameter 500 kW (right) from www.telosnet.com, and EOLE 4MW (below), from
internet
A different approach to wires is used for the Canadian 250 kW VAWT [40], which
is described as being modular. It is built with lattice type modules, forming a stable
three-legged pyramid as indicated in Figure 2.1.4.

8 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 2.1.4 Sustainable Energy, Chinook 250 kW VAWT and the lattice support of the
rotor [40]
The Sandia (DOE 34 m) [18], FloWind, Alcoa and EOLE 4MW (Cape Chap) [3]
were made with tubular cylinders, with bearings at both ends, Figure 2.1.3. The
arrangement set up for guy-wires and assisting wire damping is shown for the EOLE
4 MW project in Figure 2.1.5., which also indicates the land coverage needed for one
unit.

Figure 2.1.5 Wire arrangement for the 4MW EOLE project [3].

2.1.2 Self-supporting rotors

Reduction of additional loads inherited by guy-wires on main tube leads to design of
self supporting rotors, see Figure 2.1.6. The Giromill or H-rotors encouraged
designers to use self-supporting rotors. Only a few Darrieus demonstration projects
have been carried out, here replicated in brief [5], and shown in the figure:
USA Tumac industries (15 kW),
Netherlands Fokker industries (Pioneer I, 100 kW, 2-bladed)
Denmark Vestas (2-bladed, tandem blades)
The Tumac shown has a cylindrical support with an integrated hub for blade
mounting, whereas the Pioneer I has reduced cylindrical diameters with height, and
the Vestas has a tapered support structure.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 9
Figure 2.1.6 Self supported Darrieus VAWTs ( Tumac, Pioneer, Vestas), from internet
Recently NREL [6] studied hybrid towers for HAWT applications (offshore as well)
with a possible impact on conceptual design of VAWT support structures. An example is
shown in Figure 2.1.7, (left picture). Jean Fischer [45] proposed a 1.2MW VAWT
concept with several wind turbines above each other in a concrete tower that guides the
wind into the rotors. He also proposed a concept of a rotor in a lattice construction on a
concrete tower, see Figure 2.1.7, ( right picture).

Figure 2.1.7 Hybrid support-structure concept for HAWTs, left WindPACT [6], right
Jean Fischer staged rotors and rotor on concrete tower [45]

2.1.3 Rotor shape

The blade shape of a Darrieus rotor has been studied several times, and some early
studies are dealing with different rotor shape concepts. Basic shape is the Troposkien
shape [7], which takes the equilibrium of centrifugal forces with the tension in the
blade into consideration. An extended theory including gravity loads was made, and
the influence of standstill was also investigated [8]. This provides a basis for design,
where in principle no other external forces are working except for aerodynamic
forces and fictitious forces, (primarily accentuated by displacement from blade
section to blade section). It is desirable for a VAWT blade to have a Troposkien
shape in order to minimize bending stresses and fatigue loads, but a practical
problem is how to design a VAWT blade so that it is flexible enough to assume a

10 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Troposkien shape yet rigid enough to withstand operating loads, including the
significant loads that result from gravity.

Figure 2.1.8 Different lay out of Darrieus types, From [4]

Figure 2.1.9 Comparison of different blade shapes, H~ R [7]

Subsequent analysis to tie down the difficulty to manufacture Troposkien shape into
more simple elements (circular arcs and lines) was performed [9]. This approach has
been followed up on Sandia/Alcoa, Figure 5.2.2 (only central part approximately
Troposkien), Dermont, Figure 5.2.5, and Eole 4 MW, Figure 2.1.3. For practical
purposes Paraschivoiu [44] assumes that a parabolic shape is a satisfactory
approximation to the Troposkien shape.

A comparison of Troposkien blade shapes with different radius of curvature and

heights is shown in Figure 2.1.10. The shape parameter Sref/(sR0) is proportional to a
cost parameter (because the swept area is correlated to shaft power), whereas s is
proportional to blade cost (arc length dependent). A usual value H/2R0 ~1 is used.
The demonstration VAWTs show as indicated in Figure 2.1.11 subsequently a
variety of shapes depending on H/2R0 : 1 (Oswego, Risø DTU), 1.77 (Chinook 250),
1.25, 1.58 (Sand 34) 1.4 (Dornier) and 1.5 (DAF 500kW, EOLE 4MW, Cape-Chat,
Canada). As indicated in Figure 2.1.4, the overall height over diameter ratio H/2R0 is
1.77, with 21.5m rotor diameter. The swept area of the 250 kW design corresponds
to 420m2 (595W/m2). The calculations made in [10] were re-assessed and
confirmed, by direct integration of the basic equations for the Troposkien shape.
In [44] Paraschivoiu suggests: “After several analyses: The optimum Darrieus rotor
aspect ratio “(comment: that is H/2R0)” seems to be between 1.3 and 1.5 with few
exceptions” (see picture Figure 2.1.12. However, aerodynamic performance

Risø-I-2613(EN) 11
calculations carried out on a 4 m Darrieus with Troposkien rotor shape in uniform
flow suggest an optimum concept, based on wind tunnel measurements at various
Reynolds numbers for a NACA0018 profile [11]:
• height over diameter ratio 1
• solidity 0.225
• number of blades 2-3

The reader should also consult the chapter on Aerodynamics.

Figure 2.1.10 Key figures for different Troposkien blade shapes, as per variable radius
of curvature (Rk~0 straight folded line) [10]

Sref/R02
(Sref/sR0)
3
Sref/R0 demo
Sref/(sR0) demo

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
H/2 R 0

Figure 2.1.11 Swept area and blade cost parameter vs. height over radius, selected key
figures from [10] with real data from demonstration projects.

12 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 2.1.12 Samples of different aspect ratios (2.78 and 1.31) for FloWind turbines,
from [44]
The influence on the Troposkien shape due to rotational speeds of 5-60 rpm is shown
in Figure 2.1.13 [8]. For specific structural analysis of this influence, thickness over
chord ratio (t/c) becomes an important parameter to withstand the bending moments.
As a practical shortcut to improve economy, Sandia studied variations of blade cross
sections in chord, thickness and profile symmetry (00) vs. cambered (4.8%) with arc
length from tower bottom towards equator, Figure 2.1.14 [8].

Figure 2.1.13 Effects of rpm on the shape for an uniform, homogeneous blade,[8]

Risø-I-2613(EN) 13
Figure 2.1.14 Blade shape geometry for 34 m Sandia Darrieus rotor [8]

2.2 Vertical axis type rotors with straight blades (Giromills)

There has been suggested various vertical axis wind turbines with straight blades.
Originally this concept was included in the patent of J.M. Darrieus as an evolution
from deriving the turbine with the simple shape, as indicated in comparison in Figure
2.2.1. It simply utilizes the lift forces generated on an aerodynamic profile over the
full blade span into useful rotor torque during a revolution.

As it is with the Darrieus type, the blade path is provided in a circular orbit
traversing the wind in an upstream and a downwind position, so that the relative
inflow on the blade is highly cyclic along with wind turbulence and disturbances due
to earlier wakes generated by blade passages.

Structurally, one of the highlights from the Darrieus principle is to remove

centrifugal stress. This principle is abandoned with the Giromill, which is explained
in Figure 4.1.1. It demonstrates the importance of designing the support for the
stresses, with potentially drawbacks on high costs in material/strength.
Aerodynamically the rotor has been utilized for better performance by improvement
on profile aerodynamics, in particular to camber the airfoils. The studies made by
[12] support this development path, herby increasing CPmax and widening the range
of operation in the CP with respect to tip-speed range.

14 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 2.2.1 Darrieus type(left) and straight bladed VAWTs(right) From www.ge-
duisburg-sued.de
A search on the internet reveals a Ropatec turbine with a permanent multi-pole
generator of 110 W.

Figure 2.2.2 Ropatec 110 W (left), from www.ropatec.com

Similar VAWTs from www.windharvest.com offers a 75 kW concept, which utilize
off-the-shelf generators, gearboxes, bearings and other components which can be
obtained from numerous vendors. For specifications of the VAWT see Table 2.
Another manufacturer of small VAWTs is Marc Power Systems, see Figure 2.2.3.
Table 2 key figures of Wind harvest 3000, www.windharvest.com

Figure 2.2.3 55 kW, 1.2 kW and 300W, from www.marpower.com

Risø-I-2613(EN) 15
Other VAWT projects are only historical because turbines have been dismantled, or
the manufacturer/provider stopped activities. The company Heidelberger Rotor
GMBH produced an H-Rotor (see Figure 2.2.1, right) with rated power of 20 kW
with a hub height of 8.4 m and with a novel magnetic levitation alternator generator.
The 6 m long blades operated at a tip speed corresponding to 31 m/sec. The
company also managed a big rotor design, HMW 670, 300 kW wind turbine, see
Figure 2.2.4.

Figure 2.2.4 300 kW Heidelberg variable speed rotor with magnetic levitation alternator
generator at Kaiser Wilhelm Koog, Germany 1994, www.ifb.uni-stuttgart.de
The Technical Sheet of THERMIE Project Renewables ,Wind Energy (RWE-8) [13]
informs that the ”first turbine was installed in September 1993, and the installation
of the remaining four followed according to plans. The measurement program
commenced July 1994. During the first operations period measurement results were
achieved to enable further tuning of the mechanical structure. Minor technical "child
diseases" (faults encountered in prototypes, which by corrective actions are later
circumvented) were faced and remedied. A drawback was encountered, however,
when a conventional welding quality problem caused damage to a rotor head in one
of the turbines. The German Lloyd recommended the interruption of further
operation until the reasons were fully clarified. The Project File closed on
16/07/1996.It should be stressed, however, that the problems were conventional, and
are easy to recover.”

Eurowind Developments Ltd. described recently in WindTech Journal [14], the

concept of Giromill VAWTs [15], and their visions in planning for a modular
VAWT turbine that will have power outputs ranging from 1 MW to more than 10
MW, typically for marine and for onshore applications. This design with the
company’s modular and manufacturing technology will enable them to produce
larger machines at between 15% - 30% less per kW than current horizontal wind
turbines. A sketch of the modular VAWT (VAWTMU) is shown in Figure 2.2.5.

16 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 2.2.5 VAWT Modular Unit from Eurowind UK LTD [14]

Table 3 Key figures for a 3 MW H-VAWT,[15]

2.2.1 Cycloturbine

This VAWT type is distinguished by its articulation by cyclic pitch of the blades in
order to allow for improved self-starting capacity and a marginal improvement on
CP. The type is origins from the Voith-Schneider turbine, a device intended for ship
propulsion in any direction.

The added complexity in the variable pitch mechanism softens the structure but
alleviate for some of the unsteady aerodynamics during rotations. A comprehensive
study has been carried out with emphasis on studying aerodynamics [1]. A sample of
a cycloturbine is shown in Figure 2.2.6.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 17
Figure 2.2.6 ASI Pinson(USA), From www.awea.org

2.2.2 V- and L-shaped rotors

Some efforts improving the Darrieus machine by rationalizing the geometry of the
blades was made by a group at Reading University, UK led by Peter Musgrove.
They simply straightened out the blades of a Darrieus-type wind turbine, hoping that
this would overcome the blade fatigue problem and improve performance. But at the
time, it was believed that the simplest solution, an H-shape blade configuration,
could over-speed and become dangerously unstable under excessively windy
conditions. To avoid this, Musgrove proposed that a reefing mechanism be
incorporated in the machine's design, thus allowing the blades to be feathered in high
winds. These earlier machines with feathering blades were known as "variable
geometry" vertical-axis wind turbines with V shaped rotors. There were a number of
such designs, which had different ways of feathering their blades.

Figure 2.2.7 The VAW T450, by VAWT Ltd.

During the late 1970s, English research, which included wind tunnel tests and the
building of a few prototype machines in the 40 kW to 100 kW range, culminated in a

18 Risø-I-2613(EN)
final design; a reefing arrowhead blade for a large 25-meter, 130 kW-rated machine.
The VAWT 450 (Figure 2.2.7), was built at Carmarthen Bay in South Wales. The
VAWT 450 had a total swept area of 450 square meters. The blades and cross arms
were mounted on the top of a 40- meter concrete tower and it produced 130 kW. It
was disassembled in 2000.

The research carried out on the VAWT 450 found that the mechanisms used to
feather the blades were unnecessary. Instead, the drag/stall effect created by a blade
leaving the wind flow would limit the speed at which a connected blade in the wind
flow could move forward. This led the way to a fixed straight-bladed design, the H-
rotor. The developer of the Model 450, VAWT Ltd., went on to build a larger
straight-bladed machine at Carmarthen Bay, called the VAWT 850, which had a
rated power output of 500 kW. The VAWT 850 was extensively tested and proved
that the basic H-blade configuration was practical and simple. The machine was not
without its problems. Extremely high levels of torque created by the rotation of the
blades led to the failure of the power transmission arrangement on several occasions.
The machine's main generating plant was housed in the center of the support tower
and the blades' rotation was transferred via gearboxes and a torque tube. The high
stresses exerted on the torque tube caused it to fail and proved difficult to overcome.
The catastrophic failure of the main bearing, coupled with the withdrawal of
government research funding, signed the machine's death warrant. The VAWT 450
and VAWT 850 machines at Carmarthen Bay were both demolished at the turn of
the century, in accordance with the original plan.

In the 80-ties several proposals on large VAWT concepts were made by Musgrove
(H-VAWT), Lungstrøm (V-rotor) and Wagner (L-rotor), which for their restrictions
upon erecting on land were thought to be placed offshore. For reference consult the
offshore description in this report.
2.2.3 Mixed concept rotors
A novel design has been pursued recently by QuietRotors, LTD (Figure 2.2.8),
http://www.quietrevolution.co.uk which uses a 5 m tall and 3.1 m wide wind turbine
with rated power of 6 kW. A projected cost of £ 25000 for intended use in urban
areas is informed from the provider. The blades and supports are made of carbon
fibre and epoxy resin.

Figure 2.2.8 QuietRotors, from www.quietrevolution.co.uk

Another example using helical line design and application is made by Turby B.V. in
Netherland, see Figure 2.2.9.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 19
Figure 2.2.9 Turby B.V urban VAWT rotor, from www.turby.nl

The turbine is also intended for urban environment and measures 2.0m in diameter
by 2.9m high (including generator), and weighs 136kg. It is specified to generate in
winds of between 4m/s and 14m/s, and can survive winds of 55m/s. Rated power at
14m/s is 2.5kW from the synchronous generator.

An effort to mix technologies, that is combining high torque capabilities with high
speed ratio VAWTs is shown in Figure 2.2.10 and Figure 2.2.11.

Figure 2.2.10 Darrieus rotor with increased self start capability from a Savonius rotor,
from www.oswego.edu/nova/facts/wind/wind.html

20 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 2.2.11 Dornier type of Darrieus, www.ifb.uni-stuttgart.de
One of the Dornier Darrieus turbines utilizes 2 Savonius turbines for start up
capability. It was erected at Comodoro Rivadavia, South-Argentina, 1980. The
specifications were:
• rotor diameter 12 m,
• height 17 m,
• rotor area 93 m2,
• NACA profile with 320 mm chord made of aluminium (extruded), 10kg/m.
• Savonius: aluminium rotor, 3- rotors with 3,75 m diameter and 1,55 m,
• Rated power 20 kW at 10,4 m/s , start 4 m/s, rotational speed 80 rpm, max
150 rpm.

3 Aerodynamics
The aerodynamic performance of the blades is one of the major key issues for
performance and cost optimisation. Traditionally, VAWT performance is found to be
about 10% less than HAWT performance. Very little development has been made,
though, to optimise the aerodynamics of VAWTs. It is therefore important to focus
on optimum aerodynamic performance of VAWTs in order to compare with HAWT
performance. In the present chapter a status is made regarding issues on
aerodynamics which focuses on VAWT rotors.

3.1 Profiles for VAWTs

The most common profiles for VAWTs are the symmetrical NACA 00-series four
digit airfoils. The airfoils have been used in three profile thicknesses 12, 15 and 18%
[16]. The profiles are known to be reasonably conservative turbulent airfoils with
stable characteristics for increasing surface roughness. The National Canadian
Research Council, NRC originally focused on the NACA0012 airfoil. This is also
the profiles that was used in the 5m Sandia turbine and in the Danish 4m turbine at
Risø, see [5, 11]

Figure 3.1.1 NACA0012 profile

Risø-I-2613(EN) 21
When ALCOA in the 80'ies started production of extruded aluminium profiles they
increased the thickness to 15% in order to improve the structural characteristics. A
range of four types of profiles were made, as shown in Figure 3.1.2.

Figure 3.1.2 ALCOA aluminium extruded profiles

The ALCOA profiles were used on several Darrieus wind turbine projects, in
experimental as well as for commercially VAWTs.

Sandia Laboratories presented profile characteristics of the NACA 00-series airfoils

[18]. Sandia developed a new airfoil family specifically for Darrieus wind turbines,
[12]. The airfoil family was developed for their 34m rotor design, and was based on
natural laminar flow (NLF). The airfoils were designed to have a very low and wide
drag bucket with abrupt stall characteristics to enable the turbine to produce more
power at low wind speeds than with NACA00-series airfoils and to improve the stall
characteristics at higher wind speeds. This family of airfoils consists of symmetric
airfoils with thicknesses of 15%, 18% and 21%: SAND0015/47, SAND0018/50 and
SAND0021/50. The SAND0018/50 airfoil is compared with the NACA0018 airfoil
in Figure 3.1.3.

22 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 3.1.3 The SAND0018/50 profile compared to the NACA0018 airfoil
The NLF family airfoils perform best at Reynolds numbers between 1 and 5
Millions, which means that they perform best at the outer sections on the blades. For
the 34m rotor it was proposed to use NLF airfoils at the outer section and to use
larger chord NACA00-series airfoils closer to the rotor shaft. This would
significantly improve the cost of energy compared to constant chord NACA00-series
airfoils.

Another study on improved airfoils for VAWTs was made in a master thesis from
Delft University [12]. This study focused on a smaller VAWT at lower Reynolds
number between 300.000 and 700.000, and used the NACA0018 airfoil as a
reference airfoil for comparison. The study looked at the virtual camber principle,
which considers the circular flow around the airfoil due to the rotation. The principle
shows that the airfoil has a quite significant virtual camber. It was therefore
concluded that asymmetrical airfoils should be considered for VAWTs.

Figure 3.1.4 The principle of virtual camber, re. Claessens[12]

The study moved on to consider laminar airfoils in comparison to the turbulent
NACA0018. Real advantages of laminar airfoils over turbulent airfoils were not
found but advantages were found by combining turbulent and laminar airfoil
characteristics in the so-called NLF series of airfoils. On the basis of the NLF-0416
airfoil developed for aircraft, the camber was removed and the thickness was
increased to an NLF0018 airfoil, and from this airfoil adjustments were made to
optimize the performance. The result was the DU 06-W-200 airfoil, see Figure 3.1.5

Risø-I-2613(EN) 23
Figure 3.1.5 VAWT profile developed for small turbines by Claessens [12]
This airfoil is 20% thick and has a camber of 0.8%. The rotor efficiency was
increased by about 5% to 0.48 compared to NACA0018 under clean blade
conditions. In dirty conditions the performance of the DU06-W-200 was reduced but
still with better performance than the NACA0018. The study indicates that real
improved performance can be made with special design profiles for VAWT's.

Another Canadian study was made by Islam [19]. He also investigated airfoils for
small VAWT's. He made a status of VAWT profile design and selected a number of
airfoils for his study: Gö420, GOE420, NACA4415, LS(1)-0417 (also called GAW-
1), NLF(1)-0416 and S1210, and limited it to Reynolds numbers of 100.000 to
300.000.

3.2 Stall control

Stall behaviour is the key element in keeping the loads down at high wind speeds on
stall-regulated wind turbines. Stall characteristics are designed into the airfoil and
rotor characteristics. An airfoil for stall control has two jobs to do: Firstly, to
perform with high efficiency. Secondly, to reduce the efficiency gradually and
controlled at higher wind speeds. Stall control was the most common power
regulation mechanism on the HAWT wind turbine in the 55kW to 1MW ranges. The
smaller HAWTs had originally not very good stall-characteristics. The power
regulation was made by yawing the rotor out of the wind, which leads to fatigue
problems. Good stall characteristics were not reached before the profiles were
changed from NACA44-series airfoils to NACA63-series airfoils. A more significant
reduction of power was reached at high wind speeds. This increased safety margins
significantly, because there was less power to cope with in emergency situations
when the grid accidentally was disconnected.

Good stall characteristics with gradual stall were found on the early smaller wind
Darrieus wind turbines like Sandia 5m with NACA0012 [43] profiles and Risø 4m
[42] with NACA0018 profiles, see Figure 3.2.1 and Figure 3.2.2.

24 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 3.2.1 Stall characteristics of Sandia 5m Figure 3.2.2 Stall characteristics of
with NACA0012 airfoils. The decreasing power Risø 4m with NACA0018 airfoils [42]
after stall at 125rpm is very favourable [43]

Stall behaviour was studied by Gault, [20]. He categorized the stall behaviour as a
function of the nose thickness by the factor z0 / l = 0.0125 , which is the y-
coordinate at 1.25% of the chord length. For increasing z0 / l he found four flow
separation patterns, with different stall behaviour, see Figure 3.2.3. Claessens [12],
plotted the inflow angle at which the flow separation occurred as function of z0 / l
for a Reynolds number Re of 106, see Figure 3.2.4. The two figures give a good
impression of the expected stall pattern for an airfoil with a certain radius of
curvature at the nose. A gradual stall at a high angle of attack is reached for airfoils
with a high nose curvature, as should be the case for the DU06-W-200 airfoil, see
Figure 3.1.5. It does not really seem to be the case in the power curve of the small
wind turbine, see Figure 3.2.5. This may be due to the low Reynolds number Re on
this wind turbine.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 25
 Figure 3.2.4 Inflow angle at flow separation as
Figure 3.2.3 Flow separation patterns
function of nose radius and Re [12]
as function of nose radius and Re [12]

Giromill with DU-W-200 airfoils

0,6 0,03
Cp
0,5 Kp 0,025

Kp=lambda^3*Cp
0,4 0,02
Cp

0,3 0,015

0,2 0,01

0,1 0,005

0 0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
lambda (U/ome*R)

Figure 3.2.5 Non-dimensional power Kp and Cp of Giromill with DU-W-200 profiles

[12]

VAWTs operate with highly varying angles of attack on the profiles, and this has a
certain impact in the stall region. When stall is reached in this region, dynamic stall
must be taken into account. The lift and drag varies in a hysteresis loop and changes
with the Reynolds number, see for instance Figure 3.2.6 for NACA0018 at a
Reynolds number of 500.000 [12].

The present status of development shows that special profiles can be developed for
specific VAWT designs.

26 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 3.2.6 Example of dynamic stall with hysteresis loop [12]

3.3 Self-starting capability

Self-starting capability is a property that has been considered a lot in optimization of
VAWTs. In comparison to HAWTs this was regarded as a disadvantage which was
overcome in different ways. Some designs used Savonius rotors to give positive
torque at stand still, while others tried to build self-starting into the profile design,
for instance see Figure 3.3.1 [12]. The torque is negative for the thinner airfoils
while it seems to be positive for the thick 21% airfoil. If self-starting capability is
needed it may seem as if thick airfoils shall be used.

Figure 3.3.1 Self-starting capability of NACA00-series airfoils. Cp is negative for small

tip speed ratios for the thinnest profiles [12]

In general for large wind turbines it is important that the rotors are off-loaded at
stand still. In fact the most severe accidents on Darrieus wind turbines have
happened during un-expected self-starting. The larger HAWTs all use blade-
feathering at stand still. This means that they do not need to rely on a big brake. For
large Darrieus wind turbines it is a good idea to have bad self-starting capability. The
airfoils and rotors should be designed with this in mind.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 27
3.4 Overspeeding control

Overspeeding control by the use of aerodynamical brakes was very important on the
smaller HAWTs during the 70'ies and 80'ies. The aerodynamical brakes were
implemented as turnable tips, spoilers or parachutes. Turnable tips are not possible
on Darrieus wind turbines, but spoilers (EOLE 4MW) and parachutes have been
tested. Spoilers were tested on a Sandia Darrieus turbine, while parachutes were
tested on the Risø 4m Darrieus turbine. The results were not satisfactory.
Aerodynamical brake devices being mounted on the outer part of the rotor seem to
generate significant drag on the rotor which reduces the efficiency. Several Darrieus
designs have relied on mechanical brakes to stop the rotor during overspeeding
events. This may be satisfactory if the efficiency and reliability of the brake is
proven to be safe.

4 Structure

4.1 Blade structure

Figure 4.1.1 Bending moment distribution of straight bladed VAWTs From [1]

An analytical approach of the consequences of maximum stress in VAWT blades is

shown in Figure 4.1.2, which gives advantages for the Darrieus type with higher
permitted stress level than straight bladed VAWTs. Again the dependency on the
height over diameter ratio is significant.

28 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 4.1.2 Comparison of maximum bending stress for straight blades and tensile
stress for Darrieus [11]
Generally the blades have been made with uniform chord. Sandia [21] tried with
varying the cross sections of a blade along the arc length with joints as shown in
Figure 4.1.3. The Sandia 34 diameter turbine’s two blades incorporated variable
chord and variable section profiles, including the first VAWT specific, natural
laminar flow airfoil sections. Each was step-tapered with five 1.22m long sections.
They were constructed from extruded 6063-T6 aluminium. Profile kinks and joints
are subject to fatigue related failure and they were subject to special interest for
Sandia. A combined analytical/ experimental study of the strength of thick- walled,
adhesively bonded acrylic-to-aluminium and E-glass/epoxy composite-to-aluminium
tubular lap joints under axial load has been conducted [22]. Test results include
strength and failure mode data. Calculated bond stresses are highest in the region of
observed failure, and extensive bond yielding is predicted in the E- glass/epoxy
composite-to-aluminium joint prior to joint failure [22].

Another input is the structural response inherited from the aerodynamic properties of
the lift coefficient track along the angle of attack. Aerodynamic damping has been
investigated for its aeroelastic effects [23], and conclusively the technical impacts of
selecting a proper aerodynamic shape is shown in Figure 4.1.4.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 29
Figure 4.1.3 Blade joint Sandia 34 m [8, 21]

Figure 4.1.4 Aerodynamic damping effects for the Sandia 3m 2 bladed VAWT [21]

Figure 4.1.5 Normal force and tangential force calculations [24]

Figure 4.1.5 shows clearly the difference from the upwind to the downwind azimuth
position of the two blades of the Pioneer I VAWT.

30 Risø-I-2613(EN)
4.2 Blade materials

In the UK, wind turbine blades (mostly for HAWTs) have been manufactured from
wood since the early 1980s. Thousands of these have been produced, and the early
blades have completed 20 years of trouble-free service. These blades are constructed
with a hollow shell moulded in two halves with a shear web bridging between the
two halves. Wood represents approximately 70 per cent of the blade mass, with the
remaining 30 per cent made up of glass cloth, resin and metal inserts for connecting
the blade root to the rotor hub.

PIONEER I, a two-bladed VAWT with rotor height of 15 m and diameter of 14.92m,

had a Troposkien blade shape with a blade chord of 0.75 m. The main bearings on
the top of the tower and in the rotor centre were situated at the inside of the rotor
tube. Both the rotor tube and the turbine tower are made of steel tubes of different
length, diameter and wall thickness. The blades have a NACA 0012 cross section
and are made of glass fibre reinforced polyester (GRP) skins and a polyurethane
foam core [24].

In the EOLE 4MW project, a combination of GRP and steel were used for the blade
section, for which the details can be seen in Figure 4.2.1.

Figure 4.2.1 EOLE 4MW blade section details [3]

Another application by Sustainable Energy is:
• Type: Chinook 250 kW
• Material: 6160 Aluminum Alloy T6 Temper
• Blade chord: 600mm
• Configuration: Symmetrical airfoil shape, 2straight blade sections and 1 curved blade sections
consist of four bonded extrusions
• Total length of each blade: 37.764 m

Risø-I-2613(EN) 31
Glass-fibre reinforced composites (GRP) are the material of choice for many turbine
manufacturers, but carbon-fibre composites offer a higher stiffness-to-weight ratio.
This enables the blades to be lighter and stiffer (depending on the detailed design),
which helps to improve the turbine's performance and reduce the costs associated
with transport to site and installation.

Dermont [25] has designed a paper project WindStor (augmented spring 2006) of a
200 kW turbine with the design specifications:
• 200 kW name plate rated turbine
• Rotor height & diameter: 24 m, (~79 ft)
• Mast height: Range: 30 m 50 m,(100 ft ~ 165 ft)
• Rated temperature: -60 to 40°C
• Swept area: ~ 378m2
• Smaller footprint ~ 20 ft

The design is a development of the 100 kW prototype operational at the Universite

du Quebec en Abitibi-Temiscamingue in Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec, Canada since
October, 2004, see the web details (www.eole.org).

4.3 Rotor support structure

Some information on rotor support structure from the various manufacturers is

provided below for some cited VAWTs:
Sustainable energy
• Type: Chinook 250 kW
• The support structure of the 250 kW Chinook is a lattice-type external frame with steel
members: CSA 40.12 Structural Angle. The steel has a 300 MPa Minimum Yield Point. Corrosion
protection is made by galvanized according to CSA G164-M92.

The concept from VAWT technology Ltd :

• Tower pre-tensioned concrete

Solwind
SPECIFICATIONS (Single pole Tower)
COMPONENTS.
• Diameter. of column: 63mm Galvanized 6mm or 5mm
• Height: 6.5 / 13 / meters Heavy-duty wire rope.
• Number of sections: 1 or 2. 6.5meter lengths of high tensile steel mast section.
• Max. design wind speed: 190 km/hr
• Galvanized base assembly: Galvanized steel turnbuckles
• Galvanized wire rope grips: Galvanized D shackles.

In the 4MW EOLE project, the rotor support structure information is shown from [3]
in Figure 4.3.1.

32 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 4.3.1 The EOLE 4 MW project [3]
The survey on self-supported Darrieus VAWT structures previously mentioned have
not resulted in information on steel quality and other technical details. With the
massive representation of GRP-structures in building technology, construction
modules, blades in wind turbine manufacturing, it is encouraging to investigate the
possibilities for technological application of GRP for support structures. Indeed the
entire rotor inclusive bearings could possibly be made with this technology. GRP
and carbon based modules based on high quality resin and durable fabrication
process are at this point without any further reference being highly light, competitive
in fatigue and ultimate strength, and easily manufactured compared to steel. Another
approach is highly optimized pre-tensioned concrete, as in the case of the VAWT
Ltd. Prototype. The weight is likely enormous for a large VAWT because of the
concrete technique and thickness requirement.

4.4 Bearing concepts

The most projects served as prototype projects with only a few types manufactured,
except for FloWind Corporation and AEDI, which produces turbines in larger
numbers [5]. Journal bearings were manufactured most probably in steel and
mounted on the rotor base. The bearing concept for the guy-wired EOLE 4 MW
Darrieus turbine is shown in Figure 4.4.1. The thrust force at the bending moment is

Risø-I-2613(EN) 33
carried by the lower bearing assembly, as well as the additional normal force from
the tension force of the guy wires. Interesting in this concept is that the rotor ends in
a cone, for concentrating the bearing forces. Only limited details have been found on
this issue during this survey.

Figure 4.4.1 Bearing concept on the EOLE 4 MW drive train, [3]

On Wikipedia, however, it is claimed that there exist Darrieus type turbines not held
up by guy-wires, but with an external support structure connected to the top bearing.
The survey did not provide a result on that. A modern concept as the Dermont
VAWT hub is made of 2 spherical thrust bearings, see Figure 4.4.2 [25]. The one on
the bottom takes the radial and axial load while the one on top only takes the radial
load.

Figure 4.4.2 Bearing sketch on H-VAWT, From IPP-VAWT (left) and Dermont [25]

34 Risø-I-2613(EN)
5 Transmissions and generator
5.1 General
A correct choice of the transmission elements and of the electrical generator is
fundamental to increase the efficiency of all machines and to reduce the costs of
produced electrical power. Another important aspect to consider is the structural
analysis of the transmission systems.

Figure 5.1.1 Electrical power (Pe) generated from the shaft power Pm. and with
efficiency of transmission and generator ηm and ηg [28]
As a result of the development of drive trains for HAWTs, it is worthwile to notice
that technology driven / industrial solutions have been operated on the marked. In
that sense the products might be highly adaptive to the VAWT design. An example
of the mock-up is provided in Figure 5.1.2. A sketch showing the principle
components in a modern gear box are shown in Figure 5.1.3.

Figure 5.1.2 Complete gear box mock-up, from www.windpower.org

Figure 5.1.3 Layout of gear [26]

Risø-I-2613(EN) 35
5.2 Transmissions

Usually a VAWT drive train consists of a low speed shaft (the rotor), the
transmission, the brakes and a high speed shaft connected with an induced generator.
Other used elements can be a clutch and a brake. The main variables of the system
are the relative position of the brakes and the clutch and the number of gear stages.
These variables determine the final efficiency of the turbine and the structural
scheme of the systems.

Figure 5.2.1 Physical representation of the drive train of DOE/ALCOA Low Cost 17m
VAWT installed at Rocky Flats, CO and studied at Sandia Laboratories. [28]

36 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 5.2.2 DOE/ALCOA Low Cost 17 m height Darrieus turbine installed at Rocky
Flats, CO [28]
The drive train of the Chinook 2000 VAWT is shown in Figure 5.2.3. It is located on
the ground in order to reduce the maintenance costs and consists of a three stage
gears box (40:1 ratio) with a right angle output shaft, the lubrication is forced by a
motor driven pump. The turbine is equipped with two mechanical braking systems,
one on the high speed shaft and another one on the low speed shaft; the gear box is
located between the two brakes systems.

Figure 5.2.3 Drive train of the Chinook 2000 VAWT [40]

The drive train of 34m Sandia VAWT consisted of a Brad Foot Model 3RV-2250-s,s
a three stage parallel gearbox, 1:47.1 gear ratio, with a right angle on the last stage.
By the Brad Foot catalogue, it has to be considered a loss of 1.5% of the load for

Risø-I-2613(EN) 37
each gear stage; an extra 0.3-0.4% is due to the right angle gear. The estimated
losses for all the transmission system is shown below (Figure 5.2.4).

Figure 5.2.4 Transmission losses for the 34 meters Sandia VAWT [28]
For the drive train of the 100 kW Dermond Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (Figure
5.2.5), the safety system consists of two systems, one electric and one mechanical.

Figure 5.2.5 100 kW Dermond Vertical Axis Wind Turbine [41]

To increase the speed a speed increaser is used, with a gear ratio of 11:1. The chosen
one is the Sumitomo Cyclo 6000 and has special joints for vertical assembly and a
flange to facilitate the installation (Figure 5.2.6).

Figure 5.2.6 SM Cyclo series 6000 speed increaser used on 100 kW Dermond VAWT
[41]

38 Risø-I-2613(EN)
5.3 Transmission efficiency
The best transmission efficiency depends on the turbine and of the generator used. G.
L. Johnson considers in his work [27] the transmission losses and found efficiencies
shown in Figure 5.3.1 for different numbers of gear stages. The efficiency of
transmission goes down with increasing number of gears stages. Sandia Laboratories
studied transmission for the Low Cost 17m Darrieus [28], [29], see Figure 5.2.2. A
maximum gear ratio of 1:6 has been considered and the synchronous generator has a
speed of 1800 rpm. The speed of the turbine in the rated conditions depends on the
wind speed. In [27] the operating speed of 42 and 52.5 rpm is analyzed, for 11 m/s
and 15.5 m/s wind speed, respectively.

Figure 5.3.1 Efficiency for one, two and three gears stage. A loss of 2% for each stage
has been considered [27]
A transmission system ideally has to operate close to 1 as in Figure 5.3.1. Johnson
notes that sometimes it is better to choose the number of stages less as possible,
which means greater efficiency at a less expensive solution. In the case of the
Darrieus turbine of Figure 5.2.2 the best conditions were found for the high speed of
the rotor of 52.5 rpm.

5.4 The structural analysis and the slip clutch solution

To improve the performances and reduce the costs also a structural analysis of
transmissions has to be considered. The drive train of the turbine of Figure 5.2.2 has
been analysed [28]. The brakes are usually mounted on the high speed shaft on
commercial VAWTs. Realizing a proper transmission is to transmit the maximum
rated torque and avoiding high torque values in the drive train during the start-up and
braking. Indeed literature indicates torque peaks of 2 or 3 times the rated one during
start-up and braking. In Figure 5.4.1 the torque on the low speed shaft of the Low
Cost 17m VAWT during start-up is shown. A generator with rated speed of 1800
rpm was used. Since it is the coupling of the generator and the rotor that cause this

Risø-I-2613(EN) 39
increase of torque, a slip clutch can partially solve the problem, as is indicated in
Figure 5.4.2.

Figure 5.4.1. Torque on the low speed shaft without the clutch for the Low Cost 17m
VAWT start-up in zero wind [29]

Figure 5.4.2 Torque on low speed shaft with the slip clutch for the Low Cost 17m VAWT
start up in zero wind [29]
In Figure 5.4.3 and Figure 5.4.4 the torques transmitted on the motor in the same
cases are shown.

40 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 5.4.3. Motor torque for the Low Cost 17m VAWT start-up without the clutch [29]

Figure 5.4.4. Motor torque for the Low Cost 17m VAWT start-up with clutch [29]

5.5 Torque ripple in VAWT

A VAWT produces time periodic aerodynamic loads which cause time dependent
torque variations, referred to as torque ripple, to occur in the mechanical link
between the turbine and the electrical generator. Sandia Laboratory has studied [29]
the effect of torque ripple on the Low Cost 17m VAWT. Three solutions are
mentioned to reduce this ripple:
1. reduce the torsional rigidity of the drive train;
2. reduce power losses;
3. add rotational inertia along the drive train.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 41
5.6 Generators efficiency and design
Literature usually divided the losses due to the generator in fixed (eddy currents,
hysteresis, windage and bearing friction) and variable losses (copper losses). Since
some losses are proportional to the motor surface and other ones to the volume,
larger generator seem to ensure a better efficiency as reported in [27] and shown in
Figure 5.6.1.

Figure 5.6.1. Efficiency for different size generators [27]

However it is useful to note that sometimes it can be better to choose an undersized
generator in order to save costs and weights, and to work at a higher average system
efficiency [27].
The 250 kW Chinook VAWT is equipped with 3-phase induction motor, the nominal
Voltage is 400 V / 480 V, the nominal frequency is 50 Hz / 60 Hz.
The 34m Sandia VAWT [21] used as generator a General Electric 700-kW
synchronous motor with these characteristics:
• Type: variable speed synchronous AC
• Rating: 625 kVA
• Voltage: 1200 V
• Speed: 280 / 1900 rpm
• Frequency 60 Hz
Also an adjustable-speed load-commutated inverter (LCI) driver is used. The motor
has efficiency at rated power of 0.94. The total losses at full load, including the LCI,
inductor, reactor and motor/generator are shown in Figure 5.6.2.

42 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 5.6.2 Estimated generator losses for the General Electric 700-kW motor used for
the 34m Sandia VAWT [28]

5.7 Direct drive generator (gearless solution)

Gearboxes represent a costly percentage of the power drive train. For this reason a
possible technological solution it is to consider a generator directly connected to a
gearless wind turbine [30]. A 27kW prototype generator has been tested and the
author summarizes the results in this way:
1. the losses at no load are less than 3% of the nominal electrical power;
2. the torque at standstill is less than 2% of the nominal torque;
3. the efficiency is greater than 82% (without AC-capacitor) when the electrical
power is over 8% of the nominal electrical power.
4. the maximal efficiency is better than 90% when a three phase AC-capacitor
is used
The direct PM-generator is suitable for wind turbines because at low load the
efficiency is relatively high compared to a standard drive train with a gearbox and an
asynchronous generator.
Another case story of direct connection of the turbine to the generator is realized for
the marine vertical axis Kobold turbine placed in Messina Street, Italy [31]. In this
work it is described, how a rectifier and a DC/AC converter (Figure 5.7.1) is used,
when the generator is directly coupled to the turbine.

From the To the

generator DC/AC grid

Figure 5.7.1. Physical representation of rectifier and DC/AC converter used for the
marine vertical axis Kobold turbine in Messina Street [31]

It can be considered, with this solution, also to change arbitrarily the frequency. The
100 kW Dermond VAWT is equipped with an ABB permanent magnet generator,
the M3BP315LK-4-12 (Figure 5.7.2).

Risø-I-2613(EN) 43
Figure 5.7.2. The ABB permanent magnet generator used on the Dermond VAWT [41.
The patented North Wind 100 System by Distributed Energy Systems, consists of a
100 kW rated power generator directly connected to the turbine (Figure 5.7.3).

Figure 5.7.3 North wind 100 System: passively-cooled, permanent magnet, direct drive
generator eliminates the drive train gearbox and maximizes energy capture, from
www.distributed-energy.com
The General Electrics proposes a particular control system, the LVRT (Low voltage
Ride-thru Technology) that provides an interrupted power service of the turbines
(Figure 5.7.4).

Figure 5.7.4 The LVRT system studied by GE. Wind Turbine would trip off-line on any
voltage sag below 70%; with the LVRT system they ride through severe grid
disturbances, from www.ge.com

44 Risø-I-2613(EN)
5.8 Multi-pole generators
In order to achieve a gearless construction for wind turbines, a low speed multi-pole
generator is required. Due to gearless construction and the permanent magnet (PMG)
excitation the multi-pole synchronous generators represent a high efficient and low
maintenance solution, which can be beneficial for offshore wind turbines.

A turbine manufacturer in this technology is Lagerwey with Windmaster, whose

turbine models contain a model of a PMG, a model of full-load back-to-back
converter and its generic control, and a model of the mechanical system. Another
company, Weier Elektromotorenwerk (www.weier-energie.de) offers a pole-
switchable, fluid cooled, asynchronous generator, model DASGM 450/6-4L. The
characteristics can be summarized as:
• Cooling: Water
• Poles: 4-6
• Power: 160-750 kW
• Voltage: 690V
• Frequency: 50 Hz
• Efficiency: 94.7 - 97.1
• Speed: 1004 - 1506 min-1
• Weight: 2850 Kg

Austrian Elin EBG Motoren offers a big selection of generators as shown below.

Figure 5.8.1 PMG of Elin EBG Motoren from www.elinebgmotoren.at

Ningbo Energy International Trading proposes a 2MW multi-pole permanent magnet

generator of the weight of 49 ton and the dimensions of 3.9m x 2m.

The lower cost of power electronics has made it possible to avoid the speed increaser
entirely or in part for large wind turbines [28]. Whatever scheme is adopted for the
drive train, it has been argued that the most convenient configuration is one in which
it is mounted on the ground rather than enclosed in a nacelle on top of a tower. A
ground-based system should be more cost-effective to install and to maintain and
should accommodate more innovative designs. Indeed some innovative drive
systems have been incorporated into VAWTs. The Indal 6400 used a large bull gear

Risø-I-2613(EN) 45
to drive two pinions and generators; it combined this with hydrodynamic bearings
and the bull gear also served as brake pad. Adecon experimented with a single stage
belt drive speed increaser and Hydro Quebec’s 4-MW Eole incorporated a large
diameter direct electrical drive.

Straight-bladed VAWTs (H-rotors) have sometimes placed the drive train at ground
level or in the tower just below the rotor bearing. The justification for the latter is the
expense of a low-speed drive shaft extending all the way down a tower. The large
diameter generators required for direct drive are undoubtedly more suited to
installation on the ground than in a nacelle on top of a tower.

5.9 Transmission components - weights and costs

The selection of the type of transmission with conventional gearbox and generator or
a gearless generator may be a question of the size of wind turbine, and weights. A
study [30] shows the size effects of weights and prices for the two types of
transmission. A basic comparison of a design for a 500kW HAWT wind turbine is a
weight of 6.5ton and a price of 625,000DKR of a PMG transmission and 8ton and a
price of 475,000DKR for a conventional transmission (prices 1995). For a 1500kW
design the weight of the transmission system is estimated at 17.1ton of the
conventional design and about 40 ton of a PGM design. This indicates a
disadvantage of a PGM design for larger HAWTs, but it may not be the case for
VAWTs where the generator is positioned on the ground or as low as possible.

The PMG generator increases in diameter with the size [30]. The diameter has a
direct influence on the possibilities for transportation. A 3m diameter generator can
be transported in a container while a 5m diameter generator can be transported on a
flatbed truck. Larger diameters may be built on site. The outer diameters are shown
in Figure 5.9.1 for various PMG designs.

Figure 5.9.1 Outer diameter of PM generators for various PMG configurations, [30]

A conceptual survey of component for wind turbines [32] shows the weight and
price scaling effects of generator and gearboxes. For conventional gears the specific
weight seems to be rather constant value of 7 ton/MW, at least up to 2.5MW, see

46 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 5.9.2. The specific weight of conventional generators seems to be decreasing
with the size of generator, see Figure 5.9.3. The specific price of generators also
seems to decrease with the size, as shown in Figure 5.9.4. In general, it can thus be
said that the mass of conversional transmission system with a gearbox and a
generator decreases relatively with the size.

Figure 5.9.2 Weight of gearboxes for different sizes of generator [32]

Figure 5.9.3 Specific weight of different types of generators with size [32]

Risø-I-2613(EN) 47
Figure 5.9.4 Specific price of different types of generators with size [32]

6 Offshore VAWTs
The experiences of offshore VAWT projects are limited. On the other hand, a range
of interesting proposals have been made. Examples of projects that have been
realized and other projects that only reached the drawing board are presented in the
following chapters.

6.1 Pioneer I
The first example of a VAWT on a floating foundation was made in Amsterdam in
1980 [33], see Figure 6.1.1. The Pioneer I project was a two-bladed Darrieus rotor
with a self-supporting tower positioned on a flat floating platform in a lake. Nominal
power was 94 kW and the rotor diameter and rotor height was 15m. The rotor was
supported by a main bearing in the middle of the rotor to take the thrust, and another
lower bearing at the bottom of the rotor to take varying loads, see Figure 6.1.2. The
blades were 0.75m chord NACA0012 profiles made of glassfiber reinforced
polyester. The skins were made up of a core of pulltruded GRP profiles bonded to
GRP laminates. Trailing and leading edges were stiffened with additional pulltruded
GRP profiles, and the blade core was made of pre-shaped polyurethane foam. The
generator was a DC machine connected to a DC/AC conversion system, which
allowed for varying the rotor speed.
The power curve was measured at three different rotational speeds, as shown in
Figure 6.1.3. At 30 and 40rpm the power seems to be controlled reasonably good by
the stall. The turbine was run for a couple of years.

48 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 6.1.1 Pioneer I on floating Figure 6.1.2 Sketch of Pioneer I
platform in Amsterdam 1980 [33] showing the main components [33]

Figure 6.1.3 Non-dimensional power curve of the Pioneer I [33]

6.2 The Wagner rotor

The Wagner rotor is a floating offshore concept that is a hybrid of a HAWT and a
VAWT, [34]. The idea behind the concept is to combine the best of HAWT (good
swept area per unit blade length and good aerodynamic efficiency) with the best of a
VAWT (low location for heavy parts and supported blades). The development form
a HAWT to the Wagner rotor is shown in Figure 6.2.1. In this figure the blades and
nacelle of the GROWIAN wind turbine are tilted to indicate the functionality of the
Wagner rotor. A photograph of a vessel with the rotor is shown in Figure 6.2.2, and a
sketch showing the arrangement of the 55º tilted rotor is shown in Figure 6.2.3. The
rotor was tested in 1981 but the plans for larger ship-mounted vessels have not been
reported.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 49
Figure 6.2.1 The idea of the Wagner rotor [34]

Figure 6.2.2 Picture of the Wagner rotor on the ship [34]

Figure 6.2.3 Sketch of the arrangement of the Wagner rotor on the ship [34]

6.3 Olle Ljungström

In the 70'ies and 80'ies Olle Ljungström of FFA in Sweden developed a range of
vertical axis offshore concepts that never reached further than to the drawing board.

50 Risø-I-2613(EN)
The concepts are all in the MW or multi-MW size range and are based on
foundations on the sea bed. The 20MW and 180m diameter L-180 Poseidon was
described in [35], see Figure 6.3.1. This turbine is based on the L-concept, which
means that the two rotor blades are set at a 90º angle instead of the usual 180º. This
means that a counterweight needs to be mounted on the opposite side. The L-concept
changes the peak loads twice a revolution for the 180º blade setting to four times a
revolution, which reduces significantly the load oscillations and gives a more
continuous thrust load. The base ring of the rotor is 60m wide. It has a central main
bearing, founded in the sea bed, see Figure 6.3.2. The outer ring has a number of
horizontal rollers that takes vertical loads, see Figure 2.1.11. The rollers are coupled
to 14 generators. The base ring is supported by 12 supporting pillars founded in the
sea bed. The blades are made of extruded aluminium and are based on the DB
(Double Blade) concept. This concept has two blades over each other to support
strength of the blades and to reduce weight. The L-concept should also have the
advantage that survival wind speed loads are reduced since the two blades will
weathercock to the downwind side and avoid the upwind aerodynamic buckling
criterion, which would be the case for a three-bladed turbine.
The total system weight of the L-180 was 14000 tons for water depth 15m. The
investment costs (1980) was 65 million SKR, and the cost of energy was estimated at
0,18 SKR/kWh.

Figure 6.3.1 L-180 Poseidon proposal of an offshore VAWT by O Ljungström [35]

Risø-I-2613(EN) 51
Figure 6.3.2 L-180 Roller ring arrangement [35]

Figure 6.3.3 L-180 Double Blade design detail [35]

The concept was further elaborated [36], in which an LDB-125 baseline concept
with a 10MW nominal power and a 125m diameter rotor was sketched, see Figure
6.3.5. A downscaling and a range of sizes were also analysed, see Figure 6.3.5. The
rotor was still the DB concept with NACA0018 profiles, extruded from aluminium
in sections that are connected, see Figure 6.3.6. The power curve of the wind turbine
is shown in Figure 6.3.7. The losses of the system are also sketched, and the annual
energy production is estimated. The estimated cost of energy (1982) is shown in
Figure 6.3.8 for the whole range of LDB designs.
Ljungström presented some further concepts in [37]. The TRIOL concept has a rotor
with swept blades which smoothen out the load peaks, see Figure 6.3.9. The inclined
shaft concept in Figure 6.3.10 utilizes a tetrahedral supporting structure.

52 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 6.3.4 The baseline LDB-125 concept with 10MW nominal power and a rotor
diameter of 125m, derived from L-180 [35]

Figure 6.3.5 LDB -Downscaled and improved concepts of the L-180 [36]

Risø-I-2613(EN) 53
Figure 6.3.6 Blade sections for the LDB-125 concept [36]

Figure 6.3.7 Power curve and losses of the LDB-125 concept, and energy output
estimate for 9.5m/s average wind speed [36]

54 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 6.3.8 Cost of energy of the LDB series VAWT's [36]

Figure 6.3.9 The TRIOL concept with blade sweep that smoothen out load peaks and
rotor torque [37]

Risø-I-2613(EN) 55
Figure 6.3.10 The inclined shaft concept which utilizes a tetrahedral supporting system
[37]

6.4 VAWT
The VAWT project in UK also studied offshore concepts [38], see Figure 6.4.1. The
construction was based on a foundation on the sea bed, Figure 6.4.2. The nominal power
was 4.5MW and the rotor diameter 100m. The tower is a 'stiff' tower with a diameter of
7m and a hub height of 60m above sea level and standing in water of 20m depth. The
machines were expected to be constructed at a facility on the coast, erected inshore and
then towed into position offshore.

Figure 6.4.1 Artists view of an offshore wind farm with VAWT wind turbines [38]

56 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Figure 6.4.2 Sketch of the offshore VAWT system arrangement [38]

7 Summary
The literature survey [39] shows, that various design studies and demonstration
projects have been carried out and that these in broad terms have been recognized to
initiate the concepts on paper and to test the technology in demonstration projects up
to 4 MW size. Rather than in detail to pinpoint every citation, we decided to
summarize on the findings from the survey on subjects that are likely to have a
chance for introduction to commercial use. The summary conclusions on known
concepts are presented here:
Vertical axis with straight blades designs:
• The VAWTs with straight blades and no pitch suffer from parasitic drag
along with support struts
• The VAWTs with straight blades and cyclic pitch suffer from malfunction
and non-effective (non-ideal) pitch mechanisms and blade junctions
• The idea of VAWTs with straight blades involves non compensative effects
on blade tension and gravity loading
• The VAWTs with straight blades can self start and can be controlled due to
over speed
Darrieus type designs:
• Guyed concepts are complex in frequency response due to turbulence and
gusts
• They have no or limited self-starting capability ( CP<0 up to TSR of 2-3)
• Blade stress problems due to parked or idling operation

The concepts were studied in more detail on a range of topics comprehending with
existing technology on VAWTs and floating platforms: aerodynamics, structure,
transmission/drive train, materials for blade, and other main components.

Risø-I-2613(EN) 57
8 Selected references

1. Development and evaluation of passive variable-pitch vertical axis turbine, N.C.K.

Pawsey, University of New South Wales, November 2002

2. Guy cable design and damping for vertical axis wind turbines, T.C. Garne,
SAND80-2669, Sandia National Labs.

3. Project EOLE S. Quraeshi et al, Solwind 85

4. Strategies for the evaluation of advanced wind energy concepts, P. South et al,
SERI SP-635-1142, Dec 1983

5. Darrieusvindmøller, baggrund og perspektiver, T.F.Pedersen et al,Risø-M-2538

august 1985

6. WindPACT Rotor Design Study:Hybrid Tower Design, D.J. Malcolm Global

Energy Concepts LLC Kirkland, Washington April 2004 NREL/SR-500-35546 •

7. Blade shape for a vertical axis wind turbine, B. Blackwell et al, SLA-74-0154,
Sandia National Labs 1974

8. Developments in Blade Shape Design for a Darrieus Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Timothy M. Leonard SAND086-1085 September 1986

9. Practical Approximations to a Troposkien by straight lines and circular-arc

segments, G. Reis et all. Sandia074-0100

10. Fluid dynamic aspects of wind energy conversion, O.de Vries, NLR
Agardograph 243, 1979

11. Aerodynamisk og svingningsteoretisk undersøgelse af en Darrieusrotor,

U.S:Paulsen et al, Risø-M-2551 VolI, VolII

12. The Design and Testing of Airfoils for Application in Small Vertical Axis Wind
Turbines M.C. Claessens , Tu Delft November 2006

13. http://cordis.europa.eu/opet/fiches/rwe-8.htm

14. A needed change in orientation. Pierce, WindTech international October 2007

15. VAWTs:Tilting at windmills Utility-scale VAWTs: towards 10MW and beyond?
George Marsh and Steven Peace Article outline ScienceDirect Sept. 2005

16. SJ Miley A Catalog of Low Reynolds Number Airfoil Data for Wind Turbine
Applications, Feb 1982, NTIS

17. RE Sheldah, PC Klimas, Aerodynamic Characteristics of Seven Symmetrical

Airfoil Sections Through 180-Degree Angle of Attack for Use in Aerodynamic
Analysis of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines, March 1981, SAND80-2114

58 Risø-I-2613(EN)
18. DE Berg, Structural Design of the Sandia 34-Meter Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine,
April 1985, SAND84-1287

19. M Islam, DSK Ting, A Fartaj, Desirable Airfoil Features for Smaller-Capacity
Straight-Bladed VAWT, Wind Engineering Volume 31, No. 3, 2007, pp165-196

20. DE Gault, A correlation of low-speed, airfoil-section stalling characteristics with

Reynolds number and airfoil geometry. NACA TN3963, 1957

21. Measured data for the Sandia 34-meter vertical axis wind turbine by Thomas D.
Ashwill Sand91-228 1992

22. Tubular lap joints for wind turbine applications, Reedy et al Sandia -90-1978C,
Energy-sources technology conference and exhibition, Houston, TX (USA), 20-24
Jan 1991

23. Aeroelastic Effects in the Structural Dynamic Analysis of Vertical Axis Wind
Turbines Lobitz et all. Sand85-092 1986

24. Dynamics of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (Darrieus Type), ABDEL AZIM EL-
SAYED et al .International Journal of Rotating Machinery 1995, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.
33-41

25. http://web.mckenziebay.com/

26. Design optimisation of a wind turbine gearbox and bearings, ND Butler

Cranfield 2006
27. Gary L. Johnson: “Wind Energy Systems”, November 2001
28. David B. Clauss, Thomas G. Carne: “Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Drive Train
Transient Dynamics”, Sandia Report, 1980
29. Robert C. Reuter, Mark H. Worstell: “Torque Ripple in a Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine”, Sandia Report, April 1978
30. Lars M. Soendergaard: “Testing of a direct drive Generator for Wind Turbines”,
Wind Power 1996, Annual Conference and Exhibition of the American Wind Energy
Association
31. Erik Segergren, Karin Nilsson, D. P. Coiro, Mats Leijon: “Design of a Very Low
Speed PM Generator for the Patented Kobold Tidal Current Turbine”, Energy Ocean
2004, West Palm Beach, Florida
32. L.H. Hansen, et.al. "Conceptual Survey of Generators and Power Electronics for
Wind Turbines", Risø-R-1205(EN), December 2001
33 L.A.H. Machielse, "The 15m Vertical Axis Wind Turbine PIONER I - Description
and Experiences", European Wind Energy Conference, 22-26 October 1984 Hamburg,
pp 138-144
34 Wagner, "Floating WAGNER-rotor concept and first experience", European Wind
Energy Conference, 22-26 October 1984 Hamburg, pp 222-224
35 O. Ljungström, "L-180 Poseidon" - A new System Concept in Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine Technology", Third International Symposium on Wind Energy Systems, August
26-29, 1980, Copenhagen, pp 333-355

Risø-I-2613(EN) 59
36. B. Bergkvist, O. Ljungström, B Stenström, "Aspects of Large LDB-type Vertical
Axis Wind Turbine Design", Fourth International Symposium on Wind Energy Systems,
September 21-24 1982, pp 261-281
37. O. Ljungström, "Some innovative concepts in axial flow and cross flow wind turbine
systems", European Wind Energy Association Conference and Exhibition 7-9 October
1986, Rome, Italy, pp 657-668
38 I.D. Mays, "Progress with the UK Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Programme",
European Wind Energy Conference 22-26 October 1984 Hamburg, pp130-137

39 VAWT Literature Survey, Risø-I-2612(EN), October 2007

40 “Chinook 2000, Reliable Energy Anywhere”, Sustainable Energy Technology-

www.suistanableenergy.com

41 Dermond wind vertical axis presentation

42 Eksperimentel bestemmelse af en Darrieusrotors opførsel i fri vind, T.F.Pedersen,

F.Rasmussen, Risø-M2280

43 Aerodynamic Performance of a 5-Metre- Diameter Darrieus Turbine With

Extruded Aluminum NACA-0015 Blades, R.E.Sheldahl, P.C. Klimas, L.V. Feltz –
Sandia, SAND80-0179

44 Wind Turbine Design, Ion Paraschivoiu, Polytechnic International Press

45 Kapitler af vindkraftens historie I Danmark, 4. årgang, Januar 2008.

60 Risø-I-2613(EN)
Risø’s research is aimed at solving concrete
problems in the society.

Research targets are set through continuous

dialogue with business, the political system and
researchers.

The effects of our research are sustainable energy

supply and new technology for the health
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Risø-I-2613(EN) 61