Asian Journal

Asian Research Consortium of Research in

Social Sciences
and
Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities
Vol. 5, No. 12, December 2015, pp.115-125. Humanities
ISSN 2249-7315 www.aijsh.org

EFL Learners’ Achievement Goals in Relation with their

Metacognitive Listening Strategy Use
Mehrdad Nazarieha, Mohammad Shariatib
a
Master Student of TEFL TESL, Kerman Institute of Higher Education Kerman, , Iran.
b
English Professor (PhD) at Kerman Institute of Higher Education Kerman, , Iran.

DOI NUMBER-10.5958/2249-7315.2015.00266.X

Abstract
The present study aimed at finding the relationship between the subscales of achievement goals and the
frequency of metacognitive listening strategies (MLS) Iranian EFL learners use, and tried to explore any
significant differences between males and females regarding achievement goals and metacognitive
Listening strategy use. 104 senior and junior students majoring in English Literature and English
Translation in Shahid Bahonar and Azad Universities of Kerman participated in this study. In order to
obtain the required data, two questionnaires were administered: Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ)
developed by Elliot and McGregor (2001) to measure the participants’ achievement goal orientations, and
Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) developed by Vandergrift et al. (2006) to
measure the participants’ frequency of metacognitive listening strategy use. Results demonstrated that
concerning the relationship between achievement goals and the frequency of metacognitive listening
strategies, a significant positive relationship was found. The findings of this study also discovered that
regarding the performance-approach and MLS use, no significant relationship was found. Performance-
avoidance had a significant negative relationship with MLS use, mastery-approach had a significant
positive one, and mastery-avoidance had no significant relationship with MLS use. Additionally, gender
did not have any effects on the learners’ MLS use.

Keywords: Metacognition, Listening Strategies, Achievement Goals, English as a Foreign Language

(EFL)

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Vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 115-125

1. Introduction
It is proposed that many second language (L2) programs have been including listening as an
indispensable part of their classroom activities (Brown, 1987; Devine, 1978; Dunkel, 1991). Listening is
considered as a recurrently mode of communication in the field of learning milieu and should render
some authentic achievements (Goh, 2008). According to some of the recent researchers, authenticity is an
outcome of evidence-based approaches that are among the advanced trends in the field (e.g., Flowerdew
& Miller, 2005; Lynch, 1998; Macaro, Graham & Vanderplank, 2007; Rubin 1994). Evidence-based
approaches are delineated in some related facets, one of which is metacognitive approach (Chamot, 1995
& Vandergrift, 2004). In fact, most of the successful learners use metacognitive knowledge as one of their
main mental characteristics (Birjandi, 2006). Metacognition, as called the seventh sense by Nisbet and
Shucksmith (1986) is profoundly influenced by the achievement goals, a factor that has an impact on
strategy use (Vrugt & Oort, 2008), but there has been a dearth of studies examining metacognitive
listening strategies use and its relationship with the achievement goals. Therefore, this study aims at
investigating the Iranian English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ achievement goals and its
subscales in relation with their metacognitive listening strategy (MLS) preferences, considering gender
differences in MLS use.

2. Achievement Goals Orientations

Research in the area of human motivation has developed during the last century and considering the last
two decades a great deal of attention has been paid to achievement goal orientations (Dweck, 1986;
Nicholls, 1984). Achievement goal theory was first introduced in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s (Elliot
& Harackiewicz, 1996; Shih, 2005).Achievement goals are moderately established orientations that the
learners bring to the learning environment (Lehmann, 2002). The theory of achievement goal describes
general goal orientations that involve the outcomes, reasons and purposes learners are going after when
approaching and participating in a specific task (Gutman, 2006; Sins Vanjoohngen, Saveisbergn, & Hout-
Wolters, 2008; Bipp Steinmayr & Spinath, 2008). This theory primarily emphasized on two frames of
reference related to achievement: namely, mastery and performance goals (Ames, 1992; Dweck &
Leggett, 1998). While performance goals focus on demonstrating competence, or ability, mastery goals
concern learning and understanding the task, and improving the competence skills (Elliot &
Harackiewicz, 1996; Church & Elliot, 1997; Pintrich, 2000; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002; Pintrich,
Conley & Kemper, 2003; Shih, 2005). This initial distinction of mastery versus performance goals
established from studies signifying that more positive results are associated with mastery goals while less
desired outcomes are related to performance goals (Ames, 1992; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). According to
Vrugt and Oort (2008), opposite motives are involved with performance goals, to be exact, the aim at an
optimal performance and the avoidance of an undesired one. Considering these opposite factors, different
researchers (e.g., Elliot, 1997; Elliot & Church, 1997) have set forth a framework in which the
performance goal concept is diverged into two subparts called approach and avoidance types of
regulation. Vrugt and Oort (2008) continued that, “A performance-approach goal orients the student
towards achieving higher levels than others and demonstrating high ability. With a performance-
avoidance goal the student is concerned with avoidance of the demonstration of low ability or appearing
stupid” (p. 125). In other words, concerning Elliot and McGregor’s (2001) 2 × 2 achievement goal
framework, two primary dimensions, including definition (performance vs. mastery) and valence
(approach vs. avoidance) are combined together to form achievement goals. Several studies have been
carried out to find the importance of each of these goals in this 2 × 2 model (Conroy, Elliot, & Hofer,
2003; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Finney, Pieper, & Barron, 2004; Van Yperen, 2003).

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Another kind of motivation in the field of educational studies, namely, work avoidance has also been
added to the previously discussed four factor model (Harackiewicz, Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot, 1997;
Pieper, 2003).

3. Metacognitive Listening Strategies

According to Chamot (2004) different learners use different strategies and approaches to improve their
learning. In fact, learning strategies are those actions used by different learners to have a more
flourishing, autonomous and pleasant language learning (Oxford, 1989). One of these learning strategies
which was first introduced by Flavell in the 1970s and has extensively appealed to the educational field is
metacognition (Baker, 2005; Brown, 1987; Samuels, Ediger, Willcut & Palumbo, 2005). It was first in
1990 when Oxford classified language learning strategies (LLS) into six rudimentary types. Regarding
the six types, Metacognitive strategies, the individual’s stages of consciousness (Wenden, 1998), is
comprised of independent processes of planning, monitoring, problem-solving and finally evaluating
(Chamot, 2004). Metacognitive listening strategies include directing and thinking about the listening
course. That is to say, metacognitive listening strategies consist of planning before commencing a
listening task and dealing with problem-solving, monitoring, and self-assessment actions during a
listening activity. A great deal of research has been conducted in certain areas considering the practicality
of metacognitive strategies in distinct language skills (e.g., Brown, 1978; O’Malley & Chamot 1990;
Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1998; Winne, 1995 as cited in Goh, 2008). Listening has not been an exception.
For instance, a metacognitive listening cycle was proposed by Vandergrift in 2004 to help the learners
make a proper use of listening strategies so that they could regulate their listening comprehension abilities
(Goh, 2008). It was then in 2006 when Vandergrift along with Goh, Mareschal, and Tafaghodtari revised
the suggested sequence and devised a questionnaire to recognize the metacognitive strategies the learners
use in doing a listening task.

4. Review of Literature
There has been few research conducted on the relationship between metacognition and achievement goals
with the emphasis on listening. However, there are some relevant researches available in the literature
regarding the relationship between metacognition and achievement goals. Vrugt and Oort (2008) in a
study investigated metacognition, achievement goals, study strategies and academic achievement as
pathways to achievement. Their study showed a positive relationship of mastery goals and a negative
relationship of performance-avoidance goals with metacognition. Metacognition also positively affected
the use of the four study strategies. The findings also indicated positive effects of mastery and
performance-approach goals on the use of metacognitive strategies. It was also reported that the use of
metacognitive and resource management strategies had a positive effect on exam scores.
Deyreh and Banijamali (2009) carried out a research to study the effect and contribution of motivational
factors (self-efficacy, mastery goals, and instrumentality) on cognitive and metacognitive strategies used
in learning processes. They found that cognitive and metacognitive strategies were influenced by
perceived instrumentality, mastery goals, and self-efficacy.
Pintrich and DeGroot (1990), and Pintrich and Garcia (1991) found that the learners who select mastery
goal orientations show higher levels of cognitive and metacognitive strategies than those who focus on
proving their abilities to others or avoiding the perception of incompetence. Moreover, a moderate to
strong positive relationship was found between learners’ use of metacognitive strategies and their
academic achievement. A lot of research has been carried out on metacognition in relation with the
subscales of achievement goal. According to Schraw, Horn, Thorndike-Christ and Burning (1995), those
learners who strongly take on mastery goals reported more metacognitive knowledge than students with

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Vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 115-125

less strong mastery goals. With performance approach subscale Schraw et al. (1995) found that there was
no relation between performance approach and metacognitive knowledge. Moreover, the results of
Sperling, Howard, Staley and DuBois (2004) demonstrated that there is no significant relation between
extrinsic goals and the participation in metacognitive activities. Luwel, Torbey, and Verschaffel (2003)
implemented interviews to gather data about six grade metacognitive knowledge and regulation. In the
study of Sperling et al. (2004) first-year students completed the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory
(MAI). Both studies reported that the engagement in metacognitive activities was highly related to the use
of all related strategies.

5. Research Questions
This study aimed to address the following research questions:
1) Are there any significant relationships between achievement goals and the frequency of metacognitive
listening strategies Iranian EFL learners use?
2) Are there any significant relationships between the subscales of achievement goals and the learner’s
overall metacognitive listening strategies use?
3) Are there any significant differences between males and females regarding their metacognitive
listening strategy use?

6. Methodology
6.1. Participants
The subjects chosen for this study were 104 male and female senior and junior EFL students majoring in
English at Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman and Kerman Institute of Higher Education. Since the
present study took gender and two levels of junior and senior students into account, the participants were
selected by random stratified sampling.
The underlying principle behind selecting freshman and sophomore students was due to this study’s aim
at identifying the EFL learners’ metacognitive strategies in listening and finding the relationship between
students’ metacognitive listening strategy preferences and achievement goals.
Junior and senior students were selected due to the fact that students at higher levels of proficiency are
likely to have more experiences of involving in listening tasks. In addition, Vandergrift (1997) proposed
that intermediate listeners use a higher percentage of metacognitive strategies than do beginners.
Likewise, O’Malley, Chamot, and Küpper (1989) and also Goh (2002) concluded that students with
higher levels of proficiency make better use of metacognitive strategies.

6.2. Instruments
Two separate instruments were used to collect the required data for this study:
1) Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ) developed by Elliot and McGregor (2001)
2) Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) developed by Vandergrift et al. (2006)
Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ) which is a 12-item questionnaire devised by Elliot and
McGregor (2001), was used to assess the students’ achievement goals in the classroom context. AGQ
provides responses ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 7 (very true of me) and demonstrate four
possible goal orientations: that is to say, performance-approach, performance-avoidance, mastery-
approach and mastery-avoidance. According to Wang, Liu, and Chye (2010), the internal consistency
coefficients of the performance-approach (α = .88), mastery-approach (α = .79), mastery-avoidance (α =
.79), and performance-avoidance goal orientation (α = .73) were satisfactory.
Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) devised by Vandergrift et al. (2006) is based
on a likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 6 (strongly disagree). This 21-item instrument was
used to assess the students’ metacognitive listening strategy use. This questionnaire includes five
distinctive subscales, namely problem-solving, planning and evaluation, mental translation, person

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Vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 115-125

knowledge, and directed attention. In order to validate the subscales in the instrument, the developers
used the questionnaire with nearly 1,000 learners from different countries including Iran. According to
them, reliabilities of the subscales were as follows: problem-solving: 0.74, planning and evaluation: 0.75,
mental translation: 0.78, person knowledge: 0.74, 10 and directed attention: 0.68. Moreover, Al-Alwan1,
Asassfeh1, and Al-Shboul1 (2013) reported a high reliability of .79 for the overall MLS. In the present
study, the two subscales of mental translation and person knowledge were scored reversely. In the
original form of MALQ, the proposed language is French. The researcher replaced the word French with
English.

6.3. Data Collection Procedure

MALQ and AGQ scales were distributed among the participants concurrently. Participants were given
(20-25 mins) to answer the mentioned questionnaires and there were accompanying instructions. They
were assured that the information would be kept fully confidential and be used only for research purposes.

7. Results
The descriptive statistics of the variables relating to this study, namely metacognitive listening strategy
use and achievement goals as well as the achievement goals subscales have all been presented in Table 1.
Moreover, it is worth mentioning that out of 104 participants, 35 (33.7%) were males and the remaining
69 people (66.3%) were females.

Table 1. The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables and Subscales of Achievement Goals and MLS
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean SD Variance
Performance Approach 104 14.00 7.00 21.00 16.91 3.41 11.67
Performance Avoidance 104 18.00 3.00 21.00 14.26 3.76 14.14
Mastery Approach 104 17.00 4.00 21.00 16.67 3.55 12.63
Mastery Avoidance 104 18.00 3.00 21.00 14.46 4.50 20.29
Achievement Goals 104 52.00 31.00 83.00 62.43 11.46 131.39
MLS 104 75.00 47.00 122.00 79.05 22.50 506.67
Valid N (listwise) 104

7.1. Achievement Goals and the Frequency of MLS

Considering the first research question, the relationship between achievement goals and the frequency of
MLS use by the Iranian EFL learners, there was a positive significant relationship (p = .024, r = .221). In
other words, as the scores on achievement goals increase, the EFL learners’ scores on MLS use increase
too (Table 2).

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b Table 2.The Correlations between MLS and Achievement Goals and its Subscales

Performance Performance Mastery Mastery Achievement

Approach Avoidance Approach Avoidance Goals
**
MLS Pearson Correlation .157 -.260 .228* .134 .221*
Sig. (2-tailed) .111 .008 .020 .176 .024
N 104 104 104 104 104
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

7.3. MLS Use in Relation with Achievement Goals Subscales

In order to answer the second research question regarding the relationship between the subscales of
achievement goals and MlS use, four Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients were conducted
(Table 2). Regarding the first subscale of achievement goals, that is performance-approach, and MLS use,
no significant relationship was found (p = .111). Regarding the second subscale, that is performance-
avoidance, and MlS use, a significant negative relationship was found (r = −.260). According to Table 2,
concerning the third subscale of achievement goals, that is, Mastery-approach and MLS use, a significant
positive relationship was found (r = .228). As a final point, concerning the last subscale, mastery-
avoidance and MLS preference, no significant relationship was found (p = .176).

7.4. Achievement Goals, MLS Use and Gender Differences

In order to investigate the third question regarding the gender differences and learners’ MLS use, an
Independent Samples T-test was run. According to the results, since P = .46 is not less than α = .05, there
is not a significant difference among males and females regarding their MLS use (Table 3).

Table 3.Independent Samples T-Test for MLS in Two Groups of Males and Females

Gender Male Female t df Sig.

N Mean SD N Mean SD

MLS 35 81.34 23.39 69 77.89 22.13 .73 102 .46

8. Discussion
Regarding the first research question, concerning relationships between achievement goals and the
frequency of metacognitive listening strategies used by the EFL learners, a significant positive
relationship was found. According to Elliot (2005) and Was (2006), achievement goals as a motivational
factor may have impacts on metacognition. The finding reported in the present study is an empirical
justification for such an impact. Furthermore, Vrugt and Oort (2008) pointed out the direct impacts of
achievement goals on metacognition. Accordingly, metacognition and achievement goals go hand in hand

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Vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 115-125

in educational settings. Consequently, metacognitive strategies as established indicators of metacognition

are highly related to achievement goals set by EFL learners. Concerning the second research question of
this study, which was the relationships between the subscales of achievement goals and the learner’s
overall metacognitive listening strategies use, there was no significant relationship between the
performance approach and MLS. This finding is in accordance with that of Ford, Smith, Weissbein,
Gully, and Salas (1998), while in contrast with that reported by Schmidt and Ford (2003), which found a
significant negative relationship between the two. It is worth mentioning that some studies have found a
weak positive relationship between metacognition and performance-approach goals (Ames & Archer,
1988; Meece., Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988; Nolen & Haladyna, 1990). Regarding the second subscale,
that is performance-avoidance, and MLS use, a significant negative relationship was found. This finding
is in line with Vrugt and Oort’s (2008).
Barron and Harackiewicz (2001) argued that nondaptive learning processes were mostly related
to performance-avoidance goals. This finding is in contrast with the findings of the present investigation.
Mastery approach as the third subscale of achievement goals was found to have a significant positive
relationship with MLS. This finding supports the ones reported by Ames and Archer (1988), Nolen and
Haladyna (1990), Schmidt and Ford (2003), Vrugt and Oort (2008). Such a finding indicates that high
mastery approach orientations result in a better MLS use by EFL learners and this seems to be because of
the fact that metacognitive strategies are involved in controlling of various cognitive strategies for
learning. Besides, previous research has showed that metacognitive strategies are positively correlated to
achievement mastery goals (Elliot & McGregor, 1999). Mastery avoidance as the last subscale
investigated in this study had no significant relationship with MLS use. However, According to Van
Yperen (2006), it has been argued that mastery avoidance goals have a negative set of outcomes. Such an
argument is not supported by this study. Regarding the third research question of this study, assessing the
gender differences and MLS use, the results did not yield a significant difference between males and
females. Moreover, all the participants regardless of their gender had almost high levels of MLS use. This
finding is in line with that of Zare-ee (2007), Cooper (2004), but is in contrast with that of Sy (1994),
Bacon (1992), and Oxford (1989). Considering the limitations of research, this study was carried out in
two educational contexts, with a limited number of Senior and junior EFL students. It would be useful to
replicate and extend the recent research to larger samples with different proficiency levels in other
educational contexts such as ESL settings. In this study, the only ways of collecting data were two
different self-report questionnaires namely, MALQ and AGQ. However, other researchers could make
good use of an up to standard triangulation of data collection such as valid interviews and reliable
observations. Furthermore, there are different factors affecting the strategy use, such as anxiety, culture,
learning styles, motivation, extraversion, and introversion, to name just a few. Such trends could be
within the scope of the interest of the researchers in the field.

9. Conclusion
There is no doubt that human beings in the activities, which they go thorough, set some standards and
goals to be achieved, and it seems to be an integral component part of their motivation in specific tasks
(Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986). Listening activities as important factors in EFL research pursue some
plausible standards and goals, too. However, setting goals in the realm of listening instruction and
learning does not occur in a vacuum. Some relevant factors in this regard are metacognition and the
nature of strategy use (Elliot et al. 1999). These factors were the issues to be investigated in relation with
achievement goals set by EFL learners in the area of listening comprehension in the present investigation.
Accordingly, in the light of findings of this study, achievement goals are highly related to metacognitive
listening strategies. Such a finding opens the gates for the presence of optimal attention to be spent on
metacognition and achievement goals in an EFL setting if a successful listening proficiency is desired.
Furthermore, the findings in this study imply that the use of metacognitive listening strategies is not a

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gender specific trade. The good news is that language learners regardless of their gender can be good
metacognitive listening strategy users, the strategies which guarantee the enhancement of listening
comprehension. The implications of this study are that in educational milieu sufficient attention should be
paid to factors like achievement goals and metacognition. The adoption of metacognitive strategies would
also contribute to the achievement of high scores in exams (Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Wolters, 2004).
The findings of this investigation might also lead other researchers to investigation of the influence of
other factors in learning milieu on learners’ metacognitive listening strategy use.

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