Theo Phys V General Relativity 2018 PDF

Theoretical physics IV-Introduction to General
Relativity
Daniel Erenso
April 23, 2018

ii
Contents
Introduction ix
1 The spacetime of special relativity 1

1.1 Inertial frames, Galilean and Lorentz transformations . . . . . . 1
1.2 Axes rotation vs Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The interval and the lightcone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Length contraction and time dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Invariant hyperbolae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Worldline and proper time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 The Doppler e¤ect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Velocity and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 Manifolds 33
2.1 What is a Manifold? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Curves and surfaces in a Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Coordinate transformations and summation convention . . . . . . 38
2.4 The Riemannian geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5 Intrinsic and extrinsic geometry and the metric . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6 Length, area, and volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.7 Local Cartesian coordinates and tangent space . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.8 The signature of a manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3 Vector Calculus on manifolds 69

3.1 The tangent vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 The basis vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3 The metric function and coordinate transformations . . . . . . . 71
3.3.1 Raising and lowering vector indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4 The inner product and null vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.5 The a¢ ne connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.6 Local geodesic and Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.7 The gradient, the divergence, the curl on a manifold . . . . . . . 89
3.8 Intrinsic derivative of a vector along a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.9 Parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.10 Null curves, non-null curves, and a¢ ne parameter . . . . . . . . . 94
iii
iv CONTENTS
3.11 The calculus of variation-(a review from Theoretical Physics I) . 96

3.11.1 Geodesic and stationary points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.11.2 The geodesic in Euclidean space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.11.3 The general problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.12 The geodesic on a manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.13 Stationary property of the non-null geodesic . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4 Tensor Calculus on manifolds 109

4.1 Tensors …elds and rank of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.2 The metric tensor revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3 Mapping tensors into tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4 Elementary tensor operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.5 Tensors and coordinate transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.6 Tensor equations and the quotient theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.7 Covariant derivatives of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.8 Intrinsic derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5 Special relativity using tensors 125

5.1 The Minkowski spacetime in Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . 125
5.1.1 The metric tensor and the A¢ ne connection . . . . . . . . 125
5.1.2 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.1.3 Four vector and Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2 The four-momentum of a particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.3 Four momentum of a photon and the Doppler e¤ect . . . . . . . 134
5.4 Relativistic mechanics for a massive particle . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.5 Relativistic collision and Compton scattering . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6 Accelerating observers and the tetrads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6 Electromagnetism 147
6.1 The Lorentz force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2 The charge and the current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.3 The electromagnetic …eld equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.4 Electromagnetism in the Lorentz gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.5 Electromagnetism in arbitrary coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.6 Equation of motion for a charged particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7 The equivalence principle and spacetime curvature 163

7.1 Newtonian gravity and the equivalence principle . . . . . . . . . 163
7.2 Gravity as spacetime curvature and local Cartesian coordinates . 164
7.3 Observers in a curved spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.4 Weak gravitational …elds and the Newtonian limit . . . . . . . . 168
7.5 Electromagnetism in curved spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.6 The curvature tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.7 The Einstein Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.8 Curvature and parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
CONTENTS v
8 The gravitational …eld equations 187

8.1 The energy-momentum tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2 A perfect ‡uid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.3 Conservation of energy and momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.4 Classical limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.5 The Einstein equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.5.1 The Einstein …eld equations in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.5.2 The Einstein …eld equations in the weak-…eld limit . . . . 199
vi CONTENTS
Preface
This material is my lecture note for General Relativity course (PHYS 4800) at
Middle Tennessee State University.
vii
viii PREFACE
Introduction
ix
x INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
The spacetime of special

relativity
In this chapter we review the basic notions underlying in the Newtonian and
special relativistic viewpoints of space and time.
1.1 Inertial frames, Galilean and Lorentz trans-

formations
If we want to describe an event that occurred somewhere on this planet, we must
be able to tell exactly where (space) it occurred and when (time). This means
we must be able to tell the time at which the event occurred and the exact
position of this event in this space (three dimensional space) as measured from
some origin, O; on some reference frame S or from another origin on another
reference frame S 0 : The reference frame S 0 could be in motion relative to S in an
arbitrary manner. These reference frames could be our home, our car that we
are driving, a spacecraft traveling in the deep outer space, or the international
space station orbiting our planet. Suppose an event in space described by the
coordinates (x; y; z) is recorded at time t by an observer at O on reference frame
S, as shown in Fig. 1.1. Using "four dimensional space", we may express this
event as (t; x; y; z). Let’s say this same event for an observer O0 on reference
frame S is recorded at a di¤erent time t0 at a di¤erent point in space (t0 ; x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ).
Now the question is how these two observation are related to one another if
one of the reference frame is moving with some velocity v: Well, before we relate
(t0 ; x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ) and (t; x; y; z), it is very important to know about the reference
frames. Here we will consider only, what is know as, inertial reference frames.
Inertial reference frames are reference frames moving with a constant velocity
(constant magnitude and direction) with respect to one another. These are none
1
2 CHAPTER 1. THE SPACETIME OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY
Figure 1.1: Two inertial reference frames. Inertial frame S 0 is moving with a
constant velocity along the poesitive x relative to inertial frame S.
accelerating frame of references
d2 X d2 Y d2 Z
2
= 2
= 2 =0 (1.1)
dt dt dt
and
d2 X 0 d2 Y 0 d2 Z 0
= = = 0: (1.2)
dt2 dt2 dt2
Consider the inertial reference frame S 0 in Fig (1.1). It is moving with a constant
velocity v in the positive x direction
~v = v^
x
relative to O. Obviously, reference S is moving with the same magnitude of

velocity but in the opposite direction for an observer O0
~v = v^
x (1.3)
Taking this velocity into account, we can at least expect the x position of the
event for an observer O0 (x0 ) would depend on both x and t. We make a linear
relationship assumption
x0 = Dt + Ex (1.4)
Let’s make a similar assumption for time t0 too, why not?
t0 = At + Bx (1.5)
For y 0 and z 0 , obviously

y 0 = y; z 0 = z: (1.6)
1.1. INERTIAL FRAMES, GALILEAN AND LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS3
Since we require that for x0 = 0;
x = vt
we have
x0 = Dt + Ex ) 0 = Dt + Evt ) D = Ev (1.7)
For x = 0, we also require
x0 = vt0
which leads to
t0
x0 = Dt + Ex ) vt0 = Dt ) D = v : (1.8)
t
Substituting x = 0 into
t0 = At + Bx (1.9)
we …nd
t0 = At (1.10)
so that
t0
D= = v Av: (1.11)
t
From Eqs. (1.7) and (1.11) we see that
E = A; D = Av
so that an inertial reference frames, we may write
t0 = At + Bx; (1.12)
0
x = A (x vt) ; (1.13)
0
y = y; (1.14)
z0 = z; (1.15)
Galilean Transformation: in the Galilean transformation time is absolute that

mean t is independent of the reference frame. Thus we have
A = 1; B = 0
which leads to
t0 = t; (1.16)
0
x = x vt; (1.17)
0
y = y; (1.18)
z0 = z; (1.19)
If we take the time derivative of the x coordinate, we …nd

dx0 dx
0
= v ) u0x = ux v (1.20)
dt dt
which is an equation that can be obtained from a common sense of relative

velocities. If you di¤erentiate the velocity,
du0x dux
0
= (1.21)
dt dt
since the velocity of the reference frames is constant. This means the accelera-
tion is the same in both S and S 0 .
Homework Problem 1 : You heard in the News that there are two events
happened somewhere in this planet. Suppose event one occurred at time t1 at a
point in space (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ), which we may describe using spacetime coordinates
(t1 ; x1 ; y1 ; z1 ), as recorded by an observer on an inertial reference frame S. The
second event occurred at a later time t2 at another point in space (x2 ; y2 ; z2 ) as
recorded by the same observer. Show that the time di¤erence
t = t2 t1 (1.22)
and the quantity
2 2 2 2
( r) = ( x) + ( y) + ( z) (1.23)
are, separately, invariant under any Galilean transformation. Note that
x = x2 x1 ; y = y2 y1 ; z = z2 z1 (1.24)
You must show that
2 2
t0 = t; ( r0 ) = ( r)
Lorentz transformation: In the special theory of relativity Einstein aban-
doned the postulate of an absolute time and replaced it by the postulate that
the speed of light c is the same in all inertial frame. Next we will derive the
Lorentz transformation using Einstein postulate about the speed of light. To
this end, we may rewrite Eqs. (1.12)-(1.15)
ct0 = c (At + Bx) ; (1.25)
0
x = A (x vt) ; (1.26)
y0 = y; (1.27)
0
z = z: (1.28)
Suppose an observer one on an inertial frame S measured the distance traveled
a photon to be r over a time interval t. Another observer another inertial
frame, S 0 ; measured the distance and time interval to be r0 and t0 , respec-
tively. Thus according to Einstein’s postulate, the speed of this photon is the
same. Assume that the measurement took place in vacuum, one can then write
r r0
=c= :
t t0
There follows that
2 2 2 2 2 2
(c t) = ( r) ) (c t) ( x) ( y) ( z) = 0 (1.29)
0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2
(c t ) = ( r ) ) (c t ) ( x) ( y) ( z ) = 0 (1.30)
1.1. INERTIAL FRAMES, GALILEAN AND LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS5
Using Eqs. (1.25)-(1.28), we may write

2 2 2 2
(c t0 ) ( x0 ) ( y0 ) ( z0)
2 2 2 2
= c2 (A t + B x) A2 ( x v t) ( y) ( z)
h i
2 2
= c2 A2 ( t) + B 2 ( x) + 2AB ( t) ( x)
h i
2 2 2 2
A2 ( x) + v 2 ( t) 2v ( x) ( t) ( y) ( z)
2 2 2
= c2 A2 ( t) + c2 B 2 ( x) + 2c2 AB ( t) ( x) A2 ( x)
2 2 2
A2 v 2 ( t) + 2A2 v ( x) ( t) ( y) ( z) (1.31)
2 2 2 2
) (c t0 ) ( x0 ) ( y0 ) ( z0)
2 2
= c 2 A2 A2 v 2 ( t) + c2 B 2 A2 ( x) + 2A c2 B + Av ( x) ( t)
+2A c2 B + Av ( x) ( t) = 0 (1.32)
Now referring to Eq. (1.29), we have
2 2 2 2
(c t0 ) ( x0 ) ( y0 ) ( z0) =
2 2 2 2
(c t) ( x) ( y) ( z)
so that using the result in Eq. (1.32)
1
c 2 A2 A2 v 2 = c2 ) A = q = (1.33)
v2
1 c2
v
2A c2 B + Av = 0 ) c2 B + Av = 0 ) B = A= A= (1.34)
c2 c c
where
v
= ; (1.35)
c
1
= p : (1.36)
2
1
Substituting Eqs. (1.33) and (1.34) into Eqs. 1.25) and (1.26), the Lorentz
transformation is given by
ct0 = c (At + Bx) = c t x ) ct0 = (ct x) ; (1.37)

c
x0 = (x vt) ) x0 = (x c t) ; (1.38)
0
y = y; (1.39)
0
z = z: (1.40)
The Lorentz transformation is also known as the boost in the x-direction. For
the case v << c; we have
' 0, ' 1
the Lorentz transformation reduces to
t0 = t; (1.41)
0
x = x vt; (1.42)
y0 = y; (1.43)
0
z = z: (1.44)
which agrees with the Galilean transformation.

Homework Problem 2 : Consider the two events in problem 1 described by the
spacetime coordinates (t1 ; x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) and (t2 ; x2 ; y2 ; z2 ). Show that the interval
between these two events squared which is de…ned by
2 2 2 2
( s) = (c t) ( x) ( y) ( z) (1.45)
is invariant under the Lorentz transformation squared.

The interval in Eq. (1.45) shows that space and time are united in a four di-
mensional continuum called spacetime. The geometry which is characterized by
Eq. (1.45) is known as Minkawski geometry. The spacetime of special relativity
is not Euclidean because of the minus sign. It is often called pseudo Euclidean.
Note: The inverse transformation whether it is Galilean or Lorentz, the
equations are given by replacing v by v.
ct = (ct0 + x0 ) ; (1.46)
0 0
x = (x + c t ) ; (1.47)
y = y0 ; (1.48)
0
z = z: (1.49)
Eqs. (1.46)- (1.49) are Lorentz transformation from the S 0 frame to S:
1.2 Axes rotation vs Lorentz transformation

Let’s consider the geometry that we are familiar with the Euclidean geometry
in Cartesian coordinates. We call this coordinate system S. In this coordinate
system a point can be described by the coordinates (x; y; z). Suppose we rotate
the x-y-z coordinate system about the z axis, as shown in Fig. 1.2, by an angle
in a counterclockwise direction to form another coordinate system (reference
frame) S 0 . In this rotated coordinate system the same point is described by
(x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ). Let’s omit for the z-coordinate and …nd the x0 and y 0 in terms of x
and y. From Fig. 1.2 [Theoretical Physics I ], one can easily show that
y0 = x sin ( ) + y cos ( ) ; (1.50)

x0 = x cos ( ) + y sin ( ) ; (1.51)
or in a Matrix form
y0 cos ( ) sin ( ) y
= : (1.52)
x0 sin ( ) cos ( ) x
1.2. AXES ROTATION VS LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 7
Figure 1.2: A Cartesian coordinate system rotated about the z-axis in a coun-
terclockwise direction by an angle : We named the y-axis "ct".
Let’s replace y 0 by ct0 and y by ct so that
ct0 cos ( ) sin ( ) ct

= : (1.53)
x0 sin ( ) cos ( ) x
We recall the "boost" (Lorentz transformation) from Eqs. (1.37)- (1.38),
ct0 = (ct x) ; (1.54)

0
x = (x c t) ; (1.55)
0
y = y; (1.56)
z0 = z: (1.57)
that can be put, using matrices, in the form

2 0 3 2 32 3
ct 0 0 ct
6 x0 7 6 0 0 76 x 7
6 0 7=6 76 7 (1.58)
4 y 5 4 0 0 1 0 54 y 5
z0 0 0 0 1 z
Let’s omit the y and z coordinate, we can write the Lorentz transformation as
ct0 ct
= (1.59)
x0 x
At least comparing the diagonal elements in Eqs. (1.53) and (1.59), one may be
tempted to say, = cos ( ) ; is some angle of rotation: However, since
1 1; v = 0
=q =
v2 1; v = c
1 c2
trigonometric functions can not be an option to consider. But we know that the
hyperbolic function
e +e 1; =0
cosh ( ) = = (1.60)
2 1; !1
So let’s say that

1
=q = cosh ( ) (1.61)
v2
1 c2
so that one …nds

s
v2 1 v cosh2 ( ) 1
1 = ) = = = tanh ( )
c2 cosh2 ( ) c cosh2 ( )
1
) = tanh ( ):
The parameter is called the rapidity parameter. Note that for

v 1; v=c
= = : (1.62)
c 0; v=0
we …nd
1 1; =1
= tanh ( )= : (1.63)
0; =0
Now using
= cosh ( ) ; = sinh ( ) ; (1.64)
we can express the "Boost" as
ct0 cosh ( ) sinh ( ) ct

= : (1.65)
x0 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) x
Now comparing Eqs. (1.52) and (1.65), we can see that the boost has essen-
tially the same structure as coordinate-axis rotation except the trigonometric
functions are replaced by hyperbolic function. Therefore, the physics of rela-
tivity (for an inertial frames of reference) is a coordinate transformation in the
Minkowski spacetime! We can easily see this by considering the S and S 0 frame
of references in the standard con…guration (i.e. S 0 is moving with a constant
velocity v in the positive x-direction). Let’s omit the y and z coordinates so
that an event can be described by the coordinates (ct; x) in an inertial frame
S and by coordinates (ct0 ; x0 ) in the S 0 inertial frame. In Fig. 1.3 S 0 frame
is constructed by rotating ct axis in a clockwise direction and the x axis in a
counterclockwise direction by an angle ; which is given by Eq. (1.63), as shown
in Fig. ??. Now if we decompose ct and x into components along ct0 and x0 ; we
can easily see that
ct0 = ct cosh ( ) x sinh ( ) ;

x0 = ct sinh ( ) + x cosh ( ) :
1.2. AXES ROTATION VS LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 9
Figure 1.3: Rotation in Minkowski space.
Note that the decomposition of the vectors form a parallelogram not a rectangle
like the Cartesian coordinate axes rotation. Now using y 0 = y and z 0 = z for the
boost, we have
ct0 = ct cosh ( ) x sinh ( ) ;

0
x = ct sinh ( ) + x cosh ( ) ;
0
y = y;
z0 = z:
or using matrices
2 3 2 32 3
ct0 cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 ct
6 x0 7 6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 x 7
6 0 7=6 76 7: (1.66)
4 y 5 4 0 0 1 0 54 y 5
z0 0 0 0 1 z
which is the Lorentz transformation.

Though generally, the inertial reference frame, S 0 moves with a constant
velocity, ~v ; in an arbitrary direction and the origin could be o¤ with respect to
the origin of the inertial reference frame S at the initial time t = t0 = 0, and
also the axes could be rotated (see Fig. 1.4), we will consider only the "boost"
(the S 0 reference frame in Fig. 1.1). This is because the displacement and the
rotation does not introduce any new physics. It is the boost only, which is also
known as standard con…guration, that brings a new physics due to the relative
motion. Now let’s look how we can get the inertial reference frame S 0 from S
by decomposing the transformation. First translate the origin O by R. ~ This
makes the origin of S and S 0 coincide. Rotate the x-axis by : This lines up the
velocity ~v with the x-axis. A …nal rotation lines up the inertial frame S 0 with
S. That makes the S 0 the standard con…guration shown in Fig. 1.1.
Figure 1.4: An inertial frame S 0 moving with a constant velocity ~v in arbitrary

direction (but constant). The origin is o¤ by R~ with respect to S and the axes
0
are rotated at the initial time t = t = 0.
Homework Problem 3 : Using the Lorentz transformation

2 0 3 2 32 3
ct cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 ct
6 x0 7 6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 x 7
6 0 7=6 76 7: (1.67)
4 y 5 4 0 0 1 0 54 y 5
0
z 0 0 0 1 z
Show that the interval squared between the two events in problem 1 is invariant.
1.3 The interval and the lightcone

We have proved that the interval
2 2 2 2 2
( s) = (c t) ( x) ( y) ( z) (1.68)
in the Minkowski spacetime is invariant under the boost. From the expression
in Eq. (1.68), we can also see that it could be positive, negative or zero. This
sign which is de…ned as
8 2
< ( s) > 0 timelike
2
( s) = 0 lightlike
: 2
( s) < 0 spacelike
Timelike: we can …nd an inertial frame in which the two events occur at the
same spacial coordinate.
Spacelike: we can …nd an inertial reference frame on which the two events
occur at the same time coordinate.
Before we see what is the lightcone is, let’s consider a cone in the Euclidean
geometry shown in Fig.1.5. A point on the surface of a cone with coordinates
1.3. THE INTERVAL AND THE LIGHTCONE 11
Figure 1.5: A cone of radius R and height H with its apex centered at the
origin.
(x, y, z) in cylindrical coordinates is de…ned by

R R
x= z cos (') ; y = z sin (') ; (1.69)
H H
where H is the height of a cone with radius R with apex centered at the origin
(0; 0; 0). The opening angle # of a right cone is the vertex angle made by a cross
section through the apex and center of the base
1 R
# = 2 tan : (1.70)
H
The equation of a cone can then be expressed as
2
R
x2 + y 2 = z (1.71)
H
For a cone with apex centered at (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) instead of (0; 0; 0) as shown in Fig.
1.6, one can write
R R
x x1 = (z z1 ) cos (') ; y y1 = (z z1 ) sin (') ; (1.72)
H H
or
R R
x= z cos (') ; y = z sin (') ; (1.73)
H H
where
x=x x1 ; y = y y1 ; z = z z1 :
The equation of the cone becomes
2
2 2 2 R
( x) + ( y) = ( z) : (1.74)
H
Figure 1.6: A cone of radius R and height H with its apex centered at (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ).
Introducing the constant

R
c= (1.75)
h
we may write
2 2
( x) + ( y) 2
= ( z)
c2
Now let’s consider the Minkowski spacetime with axes (x; y; ct) with the
z-axis omitted. Then the interval
2 2 2 2 2
( s) = (c t) ( x) ( y) ( z) (1.76)
becomes
2 2 2
( s) = (c t) ( x) ( y) (1.77)
2
For a lightlike ( s) = 0; we …nd
2 2
( x) + ( y) 2
= ( t) (1.78)
c2
which is equation of a cone and it is known as the lightcone. We note that
8 2
< ( s) > 0; Outside (timelike)
2 2 2
(c t) ( x) ( y) = ( s) = 0; On the lightlike (lightlike) (1.79)
: 2
( s) < 0; Inside (spacelike)
Now let’s omit both y and z axis and consider the four di¤erent events, Event 1,
Event 2, Event 3, and Event 4 described by two coordinates (ct1 ; x1 ), (ct2 ; x2 ),
2
(ct3 ; x3 ), and (ct4 ; x4 )The physical interpretation of spacelike ( s) < 0 and
2
timelike ( s) > 0 is what we stated earlier. When the interval is Timelike,
1.3. THE INTERVAL AND THE LIGHTCONE 13
Figure 1.7: Spacetime diagram illustrating the lightcone of Event 1 in relation

of three other events occurred inside, on, and outside the cone.
Figure 1.8: Spacetime diagram

we can …nd an inertial frame in which the two events occur on the same spacial
coordinate; and when it is Spacelike, we can …nd an inertial reference frame on
which the two events occur at the same time coordinate. In order to understand
this let’s consider the boost S 0 with both the y 0 and z 0 coordinates omitted. In
Fig. 1.8 we can see that in the reference frame S 0 Event 1 and Event 2 which
are timelike and occurred at di¤erent time and di¤erent place in reference frame,
S we can see that on the boost frame both have the same spacial coordinates.
This meant we found an inertial reference frame (the boost) on which the two
events occurred at the same point in space. On the other hand Event 1 and
Event 4 which are spacelike events on the S inertial reference frame, on the S 0
frame both events have the same time coordinates. This means we are able to
…nd an inertial reference frame on which Event 1 and Event 4 occurred at the
same time.
1.4 Length contraction and time dilation

Let’s assume that the boost S 0 be the Orion spacecraft traveling in the deep
outer space with a constant velocity, ~v ; away from our planet (Inertial reference
frame S) as shown in Fig. 1.9. Suppose this spacecraft carries a couple leaving
this planet behind. The man is standing on a box while the woman is on the
‡oor inside the spacecraft as shown in Fig. 1.9. The direction of the velocity is
in the positive x-direction as shown in Fig. 1.9 The woman measures the man’s
Figure 1.9: Inertial from S is station on Earth (assuming earth is stationary)

and inertial frame S 0 is moving away from the earth in the positive x-direction.
height (proper length) and found it to be l0 , that we may express it as
l0 = x02 x01 ; (1.80)

1.4. LENGTH CONTRACTION AND TIME DILATION 15
where x01 and x02 are the x-coordinates of his feet and his head as measured by
the woman. Using the Lorentz transformation
x0 = (x c t) ; (1.81)
we have
l0 = x02 x01 = (x2 c t2 ) (x1 c t1 )

) l0 = [(x2 x1 ) c (t2 t1 )] (1.82)
Suppose the woman took the measurement for x2 and x1 at the same time, we
have
t1 = t2 = t
so that one can write the proper length (height) of the man as
r
l0 v2
l0 = (x2 x1 ) = l ) l = = l0 1 ; (1.83)
c2
where
l = x2 x1 :
is the height of the man measured by an observer on the earth (the S inertial
frame). Obviously, the observer on earth measures the Man’s contracted height
(length) by a factor of 1= :
In their journey in the deep space suppose they got pregnant and the man
had to deliver their baby. Their is a clock aboard on the spacecraft and the
man measured the time interval between the beginning of the labor and the
arrival of their baby. Let this time be T0 = t0 = t02 t01 ; where t01 is the time
at which the labor began (Event 1) and t02 (Event 2)is the time at which the
baby arrived as recorded. Similarly, an observer on earth (frame S) recorded
the time of these two events t2 and t1 ; respectively, using his own Clock. Using
the inverse Lorentz transformation for time, where v is replaced by v in Eq.
(1.46), one can write
0 0
t1 = t1 + vx01 ; t2 = t2 + vx02 ; (1.84)
so that for, T = t = t2 t1 ; one …nds

h 0 0
i
T = t2 t1 + v (x02 x01 ) ; (1.85)
Suppose the observer on S 0 recorded the two events at the same place
x02 = x01 = x; (1.86)
then using
0 0
T0 = t0 = t2 t1 :
we …nd r
T0 v2
T = T0 = q ) T0 = 1 T (1.87)
1 v2 c2
c2
The result in Eq. (1.87) showsq that the moving clock (on the S 0 frame) ticks
2
more slowly by a factor of 1 vc2 than the clock on a rest frame (the S frame).
Homework Problem 4 : Suppose the couples on the spacecraft celebrated
their child (a girl) sweet sixteen birthday as measured by a clock on board the
spacecraft (S 0 ). The girl is about 1:6m tall as measured by her parents. Assume
the spacecraft is traveling with constant velocity, v = 0:8c, where c is the speed
of light in vacuum.
(a) What would be the age of the girl as measured by an observer on earth (S
inertial frame).
(b) How tall is the girl as measured by an observer on earth (S inertial frame).
1.5 Invariant hyperbolae

Let’s consider the interval in the Minkowski spacetime
2 2 2 2 2
( s) = (c t) ( x) ( y) ( z) : (1.88)
2 2
For ( y) = ( z) = 0; we can write
2 2 2
( s) = (c t) ( x) : (1.89)
in the S frame and also

2 2 2
( s0 ) = (c t0 ) ( x0 ) : (1.90)
in the S 0 frame as the interval is invariant.We can calibrate the length scale for
Figure 1.10: The invariant hyperbolae.

1.5. INVARIANT HYPERBOLAE 17
Figure 1.11: Length contraction and time dilation.
the ct and x axis so that one may write for spacelike or timelike in both S and
S 0 inertial frames
2 2
(c t) ( x) = 1: (1.91)
The graph for these equations is shown in Fig. 1.10 (using Mathematica)Let
the point described by the coordinates (ct = 0; x = 0) be O, (ct = 0; x = 1)
be A; and (ct = 1; x = 0) be B respectively. OA represents a unit length
and OB a unit time on the S frame (Fig. 1.11). We know that the interval
is invariant in the Minkowski spacetime. This means if we rotate the ct axis
clockwise and x axis counterclockwise by = sinh 1 [v=c] ; we …nd the boost
(the S 0 inertial reference frame) with coordinates ct0 and x0 on which the interval
remains invariant
2 2
(c t0 ) ( x0 ) = 1 (1.92)
We can easily see the length contraction and time dilation from this invariance
and Fig. 1.11
Consider a proper length on the S 0 inertial reference frame which is OC.
Suppose OC is a meterstick (OC = l0 = 1m which is the length measured by
an observer on the S 0 frame). For an observer on the S frame, the length l is

given by r r
v2 v2
l = l0 1 2
= 1m 1 < 1m
c c2
Now draw a line of constant x0 through point C that indicates a unit length on
the S 0 (x0 = 1). As we can see from the diagram in Fig. 1.11, this line intersects
with the x-axis on the S inertial reference frame at a point where x < 1: This
con…rms that the length of the meterstick is less than a meter for an observer
on the S frame.
Now let’s consider the time dilation. We recall that
r
v2
T0 = 1 T
c2
where T is the time interval between two events as measured by a clock on the
S frame and T0 is the time interval between these two same events as measured
by a clock on the S 0 frame. Suppose we consider two events happen at x0 = 0 on
the S 0 frame (event O and event D). Suppose the time interval between these
two events as measured by a clock on the S 0 is 1 sec, i.e. T0 = 1s
T0 1s
T =q =q > 1s
v2 v2
1 c2 1 c2
As one can can clearly see from Fig. 1.11, Point D on the hyperbolae has a time
coordinate (in the S frame) that is greater than one, T > 1.
1.6 Worldline and proper time

Consider two events (Event 1 and Event 2 ). The line joining these two events
in the Minkowski spacetime is known as the worldline. It could be a straight or
wiggly line. If these two events are separated by an in…nitesimally interval, ds;
and the two events are described by (t; x; y; z) and (t + dt; x + dx; y + dy; z + dz),
we can write
ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 : (1.93)
The invariant interval between Event 1 and Event 2 along an arbitrary path
(straight or wiggly) is given by
Z2 Z2 p
s= ds = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 : (1.94)
1 1
From our discussion in the previous sections, we recall

8 2
< ( s) > 0; timelike
2
( s) = 0; lightlike (1.95)
: 2
( s) < 0; spacelike
1.6. WORLDLINE AND PROPER TIME 19
and the invariant interval in the Minkowski spacetime would become

8
Z2 < real for timelike
s = ds = 0 for lightlike (1.96)
:
1 imaginary for spacelike
The fact that we get an imaginary for s in the case of spacelike, it means
Figure 1.12: The worldline of a photon (solid line) and a massive particle (broken
line).
the worldline for a particle must lie within the lightcone as shown in Fig. 1.12.
This is also required by relativistic mechanics as it prohibits the acceleration of
a massive particle to speeds greater than or equal to the speed of light c: Let’s
Figure 1.13: An alien spaceship traveling with a speed v along the positive
x-direction relative to the earth.
consider the inertial reference frame at rest, S; be our planet earth. Suppose a
man saw an alien spaceship passing by him with a velocity, v; in the positive x-
direction, as shown in Fig. 1.13. The man saw the alien’s spaceship at a position
(x; y; z) at time t near the earth. In the Minkowski spacetime we describe this
even by (t; x; y; z). The worldline of the alien spaceship can be described by a
curved line (inside a cone). Assuming the velocity of the alien’s spaceship, v,
changes magnitude and direction along the x-axis, the worldline for the alien
could be the wiggly line shown in Fig. 1.14 passing through a light cones in
the Minkowski spacetime. This wiggly worldline of the alien is de…ned by the
Figure 1.14: The worldline of the alien. Note that we have omitted the y and z
coordinates and considered a time dependent velocity.
interval, ds;
ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 ; (1.97)
that leads to a function, x (t) ; that depends on time, t: Another convenient al-
ternative way of expressing the worldline is to use some invariantly de…ned time
parameter, ; that monotonically changes over the alien (or the particle) world-
line. We can then use this parameter to de…ne the worldline using, (t ( ) ; x ( )).
This parameter, ; is known as the proper time: Generally, it is de…ned as
c2 d 2
= ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 : (1.98)
For dy = dz = 0; we have
v2
c2 d 2
= c2 dt2 dx2 ) d 2
= dt2 1 ;
c2
1.6. WORLDLINE AND PROPER TIME 21
so that the proper time becomes

r
v2
d = dt = dt= v :
1 (1.99)
c2
Let’s consider two events, Event 1 and Event 2, associated to the alien in the
spaceship that are recorded by the same observer on earth. Let Event 1 be
when the observer spot the alien for the …rst time, (t; x; y; z). Event 2 be, after
a few seconds, when the alien began waving and dancing as he is ‡ying away
from the observer (without abducting him...), (t + t; x + x; y; z), as shown
in Fig. 1.15.The proper time between these two events is given by
Figure 1.15: Two events as recorded by an obserever on earth. Event 1 (t; x; y; z)

and Event 2 (t + t; x + x; y; z)
Z r r
t+
v2 v2
= 1 dt = = 1 t: (1.100)
t c2 c2
Note that here the alien’s spaceship is considered to have a constant velocity
relative to the observer on earth.
Let’s imagine that the alien turned the spaceship engine o¤ between this two
events so that, v = 0: The proper time becomes
= t; (1.101)
which is the same as the time interval between these two events as measured
by the observer clock on earth (i.e. the frame S; that is at rest). It means the
proper time, ; is just the time coordinate recorded by clocks at rest. Generally,
if at any instant in the history of the particle (or the alien in this case), we
introduce an instantaneous rest frame S 0 such that the particle is momentarily
at rest in the S 0 , then the proper time is simply the time recorded by the
clock that moves along with the particle (or in this case the alien spacecraft).
Therefore, the proper time, ; is an invariantly de…ned quantity.
1.7 The Doppler e¤ect

Let’s reconsider the alien in his spaceship and the observer on earth. At the rear
end of the spaceship there is a high power laser (not harmful). After the alien
spaceship receded millions miles away from the earth towards his home planet,
the alien turned this laser directed at the observer on earth (the S frame that is
at rest). The spaceship is still moving with a velocity v in the positive x-direction
relative to the observer on earth (see Fig. 1.16). Let’s consider four events
Figure 1.16: An alien in a spaceship moving with a velocity v along the x-

direction shooting a laser beam.
describing a photon emitted from the alien spaceship recorded by the observer
on earth. These events described two successive wavecrests of the photon. The
two successive wavecrests, when the photon is emitted are referred as Event 1
(E1) and Event 2 (E2) and recorded as (t1 ; x1 ) and (t2 ; x2 ), respectively, by the
observer on earth. When these wavecreasts received by the observer on earth
are referred as Event 3 (E3) and Event 4 (E4) and recorded as (t3 ; x) and (t4 ; x),
respectively (See Fig 1.17). Note that the x-coordinates for E3 and E4 are the
same as the man received the photon at the same position. From Eq. (1.100),
the proper time for E1 and E2 as measured by an observer on S 0 (the alien)
moving with a speed v is given by
r r
v2 v2
21 = 1 2
(t2 t1 ) = 1 t21 : (1.102)
c c2
On the other hand the proper time for an observer on the S frame (the man
on earth) for E3 and E4, since, v = 0, Eq. (1.100) gives
43 = t4 t3 = t43 : (1.103)
1.7. THE DOPPLER EFFECT 23
Figure 1.17: Doppler e¤ect. Two adjacent wavecrest when a photon is emitted
(E1 and E2) from the alien spaceship and when it is detected by an observer on
earth (E3 and E4).
Along the worldline joining E1 to E3 and E2 to E4, (see Fig.1.18 )the interval
is zero since we are considering a photon (Lightlike, ds = 0)
c2 d 2
= ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 = 0: (1.104)
For dy = dz = 0; we have
c2 dt2 dx2 = 0: (1.105)
so that for the worldline joining E1 and E3, we can write
Z 3 Z 3 Z t3 Z x
cdt = dx ) cdt = dx: (1.106)
1 1 t1 x1
The minus sign, as it can be seen from Fig. 1.17, is because of the photon is
traveling in the negative direction. Similarly, for the worldline connecting E2
and E4, we can write
Z 4 Z 4 Z t4 Z x
cdt = dx ) cdt = dx: (1.107)
2 2 t2 x2
Noting that
Z t4 Z t1 Z t3 Z t4 Z t2 Z t3 Z t4
cdt = cdt + cdt + cdt = cdt + cdt + cdt
t2 t2 t1 t3 t1 t1 t3
Z t3
= c t21 + c t43 + cdt
t1
Figure 1.18: Spacetime diagram for a doppler e¤ect.
and using Eq. (1.106), one …nds

Z t4 Z x
cdt = c t21 + c t43 dx: (1.108)
t2 x1
Substituting this into Eq. (1.107), we have

Z x Z x
c t21 + c t43 dx = dx; (1.109)
x1 x2
so that using Z Z Z
x x1 x
dx = dx + dx: (1.110)
x2 x2 x1
one …nds
Z x Z x1 Z x
c t21 + c t43 dx = dx dx
x1 x2 x1
Z x1
) c ( t43 t21 ) = dx = x2 x1 = x21 (1.111)
x2
There follows that

1 x21 v
t43 = 1+ t21 = 1 + t21 : (1.112)
c t21 c
1.8. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 25
Using Eqs. (1.102) and (1.103), we have
43 t43
=q
21 v2
1 c2 t21
so that upon substituting Eq. (1.112), one …nds

v v
43 1+ c
1+ c
=q =q : (1.113)
21 v2 v v
1 c2
1+ c 1 c
Thus the time interval between the two successive wavecrests as observed by
an observer on earth, S rest frame ( 43 ) and the alien on the spaceship, S 0
moving with speed v, ( 21 ) are related by
s
43 1 + vc 1 + vc
=q = : (1.114)
21 1+ v 1 v 1 vc
c c
Note that this times are the period of the emitted photon that can be related
to the corresponding frequencies for an observer on S (f ) and on S 0 (f 0 ) by
43 = 1=f; 21 = 1=f 0
we …nd s
v
f 1 c
= v : (1.115)
f0 1+ c
This is Doppler-e¤ ect formula.
1.8 Velocity and acceleration

Velocity: Let’s consider two spacecraft commanded by two aliens as shown in
Fig.1.19. The …rst spaceship commanded by Alien 1 is spotted by an observer on
earth (S frame) and Alien 2 commanding the second spaceship is ‡ying with a
constant speed v along the positive x-direction (S 0 frame). For Alien 1 spaceship
the observer on earth recorded (t; x (t) ; y (t) ; z (t)) which Alien 2 in the second
spaceship recorded (t0 ; x (t0 ) ; y (t0 ) ; z (t0 )). The velocity for the …rst spaceship
(Alien 1) as recorded by an observer on earth, (ux ; uy ; uz ), is determined by
taking the time derivative of the position coordinates.
dx (t) dy (t) dz (t)

ux (t) = ; uy (t) = ; uz (t) = : (1.116)
dt dt dt
Using the inverse Lorentz transformation
ct = (ct0 + x0 ) ; x = (x0 + c t0 ) ; y = y 0 ; z = z 0 ; (1.117)

Figure 1.19: Two Alien spaceship traveling with di¤erent velocity relative to an
observer on earth.
we can write
dx0
cdt = (cdt0 + dx0 ) = c+ dt0 = (c + u0x ) dt0 ;
dt0
vu0x
) dt = 1+ dt0 (1.118)
c2
dx0
dx = (dx0 + c dt0 ) = +c dt0 = (u0x + v) dt0 ; (1.119)
dt0
dy = dy 0 ; dz = dz 0 ; (1.120)
so that
dx (dx0 + c dt0 )
= ; (1.121)
cdt (cdt0 + dx0 )
dy dy 0
= ; (1.122)
cdt (cdt0 + dx0 )
dz dz
= : (1.123)
cdt (cdt0 + dx0 )
This can be rewritten as

dx (u0x + v) dt0 u0x + v
ux = = = vu0x
; (1.124)
dt vu0x 1+
1+ c2 dt0 c2
q
v2
dy 0 u0y 1 c2
uy = = vu0x
; (1.125)
vu0x 1+
1+ c2 dt0 c2
q
v2
dz 0 u0z 1 c2
uz = = vu0x
: (1.126)
vu0x 1+
1+ c2 dt0 c2
The inverse transformation for the velocity, replacing v by v; is given by

q q
v2 2
ux v uy 1 c 2 uz 1 vc2
0 0 0
ux = ; uy = ; uz = : (1.127)
1 vuc2
x
1 vuc2
x
1 vuc2
x
Homework Problem 5 : Consider three inertial reference frames S; S 0 ; and S 00 .

Suppose S 0 is related to S by a boost of speed v in the x direction and that S 00
is related to S 0 by a boost of speed u0 in the x0 -direction. Using the rapidity
parameter de…ned as
1 v 1 u0
v = tanh ; u0 = tanh : (1.128)
c c
show that
(a)
ct00 = ct cosh ( v + u0 ) x sinh ( v + u0 ) ;

x0 = ct sinh ( v + u0 ) + x cosh ( v + u0 ) ;
0
y = y;
0
z = z:
(b)
tanh ( v ) + tanh ( u0 ) u0 + v
u = ct tanh ( v + u0 )=c =
1 + tanh ( v ) tanh ( u0 ) 1 + u0 v=c2
Acceleration: The acceleration of Alien 1 (spaceship 1) as observed by Alien

2 in the spaceship (S 0 frame) can also be determined from the corresponding
velocities
du0 du0y du0
a0x = x0 ; ay = 0 ; az = x0 : (1.129)
dt dt dt
Using the transformation for velocity

q q
v2 2
ux v 0 uy 1 c2 uz 1 vc2
0 0
ux = ; uy = ; uz = ; (1.130)
1 vu c2
x
1 vu c2
x
1 vu
c2
x
we have
v2
ux v dux dux cv2 (ux v) dux 1 c2
du0x =d vux = vux + =
1 1 vux 2 vux 2
c2 c2 1 c2 1 c2
dux
) du0x = ; (1.131)
2 vux 2
v 1 c2
2 q 3 " #
v2
uy 1 uy cv2 dux
du0y = d4
c2
5= 1 duy
vux + ; (1.132)
v vux 2
1 c2 ux v 1 c2 1 c2
2 q 3 " #
v2
uz 1 c2 1 duz uz cv2 dux
du0z = d4 v
5= vux + ; (1.133)
1 vux 2
c2 ux v 1 c2 1 c2
where
1
v =q : (1.134)
v2
1 c2
Similarly, using the transformation for time
v v dx
ct0 = v (ct x) ) dt0 = v dt dx = v 1 dt(1.135)
c2 c2 dt
vux
) dt0 = v 1 dt (1.136)
c2
then the acceleration becomes
,
du0x dux h vux i ax
0
ax = 0 = 2 v 1 dt = ; (1.137)
dt 2 1 vu x c 2 3 1 vux 3
v c2 v c2
" #,
du 0
1 du u v
du h vux i
y y y 2 x
a0y = 0 = vux +
c
2 v 1 dt
dt v 1 c2 1 vu x c2
c2
1 uy v
) a0y = 2 ay + ax (1.138)
2 1 vu x 2 c2 1 vux 3
v c2 v c2
" #,
du0z 1 duz uz cv2 dux h vux i
az = 0 = vux + 2 v 1 dt
dt v 1 c2 1 vu x c2
c2
1 uz v
) az = az + ax (1.139)
2 1 vux 2 2 c2 1 vux 3
v c2 v c2
For the …rst spaceship let’s consider the case
du
ux = u (t) ; uy = uz = 0 ) ax = a = ; ay = az = 0; (1.140)
dt
so that its velocity and acceleration as observed by the alien in the second
spaceship be
u v
u0x = ; u0 = 0; u0z = 0 (1.141)
1 cv2 ux y
and
a
a0x = a0 = ; a0y = 0; az = 0; (1.142)
3 vu 3
v 1 c2
respectively. Suppose Alien 1 in the …rst spaceship makes continuous record

of his accelerometer reading, f ( ) ; (the rate of change of his velocity per unit
time-the proper time, ). Alien 2 in the second spaceship (S 0 frame) that was
Figure 1.20: When the velocity of the second alien spaceship equals the …rst
alien spaceship, it becomes an instantaneous reference frame (IRF).
traveling with a constant velocity, v, relative to the observer on earth (S frame)

begin to accelerate such that it would catch up with Alien 1, v = u (t) : Then
the speed of the …rst spaceship (Alien 1) relative to the second spaceship (Alien
2) becomes
u v
u0x = = 0: (1.143)
1 cv2 ux
Under this condition the second spaceship (S 0 frame) is referred as us an in-

stantaneous reference frame (IRF). From what we know about the proper time,
we note that
= t0 : (1.144)
Then the acceleration of the …rst spaceship as read by Alien 1 from his ac-
celerometer, f ( ) ; and measured by Alien 2 (S 0 frame), a0x ; are related by
du0 du0
a0 = 0
= = f ( ): (1.145)
dt d
For v = u (t) ; we have
3=2
u2
a a 1 c2 u2
3=2
a0 = = ) a = a0 1
3 vu 3 u2 3 c2
v 1 c2 1 c2
3=2
du du0 u2
) = 0 1 ; (1.146)
dt dt c2
so that using Eq. (1.145), one …nds
3=2
du u2
= 1 f( ) (1.147)
dt c2
Noting that the proper time on the …rst spaceship (Alien 1)
r
u2
d = 1 dt; (1.148)
c2
we may rewrite Eq. (1.147) as
du u2
= 1 f ( ): (1.149)
d c2
Introducing the transformation de…ned by
u ( ) = c tanh [ ( )] (1.150)
we have
cd
tanh [ ( )] = 1 tanh2 [ ( )] f ( )
d
c d ( ) f( ) d ( )
) 2 = 2 )c =f( )
cosh [ ( )] d cosh [ ( )] d
Z
1
) ( )= f ( )d : (1.151)
c 0
From Eqs. (1.148) and (1.150), we note that
1=2
dt u2 dx
= 1 = cosh [ ( )] ; = c tanh [ ( )] : (1.152)
d c2 d
Suppose the …rst spaceship is accelerating at a constant rate (i.e. f ( ) = k), so

that Z
1 k
( )= f ( )d = ; (1.153)
c 0 c
we …nd for the time and position the …rst spaceship as function of the proper
time
dt k c k
= cosh ) t ( ) = t0 +
sinh ; (1.154)
d c k c
dx dx dt dt k c k
= = u( ) = c sinh ) x ( ) = x0 + cosh (1.155)
1 :
d d d d c k c
For t0 = x0 = 0; these equations can be rewritten as
kt ( ) k kx ( ) k
= sinh ; = cosh 1: (1.156)
c c c c
We recall the interval is given by

2 2
2 2 2 c t x
(c t) ( x) = ( s) ) = 1: (1.157)
s s
which we may write in terms of the proper time, ; as

2 2 2 2
c t k x k
=1+ ) = :
s c s c
The parametric graph for the worldlines, for Alien 1 in the …rst spaceship that
is uniformly accelerating, f ( ) = k; (the red curve) and for the observer on
earth at, x = 0; that is at rest on the S frame (green). The blue line is the
event horizon for Alien 1. Events that are beyond the event horizon will never
be seen by Alien 1.
Figure 1.21: The worldline for the accelerating spaceship (red) and the ob-
server on earth (green). The dotted blue line is the horizon for the accelerating
spaceship.
Figure 1.22: The light cones for the accelerating spaceship (red) and the ob-
server on earth (green). The dotted blue line is the horizon for the accelerating
spaceship.
Chapter 2
Manifolds
2.1 What is a Manifold?

Consider a ridged meterstick pinned at the north and south poles inside a hollow
sphere as shown in Fig.2.1. Initially, t = 0; the sphere is at rest and suddenly
Figure 2.1: Rotation of the coordinate axes.
begins to rotate. It is free to rotate about the x-axis, y-axis, or z-axis. Let’s say
we want to describe the angular position of the center of mass of the meter stick
over a period of time, = 10s; with a time interval of 2s. How many independent
parameters, that depend on time, do we need to describe the angular position
of the center of mass of the meterstick relative to its initial position at t = 0?
Well the answer is simple. We need three independent parameters, the Euler
33
34 CHAPTER 2. MANIFOLDS
angles, ( 1 (t) ; 2 (t) ; 3 (t)) which describes the rotation about the x, y, and
z axes at a given instant of time. Then over the 10 second interval we have a
set that consist of 5 points
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
(2) ; (2) ; (2) ; (4) ; (4) ; (4) ; (6) ; (6) ; (6) ;
1 2 3 1 2 3
(8) ; (8) ; (8) ; (10) ; (10) ; (10)
We can make the time interval in…nitesimal to continuously describe the angular
position of the center of mass of the meterstick. The resulting set of points form
a Manifold of dimension three.
Let’s consider another example of a Manifold. In classical mechanics you
may have studied what is called the phase space. In this space you can describe
the state of a particle over a period of time using the three coordinates of
space locating the position of the particle and the three coordinates of speed
(or momentum) describing how fast the particle is moving at a given instant of
time. In Cartesian coordinate system we use the independent parameters (x (t) ;
y (t) ; z (t)) for position and (x_ (t) ; y_ (t) ; z_ (t)) for the speed of the particle. I can
represent these independent parameters by (x1 (t) ; x2 (t) ; x3 (t) ; x4 (t) ; x5 (t) ;
x6 (t)). So when you describe the state of the particle say from t = 0 to t = t0 ;
you can use in…nitesimal time interval so that you will have a set of points that
can be parameterized continuously in terms of (x1 (t) ; x2 (t) ; ::: x6 (t)). These
set of points form a Manifold of dimension six.
Now let’s apply this to the Minkowski spacetime where we have three space
coordinates (x (t) ; y (t) ; z (t)) and time, t. This forms a four dimensional man-
ifold with four coordinates each parametrized by the proper time ; (x1 ( ) ;
x2 ( ) ; x3 ( ) ; x4 ( )). Therefore, a manifold is any set that can be continu-
ously parameterized. Therefore, an N dimensional manifold, M; of points is
one for which N independent real coordinates (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; :::; xN ) are required
to specify any point completely.
A manifold is Continuos: if you pick any point, p, on the Manifold and you
can …nd another points whose coordinates di¤er in…nitesimally from the point
p.
A manifold is di¤ erentiable: if you pick any point, p, on the Manifold and
you can …nd a scalar function that is di¤erentiable at that point p.
Coordinates of a Manifold M : a point in an N -Dimensional Manifold is
represented by the coordinates (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; ::: xN ) which we represent by xa
where it is understood that a = 1; 2; 3::: N:
Degeneracy in a Manifold : sometimes it may not be possible to cover the
whole manifold with only one none-degenerate coordinate system. Example is
a plane in polar coordinate system ( ; '). A plane is a two dimension Manifold.
(called R2 ). A plane in polar coordinates has a degeneracy at the origin since
' is indeterminate at the origin. (Fig. 2.2)
Coordinate patches: these are coordinate systems that covers a portion of
the Manifold where we have degeneracy. For example the surface of a sphere is
a two dimensional Manifold (called S 2 ). It can be described by two independent
coordinates (x1 = ; x2 = ') except at two points on the Manifold. These are
2.2. CURVES AND SURFACES IN A MANIFOLD 35
Figure 2.2: The degenerate point on a plane in polar coordinates.
Figure 2.3: The north and south pole on the surface of sphere are degenerate
in polar coordinates.
the north and south pole where ' is indeterminate (or there is degeneracy).
(Fig.2.3) There is no coordinate system that covers the entire sphere without
running into these two degenerate points. In this case the smallest number of
patches we need is two.
Atlas: an atlas is a set of coordinate patches that covers the whole Manifold.
2.2 Curves and surfaces in a Manifold

Both curves and surfaces on a Manifold are de…ned parametrically. That means
we use some common parameters. For example, a curve in the phase space
that we saw earlier, can be de…ned in terms of the time parameter, t: Another
example, a curve in the 4D Minkowski spacetime manifold is de…ned by the
interval
ds2 ( ) = c2 d 2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 : (2.1)
Generally, we use a parameter, u; to de…ne a curve.

A curve: a curve in a Manifold of dimension N is de…ne by a parametric
equation
xa = xa (u) ; where a = 1; 2; 3:::N: (2.2)
For example the curve shown in pink in Fig. 2.4 is de…ned by
Figure 2.4: A curve and a surface in a 3D manifold.
x1 (u) = cos5 (u); x2 (u) = 0:4u2 ; x3 (u) = 0:4u3 ; (2.3)
and it needs only one parameter, u:

A surface: a surface in a Manifold of dimension N (which also referred as a
submanifold) has M degrees of freedom which is always less than the dimension
of the Manifold (M < N ) and therefore it depends on M parameters that we
represent by (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ; :::uM ) and is de…ned by the parametric equation
xa = xa u1 ; u2 ; u3 ; :::uM ; where a = 1; 2; 3:::N: (2.4)
Hypersurface: a surface of dimension M in a Manifold of dimension N with

M = N 1: In this case the N 1 parameters can be eliminated from the N
equations and you can …nd one equation
f x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; :::xN = 0: (2.5)
The surface shown in blue in Fig. 2.4 in the 3D manifold needs two parameters
to de…ne it
x1 = 2 cos(u1 ); x2 = sin (u2 ) ; x3 = u2 : (2.6)
Note that this surface is in 3D manifold and it parameterized by two coordinates
(u; v), (M = N 1 = 3 1 = 2; it is a hypersurface).
2.2. CURVES AND SURFACES IN A MANIFOLD 37
Example 2.1 Let’s consider the 3-D Euclidean Manifold. A sphere is a High-
persurface since M = 2; (Fig.2.5). A point on a sphere is de…ned by
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 ; (2.7)
where a is the radius of the sphere. We note that in this case the surface
of the sphere is a Hypersurface that can be de…ned by the equation
2 2 2
g x1 ; x2 ; x3 = x1 + x2 + x3 a2 = 0; (2.8)
where we used (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) for (x; y; z).Introducing the parameters u1 ; u2 ;
Figure 2.5: A spherical hypersurface embedded in a 3D manifold. The radius

of the sphere is a.
and u3 de…ned by
x1 = u1 sin (u2 ) cos (u3 ) ; x2 = u1 sin (u2 ) sin (u3 ) ; x3 = u1 cos (u2 )
we can write the equation that de…ne the surface of the sphere (M = 2)
that is embedded in a 3D manifold (N = 3) using only one parameter (by
eliminating the N 1 = 2; parameters) as
2 2
g x1 ; x2 ; x3 = (u1 sin (u2 ) cos (u3 )) + (u1 sin (u2 ) sin (u3 ))
2
+ (u1 cos (u2 )) a2 = 0 ) g x1 ; x2 ; x3 = u21 a2 = 0 (2.9)
which is the property of a hypersurface in a manifold.
Therefore a point is restricted to lie in a hypersurface (M = N 1 di-

mensional submanifold embedded in N -dimensional Manifold), then the points
coordinate must satisfy Eq. (2.5). We come up with a similar generalization to
this for a point that belong to any surface with dimension M in a Manifold of
dimension N (M < N ).
g1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; :::xN = 0; (2.10)
1 2 3 N
g2 x ; x ; x ; :::x = 0;
1 2 3 N
g3 x ; x ; x ; :::x = 0
:
:
:
1 2 3 N
gN M x ; x ; x ; :::x = 0
2.3 Coordinate transformations and summation

convention
Let’s consider the 3-D Euclidean Manifold. A point in this Manifold can be
represented using Cartesian coordinates (x; y; z) which we shall represent by
(x1 ; x2 ; x3 ). This same point can also be represented using spherical coordinates
(r; ; ') that shall represent by (x01 ; x02 ; x03 ). Now the question is how we relate
the Cartesian coordinates with the spherical coordinates or vice versa. In terms
of these notations, one can write
r ! r (x; y; z) ; or x01 ! x01 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; (2.11)
02 02 1 2 3
! (x; y; z) ; or x ! x x ;x ;x ;
03 03 1 2 3
' ! ' (x; y; z) ; or x ! x x ;x ;x ;
or
x ! x (r; ; ') ; or x1 ! x1 x01 ; x02 ; x03 ; (2.12)
2 2 01 02 03
y ! y (r; ; ') ; or x ! x x ;x ;x ;
3 3 01 02 03
z ! z (r; ; ') ; or x ! x x ;x ;x :
Suppose we have a function, g (x; y; z) or g (r; ; '), which can be expressed by
g x1 ; x2 ; x3 and g x01 ; x02 ; x03 ; respectively, then one can write [Theoretical
Physics I ],
@g @g @x01 @g @x02 @g @x03
= + + ; (2.13)
@x1 @x01 @x1 @x02 @x1 @x03 @x1
@g @g @x01 @g @x02 @g @x03
= + + ; (2.14)
@x2 @x01 @x2 @x02 @x2 @x03 @x2
@g @g @x01 @g @x02 @g @x03
3
= 01 3
+ 02 3
+ : (2.15)
@x @x @x @x @x @x03 @x3
Using matrices [Theoretical Physics I ] this can be put in the form
2 @g 3 2 @x01 @x02 @x03 3 2 @g 3
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x1 @x01
4 @g2 5 = 6 4 @x01 @x02 @x03 7 4 @g 5 :
5 (2.16)
@x @x2 @x2 @x2 @x02
@g @x01 @x02 @x03 @g
@x3 @x3 @x3 @x3 @x03
2.3. COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS AND SUMMATION CONVENTION39
For the inverse case, following a similar procedure, we can write

2 @g 3 2 @x1 @x2 @x3
32
@g 3
@x01 @x01 @x01 @x01
@x1
6 1 2 3
7
4 @g02 5 = 4 @x02 @x02 @x02 5 4 @g2 5
@x @x @x @x @x
(2.17)
@g 1 2 3 @g
@x @x @x
@x03 @x03 @x03 @x03 @x3
so that 2 3 2 32 3
@g @x01 @x02 @x03 @g
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x1 @x01
4 @g 5=6
4 @x01 @x02 @x03 74
5 @g 5 (2.18)
@x2 @x2 @x2 @x2 @x02
@g @x01 @x02 @x03 @g
@x3 @x3 @x3 @x3 @x03
can be written as
2 @g 3 2 @x01 @x02 @x03
32 @x1 @x2 @x3
32
@g 3
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x1 @x01 @x01 @x01 @x1
4 @g2 5 = 6 76 74
1 2 3
4 @x01 @x02 @x03
54 @x @x @x
5 @g 5: (2.19)
@x @x2 @x2 @x2 @x02 @x02 @x02 @x2
@g @x 01
@x02 @x03 1 2 3 @g
@x @x @x
@x3 @x3 @x3 @x3 @x03 @x03 @x03 @x3
There follows that

2 32 @x1 @x2 @x3
3
@x01 @x02 @x03
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x01 @x01 @x01
6 @x01 @x02 @x03 76 @x
1
@x
2
@x
3
7
4 @x2 @x2 @x2 54 @x02 @x02 @x02 5 = 1: (2.20)
@x01 @x02 @x03 @x
1
@x
2
@x
3
@x3 @x3 @x3 @x03 @x03 @x03
This means the matrix

2 3
@x01 @x02 @x03
@x1 @x1 @x1
1 6 @x01 @x02 @x03 7
A =4 @x2 @x2 @x2 5 (2.21)
@x01 @x02 @x03
@x3 @x3 @x3
must be the inverse matrix for

2 @x1 @x2 @x3
3
@x01 @x01 @x01
6 @x
1
@x
2
@x
3
7
A=4 @x02 @x02 @x02 5 (2.22)
1 2 3
@x @x @x
@x03 @x03 @x03
so that
1 1
A A = AA = 1: (2.23)
T
We note that the transpose, A ; is given by
2 1 1
3
@x1 @x @x
6 @x01 @x02
2
@x03
2 7
AT = 6
4
@x2 @x @x 7:
5 (2.24)
@x01 @x02
3
@x03
3
@x3 @x @x
@x01 @x02 @x03
Similarly for the inverse matrix, the transpose matrix which we express as
2 01 01 01
3
@x @x @x
@x0a 6 @x1
@x02
@x2
@x02
@x3
@x02 7
=4 @x1 @x2 @x3 5 (2.25)
@xb @x03 @x03 @x03
@x1 @x2 @x3
is the transformation matrix that transforms the coordinates (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) to

(x01 ; x02 ; x03 ).
For a Manifold of dimension N , the transformation matrix is given by
2 3
@x01 @x01 @x01
1
@x02 2
@x02 ::: @xN
6 @x @x : @x02 7
6 @x1 @x 2 @x3 7
@x
0a 6 : 7
6 : : : 7
= 6 : 7: (2.26)
@xb 6 : : : 7
6 : 7
4 : : : 5
0N 0N 0N
@x @x @x
@x1 @x2 ::: @xN
As we recall from [Theoretical physics I], a Matrix is invertible provided the

determinant is di¤erent from zero. Therefore, the inverse transformation is
possible provide the determinant of the transformation matrix which is known
as the Jacobian, J; is di¤erent from zero
@x01 @x01 @x01
@x1 @x2 ::: @xN
@x02 @x02 : @x02
" 0a
# @x1 @x2 @x3
@x : : : :
J = det = : 6= 0 (2.27)
@xb : : :
: : : :
0N 0N 0N
@x @x @x
@x1 @x2 ::: @xN
The inverse transformation Matrix can be written as

2 1 1
3
@x1 @x @x
:::
6 @x 01 @x 02
2
@x 0N
2 7
6 @x012 @x : @x 7
a 6 @x @x02 @x03 7
@x 6 : : : : 7
6
0b = 6
7 (2.28)
@x : : : : 7
6 7
6 : : : : 7
4 N N
5
@xN @x @x
@x01 @x02 ::: @x0N
and the Jacobian J 0

1 1
@x1 @x @x
@x01 @x02 ::: @x0N
2 2
@x2 @x : @x
a @x01 @x02 @x03
@x : : : :
J 0 = det = (2.29)
@x0 b : : : :
: : : :
N N
@xN @x @x
@x01 @x02 ::: @x0N
We note that
0a 0a
X @x @xb 0a N 0a
@x0a @x @x1 @x @x2 @x @xN
01
= 1 01
+ 2 01
+ :: N 01
= (2.30)
@x @x @x @x @x @x @x @xb @x01
b=1
2.3. COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS AND SUMMATION CONVENTION41
Figure 2.6: Point P and Q on a surface
Noting that for independent coordinates

0a
@x 0; a 6= c
= (2.31)
@x0c 1 a=c
we can generally write
N
X @x0a @xb a
= c: (2.32)
@xb @x0c
b=1
Consider two points P and Q on a Manifold with dimension N . Suppose these
points are separated by in…nitesimal interval so that if the coordinates of P is
xa and that of Q is xa + dxa ; then one can write
N
@x0a 1 @x0a 2 @x0a N X @x0a b
dx0a = dx + dx ::: N dx = dx ; (2.33)
@x1 @x2 @x @xb
b=1
where the summation is evaluated at P . Similarly for the interval between x0a
and x0a + dx0a ; in the none-primed coordinate system, we can write
X @xa N
@xa 01 @xa 02 @xa
dxa = 01
dx + 02
dx ::: 0N dx0N = dx0b ; (2.34)
@x @x @x @x0b
b=1
here also the summation is evaluated at P .

Einstein’s summation convention: whenever an index occurs twice in an
expression, once as subscript and once as a superscript, imply a summation
over the index. An index should not occur more than twice. For example,
according to Einstein’s summation convention, the summations in Eq. (2.33)
and (2.34) can be expressed
N
X
0a @x0a @x0a b
dx = dxb = gb (x) dxb = dx (2.35)
@xb @xb
b=1
and
N
X @xa 0b @xa 0b
dxa = 0b
dx = gb (x0 ) dx0b = dx : (2.36)
@x @x0b
b=1
The index a; which is known as the free index, can take any value from 1 to
N . The index b, which is known as the dummy index and it must be summed
up from 1 to N .
2.4 The Riemannian geometry

The local geometry of a Manifold : The local geometry of a manifold is de-
termined by de…ning the invariant ’distance’ or (as we saw in the Minkowski
spacetime Manifold) the interval ds between points P with coordinate xa and
Q with coordinates xa + dxa : This distance can be assigned in general to be a
well-behaved function g (xa ; dxa ) of the coordinates xa and dxa
ds2 = g (xa ; dxa ) : (2.37)
Let’s reconsider the worldline of the alien in the spaceship in the previous chap-
ter. Imagine there is a surface de…ned by the two coordinates (x; ct) represented
as x1 ; x2 : Let’s consider two points P and Q; as shown in Fig. 2.7. The coordi-
nates for the points are x1 ; x2 and x1 + dx1 ; x2 + dx2 ; respectively. Suppose
this surface is de…ned by the function s x1 ; x2 The interval between these two
Figure 2.7: A curved surface in a 3D manifold.
points, ds, can be expressed as
@s 1 @s 2
ds = dx + dx
@x1 @x2
@s 1 @s 2 @s 1 @s 2
) ds2 = 1
dx + 2
dx 1
dx + dx
@x @x @x @x2
@s @s 1 1 @s @s 1 2 @s @s 1 2
) ds2 = dx dx + dx dx + dx dx
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x2 @x2 @x1
@s @s
+ 2 2 dx2 dx2 (2.38)
@x @x
2.4. THE RIEMANNIAN GEOMETRY 43
This cane be rewritten as
ds2 = g11 x1 ; x2 dx1 dx1 + g12 x1 ; x2 dx1 dx2 + g21 x1 ; x2 dx1 dx2
2 X
X 2
1 2 2 2
+g22 x ; x dx dx = gab (x) dxa dxb (2.39)
a=1 b=1
where we replaced
@s @s @s @s @s @s @s @s
g11 = ; g12 = ; g21 = ; g22 =
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x2 @x2 @x1 @x2 @x2
Consider a curved surface in 3-D Euclidean space. We know that this surface
can be de…ned by a function g, that depends on (x; y; z) in Cartesian, (r; ; ')
in spherical, or (r; '; z) in cylindrical coordinates. Suppose we represent these
coordinates by x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; then we may write the function that de…nes the
surface as
s (x) = g (x) = g x1 ; x2 ; x3 : (2.40)
Now let’s consider a point P on this surface that has coordinates x1 ; x2 ; x3 :
Suppose we consider another point Q with coordinates x1 + dx1 ; x2 + dx2 ; x3 + dx2 ;
we may de…ne the surface between these two points as ds2 . This displacement
is just the di¤erential of Eq. (2.40)
@g @g @g @g @g @g
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 : dx1 + dx2 + dx3
@x1 @x2 @x3 @x1 @x2 @x3
(2.41)
or using Einstein’s summation convention, the geometry of the surface between
the two points
3
! 3
!
X @g X @g b
2 a
ds = (ds) (ds) = dx dx
a=1
@xa @xb
b=1
3 X
X 3
@g @g a b
= dx dx : (2.42)
a=1 b=1
@xa @xb
Again using Einstein’s summation convention and the notation

@g @g
gab (x) = (2.43)
@xa @xb
we may write
ds2 = gab (x) dxa dxb : (2.44)
which is the metric equation that we de…ned earlier. Note that the metric tensor
in this case is a 3 3 matrix given by
2 @g @g @g @g @g @g 3
@x1 @x1 @x1 @x2 @x1 @x3
G=4 @g
@x2
@g
@x1
@g
@x2
@g
@x2
@g
@x2
@g
@x3
5 (2.45)
@g @g @g @g @g @g
@x3 @x1 @x3 @x2 @x3 @x3
and we can easily see that this matrix is symmetric as
@g @g @g @g
a b
= :
@x @x @xb @xa
Suppose the coordinates for an orthonormal set like the Cartesian, spherical, or
cylindrical, we note that
2 2
3
@g
6 @x1 0 0 7
6 2 7
G=6 6 0 @g
@x2 0 7
7 (2.46)
4 3 5
@g
0 0 @x3
In general theory of relativity, we are interested in a Manifold where the interval

ds can be described by the equation of the form
N X
X N
ds2 = gab (x) dxa dxb ; (2.47)
a=1 b=1
or simply using the Einstein’s summation convention
A geometry of a Manifold de…ned by Eq. (2.48) is known as the Riemannian

geometry if ds2 > 0. As we have seen in the case of Minkowski spacetime
manifold the interval ds2 can also be negative (spacelike) or zero (lightlike).
In such cases the geometry is referred as pseudo Riemannian geometry and the
manifold can be referred as pseudo Riemannian. The function g (x) is known
as the metric function, where gab (x) represent the element of a metric tensor.
Transformation of the interval : applying the relation in Eq. (2.36), we can
express
@xa 0c @xb 0d
dxa = dx ; dxb
= dx (2.49)
@x0c @x0d
so that the interval can be transformed as
@xa @xb 0c 0d
ds2 = gab (x) dx dx ; (2.50)
@x0c @x0d
or
0
ds2 = gcd (x0 ) dx0c dx0d ; (2.51)
where
a b
0 0 @x @x
gcd (x ) = gab (x) 0c 0d : (2.52)
@x @x
Note that x = x (x0 ) :
2.5. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC GEOMETRY AND THE METRIC 45
2.5 Intrinsic and extrinsic geometry and the met-

ric
A given geometry of dimension M de…ned by the metric equation
and embedded in a higher dimension manifold of dimension N , (N > M ) is said

to be:
(a) Intrinsic: when the geometry remains unchanged as viewed in the higher
dimensional manifold.
(b) Extrinsic: when the geometry is di¤erent as viewed in the higher dimen-
sional manifold.
Example 2.2 Extrinsic geometry: One simple example of extrinsic geometry is

2-D cylindrical geometry. In order to see that let’s consider a plane geom-
etry in a 3-D Euclidean Manifold. Let’s this plane depends on (x1 ; x2 ).
We recall from theoretical physics I generally a plane:
~ = ai + bj + ck is normal (perpendicular) to a plane,
Equation of a plane: If N
then the scalar product of the vector N~ and the vector !r ~r0
~r ~r0 = (x x0 ) x
^ + (y y0 ) y^ + (z z0 ) z^ (2.54)
is zero,
~ (~r
N ~r0 ) = a (x x0 ) + b (y y0 ) + c (z z0 ) = 0: (2.55)
This de…nes the equation of the plane. It can be rewritten as
Figure 2.8: A plane geometry
ax + by + cz = d; (2.56)
where
d = ax0 + by0 + cz0 : (2.57)
Using the notation x1 ; x2 ; x3 for (x; y; z) , we may write
ax1 + bx2 + cx3 = d; (2.58)
where
d = ax10 + bx20 + cx30 : (2.59)
1 2
For a plane that depends on only (x ; x )we may write the interval between
(x1 ; x2 ) and (x1 + dx1 ; x2 + dx2 ) as

2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 : (2.60)
Now let’s consider the 2-D cylindrical surface which we can construct using
our 2-D plane. Suppose the cylinder has radius, a; with its axis along the
z-axis (which we call it x03 axis): Using cylindrical coordinates a point
on the surface of the cylinder can be described by (a; '; z) or using our
coordinates notations (a; x02 ; x03 ), we can de…ne the surface by the function
g (a; '; z) = g a; x02 ; x03 : (2.61)
we may write the interval between two points on this surface, point P
and Q with coordinates (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) and point Q with coordinates (x1 +
dx1 ; x2 + dx2 ; x3 + dx3 ) just using geometrical visualization, as
2 2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 : (2.62)
For the cylinder with radius a shown in Fig. 2.9
x1 = a cos x02 ; x2 = a sin x02 ; x3 = x03
we …nd
2 2 2 2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 = a2 dx02 + dx03 : (2.63)
Figure 2.9: A surface with cylindrical geometry.
This is a 2-D surface embedded in a 3-D manifold. It has cylindrically

curved geometry when it is viewed in this 3-D Euclidean manifold. But
you can actually obtain this geometry from the plane geometry from Eq.
(2.40) by simply substituting
x1 = ax02 ; x2 = x03
Such kind of geometry is not intrinsic and it is called extrinsic. Its cur-
vature is extrinsic and is a result of the way it is embedded in the three
dimensional space..
Example 2.3 Intrinsic geometry: One simple example of intrinsic geometry is

2-D spherical geometry embedded in a 3-D Euclidean Manifold. In Fig.
2.5 we see a 3-D in…nitesimal volume. Assume a sphere with radius a:
Then the surface de…ned by a pair of points on this sphere separated by

a distance ds can be expressed as
2 2 2 2
ds2 = (ad ) + (a sin ( ) d') = a2 (d ) + a2 sin2 ( ) (d') : (2.64)
or using the notation x02 ; x03 for ( ; ') ; we can write

2 2
ds2 = a2 dx02 + a2 sin2 x02 dx03 : (2.65)
This is a 2-D surface embedded in a 3-D manifold. You can not obtain
this geometry from the plane geometry like the 2-D cylindrical geome-
try. Such kind of geometry is intrinsic. This means the geometry of a
sphere is intrinsically curved because we can not transform Eq.(2.65) to
the Euclidean form
2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 (2.66)
over the whole surface by any coordinate transformation. Note that this
can be done locally but not for the whole spherical surface.
Example 2.4 Find the metric for a two-dimensional sphere of radius, a; em-
bedded in a 3-D Euclidean space both in Cartesian coordinates (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ).
Refer to Fig. 2.5
Solution: We recall that the line element in a 3-D Euclidean space is given by
2 2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 ; (2.67)
For a two dimensional spherical geometry with radius a; we have

2 2 2
x1 + x2 + x3 = a2 ; (2.68)
Using (2.68), we can write

r
3 2 2
x = a2 (x1 ) + (x2 ) ; (2.69)
so that
x1 dx1 + x2 dx2
dx3 = r :
2 2
a2 (x1 ) + (x2 )
Then for a 2-D sphere embedded in a 3-D Euclidean space, the metric is
given by
0 12
2 2 B x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 C
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 +B
@ r C :
A (2.70)
2 2
a2 (x1 ) + (x2 )
If we consider a point in the neighborhood of the pole, we may set
x1 = x2 ' 0
and the metric in Eq. (2.70) reduces to the Euclidean form

2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 : (2.71)
Let’s use the coordinates (x01 ; x02 ; x03 ). de…ned by the transformation
x1 = x01 cos x02 ; x2 = x01 sin x02 ; x3 = x03
For any point on the surface of the sphere, we have

2 2 2
x1 + x2 + x3 = a2
r q
2 2 2
) x3 = a2 (x01 ) + (x02 ) = a2 (x01 ) ; (2.72)
Note that the origin is set at the north pole of the sphere at point as shown
in Fig. 2.5,. Then the interval can be written as
2
ds2 = dx01 cos x02 x01 sin x02 dx02
0 12
01 01
2 x dx
+ dx01 sin x02 + x01 cos x02 dx02 + @ q A (2.73)
2
a2 (x01 )
so that after a little algebra, we …nd

0 12
01 01
2 2 2 x dx
ds2 = dx01 + x01 dx02 + @q A (2.74)
2
a2 (x01 )
which simpli…es into

2
a2 dx01 2 2
ds2 = 2 + x01 dx02 (2.75)
a2 (x01 )
or
2 2
ds2 = g11 dx01 + g22 dx02 (2.76)
where
a2 2
g11 = 2 ; g22 = x01 (2.77)
a2 (x01 )
are the none zero elements of the metric tensor. We will see the use of
these elements of the metric tensor in the next section to determine length
and area of a 2-D sphere in a 3-D Euclidean manifold.
Example 2.5 Determine the metric for a three-dimensional sphere of radius a

embedded in a 4-D Euclidean space: We can write the interval
2 2 2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ; (2.78)
For a three dimensional spherical geometry with radius a we have

2 2 2 2
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = a2
r
2 2 2
) x4 = a2 (x1 ) + (x2 ) + (x3 ) (2.79)
so that
x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3
dx4 = r :
2 2 2
a2 (x1 ) + (x2 ) + (x3 )
Then the metric can be expressed as

2
2 2 2 x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + ; (2.80)
2 2 2
a2 (x1 ) + (x2 ) + (x3 )
We introduce the coordinates (r; ; ') which we represent (x01 ; x02 ; x03 ).
and de…ned by the transformation
x1 = r sin ( ) cos (') ; x2 = r sin ( ) sin (') ; x3 = cos ( ) ;
or
x1 = x01 sin x02 cos x03 ; x2 = sin x02 sin x03 ; x3 = cos x02 :
Now referring to Fig.2.5the "distance" squared between point P and Q

can easily be determined using the Pythagorean theorem. First …nd the
length of the hypotenuse of the green triangle. Suppose if we call this
length dss ; we note that
2 2
ds2s = (r sin ( ) d') + (rd ) : (2.81)
Then the distance between P and Q shown by the red line (hypotenuse
side) can be expressed as
2
ds02 = dr2 + ds2s = dr2 + r2 sin2 ( ) d'2 + r2 d (2.82)
Note that I referred this distance as ds0 because it represents distance
ds02 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
We are considering a 3-D sphere in a 4-D Euclidean manifold, where the

interval between point P and Q is given by
2 2 2 2 2
ds2 = ds02 + dx4 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ; (2.83)
with the constraint

r
4 2 2 2
x = a2 (x1 ) + (x2 ) + (x3 ) :
which we may write, in terms of the polar coordinates, as

p
x4 = a2 r2 : (2.84)
so that
rdr
dx4 = p: (2.85)
a2 r2
Then the metric for a 3-D sphere in a 4-D Euclidean manifold is given by
2 r2 dr2
ds2 = ds02 + dx4 = dr2 + r2 sin2 ( ) d'2 + r2 d + ; (2.86)
a2 r2
which can be rewritten as

a2 2
ds2 = dr2 + r2 d + r2 sin2 ( ) d'2 (2.87)
a2 r2
or
2 2 2
ds2 = g11 dx01 + g22 dx02 + g33 dx03 ; (2.88)
where we used the notation x01 ; x02 ; x03 for the coordinates (r; ; ') and
identify the none zero elements of the metric tensor
a2
g11 = ; g22 = r2 ; g33 = r2 sin2 ( )
a2 r2
We will see the use of these elements of the metric tensor in the next
section to determine length, area, and volume of a 3-D sphere in a 4-D
Euclidean manifold.
2.6 Length, area, and volume

Length: Suppose two points P and Q on a manifold of dimension N are con-
nected by some curve. The length of the curve connecting these two points is
given by
Z Qp Z Qq
LP Q = 2
jds j = jgab (x) dxa dxb j (2.89)
P P
the absolute value is because of the fact that for pseudo-Riemannian manifolds it
can be negative as is the case for spacelike in the Minkawski spacetime manifold.
For xa = xa (u) ; we recall write
dxa dxb
dxa = du; dxb = du (2.90)
du du
so that s
Z Q
dxa dxb
LP Q = gab (u) du: (2.91)
P du du
Area and volume:

Generally the area can determined using
ZZ ZZ q q
A = ds1 ds2 = jgab (x) dxa dxb j jgcd (x) dxc dxd j; for c; d 6= a; b
ZZ q ZZ s
dxa dxc 2
= jgab (x) gcd (x) dxa dxb dxc dxd j = gab (x) gcd (x) b d (dxb dxd )
dx dx
ZZ s
dxa dxc
) A= gab (x) gcd (x) b d dxb dxd : (2.92)
dx dx
2.6. LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME 53
For an orthogonal set of coordinates, xp
dxp pq 1; p=q
= = (2.93)
dxq 0; p 6= q
and the area becomes

ZZ r ZZ p
ab cd
A= gab (x) gcd (x) dxb dxd = jgbb (x) gdd (x)jdxb dxd ;
note that, d 6= b: As an example let’s consider a 2D hypersurface embedded in

a 3D manifold. Then the surface area is given by
2
X ZZ p ZZ p
1 d
A = jg11 (x) gdd (x)jdx dx + jg22 (x) gdd (x)jdx2 dxd
1
ZZ p
+ jg33 (x) gdd (x)jdx3 dxd :
ZZ p ZZ p
= jg22 (x) g11 (x)jdx2 dx1 + jg33 (x) g11 (x)jdx3 dx1
ZZ p ZZ p
1 2
+ jg11 (x) g22 (x)jdx dx + jg33 (x) g22 (x)jdx3 dxd
ZZ p ZZ p
+ jg11 (x) g33 (x)jdx1 dx3 + jg22 (x) g33 (x)jdx2 dx3
For a hypersurface, like the 2D sphere in the 3D manifold, the surface is de…ned
by the equation
x3 = constant ) dx3 = 0:
and the expression for the area reduces to
ZZ p ZZ p
A= jg22 (x) g11 (x)jdx2 dx1 + jg11 (x) g22 (x)jdx1 dx2
which can simply be written as

ZZ p
A= jg22 (x) g11 (x)jdx2 dx1
where one can absorb the factor 2 into the metric elements. For such coordinates
the metric is diagonal
2 2 2
ds2 = g11 dx1 + g22 dx2 ::: + gN N dxN : (2.94)
and the in…nitesimal area dA of the surface de…ned by
xa = constant; (2.95)
for, a = 3; 4:::N; is given by

p
dA = jg11 g22 jdx1 dx2 (2.96)
and for 3-D volume in the x1 ; x2 ; x3 de…ned by
xa = constant (2.97)
for a = 4; 5:::N; the in…nitessimal volume is given by

p
dV = jg11 g22 g33 jdx1 dx2 dx3 (2.98)
Example 2.5 For the two-dimensional sphere of radius a embedded in a 3-D

Euclidean space consider a surface de…ned by a radius, = R: For this
surface …nd
(a) The distance, D, from the origin to the perimeter on this surface along
a line of constant ' i:e: x02 = cons The origin is at the north pole as
shown in Fig. 2.6.
(b) The circumference of the circle with radius, = R i:e: x01 = R = cons :
(c) The area of the spherical surface enclosed by the perimeter with radius,
= R; (i.e. the surface shaded green in Fig. 2.6).
Solution:
(a) We recall that the metric for a 2-D sphere in a 3-D Euclidean manifold is
given by
2 2
ds2 = g11 dx01 + g22 dx02 ; (2.99)
where we used the notation x01 ; x02 for the coordinates ( ; ') and identify
the none zero elements of the metric tensor
a2 2
g11 = ; g22 = : (2.100)
a2 2
We recall the length of a curve between two points, P and Q, on a manifold

in terms of the metric tensor is given by
Z Qq
LP Q = jgab (x) dxa dxb j: (2.101)
P
For curve on the surface of the sphere shown in red in Fig. 2.6, the
coordinates for point P is x01 = = 0; x02 = = constant and for point
Q x01 = = R; x02 = = constant which leads to
dx02 = d = 0:
Then the length becomes
Z Qp Z R
a 1 R
D= jg11 (x0 ) dx01 dx01 j = p d = a sin :
P 0 a2 2 a
(2.102)
(b) Along the circumference (the curve shown in pink Fig. 2.6), we know that
x01 = = R =constant which leads to
dx01 = d = 0 (2.103)
Thus the expression
Z Q q
LP Q = jgab (x0 ) dx0a dx0b j (2.104)
P
for the circumference becomes
Z 2 r Z 2 p
2
C= g22 (x0 ) (dx02 ) = jg22 (x01 = = R)j dx02
0 0
Z 2
)C= Rdx02 = 2 R (2.105)
0
(c) The surface is de…ned by x03 =constant: Then according to Eq. (2.96), the
in…nitesimal area is given by
p
dA = jg11 g22 jdx01 dx02 : (2.106)
Then the surface area becomes

ZZ s ZZ
a2 a
A= 2 d d = p d d : (2.107)
a2 2
a 2 2
To cover the area (colored Aqua) shown in Fig 2.6, we should have for the
limits of integrations [0; R] for and [0; 2 ] for '
ZRZ2 " r #
a R2
A= p d d = 2 a2 1 1 : (2.108)
a2 2 a2
0 0
Homework : In Example 2.5, express the circumference (part b) and the

area (part c) in terms of the distance D (part a) and determine D for the the
maximum circumference and area. Find the maximum circumference and area
of this sphere. Is your answer is consistent with what you know about the
maximum circumference and surface area of a sphere with radius a.
Example 2.6 For the three-dimensional sphere embedded in a 4-D Euclidean

space by considering a 2-D sphere of coordinate radius r = R; …nd
(a) the distance from its center to the surface of this sphere along constant
and constant .
(b) the circumference across the equator

(c) the area of the spherical surface.

(d) The volume bounded by the spherical surface.
Solution:
(a) We recall the metric for a 3-D sphere embedded in a 4-D Euclidean space
is given by
2 2 2
ds2 = g11 dx01 + g22 dx02 + g33 dx03 ; (2.109)
where we used the notation x01 ; x02 ; x03 for the coordinates (r; ; ') and
identify the none zero elements of the metric tensor
a2
g11 = ; g22 = r2 ; g33 = r2 sin2 ( ) (2.110)
a2 r2
or in terms of x01 ; x02 ; x03
a2 2 2
g11 = 2 ; g22 = x01 ; g33 = x01 sin2 x02 : (2.111)
a2 (x01 )
For x02 = =constant and x03 = =constant, we have
dx02 = dx03 = 0: (2.112)
so that the distance D
Z Q q
LP Q = jgab (x0 ) dx0a dx0b j (2.113)
P
becomes Z Q p
LP Q = jg11 (x0 ) dx01 dx01 j (2.114)
P
or
Z s Z
R R
a2 a 1 R
D= dr2 = p dr = a sin ; (2.115)
0 a2 r 2
0 a2 r2 a
which is the same as the result we obtained in the previous example.
(b) Across the equator, we have x01 = r = R; x02 = = =2 and obviously
dx01 = 0 and dx02 = 0: Then the length
Z Qq
LP Q = jgab (x0 ) dx0a dx0b j; (2.116)
P
for the circumference, becomes

Z r Z 2 p
2
C = g33 (x0 ) (dx03 ) = jg33 (x01 = r = R; x02 = =2)jdx03
0
Z 2 q Z 2
) C= R2 sin2 ( =2) dx003 = Rdx003 = 2 R (2.117)
0 0
(c) The spherical surface is de…ned by x01 = R =constant: Therefore, in view of

to Eq. (2.96), the in…nitessimal area on this surface should be expressed
as p
dA = jg22 g33 jdx02 dx03 : (2.118)
Noting that for x01 = r = R
g22 = r2 r=R
= R2
2
g33 = 2
r sin ( ) r=R
= R2 sin2 ( ) (2.119)
and the limit of integration for x02 is (0; ) and for x03 is (0; 2 ) ; the
surface area would be become
Z Z 2 q Z Z 2
2
A= 4
R sin ( ) d d = R2 sin ( ) d d = 4 R2 :
0 0 0 0
(2.120)
(d) In this case we are considering a 3-D sphere embedded in a 4-D Euclidean
space. For this space the volume is de…ned by x04 =constant. Therefore,
applying the relation in Eq. (2.98), an in…nitessimal volume in this 4-D
space is given by
p
dV = jg11 g22 g33 jdx01 dx02 dx03 : (2.121)
Thus using
a2
g11 = ; g22 = r2 ; g33 = r2 sin2 ( ) (2.122)
a2 r2
the volume bounded by the 2-D spherical surface of radius x01 = r = R
becomes
Z RZ Z 2 s 2 4 2
a r sin ( )
V = drd d
0 0 0 a2 r 2
Z R Z Z 2
r2 dr
= a p sin ( ) d d (2.123)
0 a2 r2 0 0
or
Z R 2 Z Z 2
x01 dx01 sin x02 dx02 dx03
V =a q q ;
0 2 0 0 2
a2 (x01 ) a2 (x01 )
Let’s evaluate the integral
Z
r2 dr
I= p (2.124)
a2 r2
Introducing the transformation de…ned by
r = a sin ( ) ) dr = a cos ( ) d
we have
Z Z 2 2 Z
r2 dr a sin ( ) a cos ( ) d
I= p = q = a2 sin2 ( ) d
a2 r2 a2 a2 sin2 ( )
Z
a2 a2 sin (2 )
= (1 cos (2 )) d =
2 2 2
Z 2 2
r dr a
)I= p = [ sin ( ) cos ( )] (2.125)
a2 r2 2
so that using
R
r = a sin ( ) ) sin ( ) = a; for r = R
(2.126)
0; for r = 0
and
q ( q
R 2
cos ( ) = 1 2
sin ( ) = 1 a ; for r = R (2.127)
0; for r = 0
one …nds
2 s 3
Z R 2 2 2
r dr a 4 1 R R R 5
p = sin 1 (2.128)
0 a2 r2 2 a a a
Then the volume becomes

8 s 9
< R R R
2=
1
V = 2 a3 sin 1 (2.129)
: a a a ;
One must be able to recover the 3-D Euclidean space for a ! 1: This
means R a << 1 the result for the volume of a sphere with radius, R must
be that of the volume of a sphere with radius R in 3D Euclidean space
(V =. 43 R3 ). One can easily …nd from Eq. (2.129) using the approxima-
tions for R
a << 1;
s
3 2 2
R R 1 R R 1 R
sin 1 ' ; 1 =1 (2.130)
a a 3 a a 2 a
that gives
( !)
3 2
3 R 1 R R 1 R
V =2 a 1
a 3 a a 2 a
( )
3 3
3 1 R 1 R 4 3
=2 a + )V = R (2.131)
3 a 2 a 3
Homework :
(a) Express the circumference, the area, and the volume in terms of D in the
previous example and show that all have maximum values at
a
D= (2.132)
2
(b) Show that the total volume of this space is …nite and is equal to
2 3
V =2 a : (2.133)
Homework: Determine the metric for a three-dimensional sphere with imag-

inary radius a = ib embedded in a 4-D Euclidean space: and by considering a
sphere de…ned by r = R …nd
(a) Show that circumference, C, and the area, A are still C = 2 R and A =
4 R2 :
(b) The distance D from the center of the sphere to the surface is
1
D = b sinh (R=b) (2.134)
and in this case show that A and V of the sphere are monotonically in-
creasing functions
2.7 Local Cartesian coordinates and tangent

space
Generally ds2 ; can be positive, negative, or zero as we saw in pseudo-Riemannian
spaces, like the Minkowsky spacetime. For now we shall consider what normally
refer as Riemannian where the metric
ds2 = gcd (x) dxc dxd ; (2.135)
is positive. It is not possible, in general, to …nd a coordinate transformation

that transforms the metric into Euclidean form
2 2 2
ds2 = dx01 + dx02 + ::: + dx0N = 0a 0b
ab dx dx ; (2.136)
for all points on the manifold. However, it is possible to …nd coordinates x0a
0
such that at the point P the new metric functions gab (x) satisfy the conditions
0
gab (xaP ) = ab ; (2.137)
0
@gab (x0 )
= 0: (2.138)
@x0c xa
P
2.7. LOCAL CARTESIAN COORDINATES AND TANGENT SPACE 61
Thus in the neighborhood of point P , we have

h i
0 2
gab (x0 ) = ab + O x0 x0p
We recall from Mathematical methods for any function, g (x) ; that is di¤ er-
entiable for all values of x in the speci…ed domain,
dn g(x)
exists for all n 0 and x 2 R;
dxn
one can write the series expansion about xp in the domain (Taylor series)
X1
1 dn g(x0 )
g(x) = (x xp ) n : (2.139)
n=0
n! dx0n x=xp
Considering only up to the second order terms,

dg(x0 ) 1 dg(x0 )
g(x) = g(x) + (x xp ) + (x xp )2 + ::: (2.140)
dx0 x0 =x p
2! dx0 x0 =x p
1 2
For a function of two variable g (x) = g x ; x ; this becomes
@g(x01 ; x02 )
g x1 ; x2 = g x1p ; x2p + (x1 x1p )
@x01 0 1 2
x =xp ;xp
8
@g(x01 ; x02 ) 1 < @ 2 g(x01 ; x02 )
+ (x2 x2p )2 + (x1 x1p )2
@x02 x0 =x1p ;x2p 2! : @ (x01 )2 0 x =x1p ;x2p
2 01 02
@ g(x ; x )
+2 (x1 x1p )(x2 x2p )
@x01 @x01 x0 =x1p ;x2p
9
@ 2 g(x01 ; x02 ) =
+ 2 (x2 x2p )2 + ::: (2.141)
@ (x02 ) ;
x0 =x1p ;x2p
From this expression you can imagine how it gets nasty for a function of N
variables, like the metric, gab (x) = gab x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; :::xN :
Example 2.8 Let’s reconsider the metric for 2D sphere embedded in a 3D
manifold in Cartesian coordinates
0 12
2 2 B x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 C
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 +B
@r
C :
A (2.142)
2 2
a2 (x1 ) + (x2 )
which can can be put in the form

" 2
# " 2
#
2 x1 2 x2 2
ds = 1 + 2 2 dx1 + 1+ 2 2 dx2
a2 (x1 ) (x2 ) a2 (x1 ) (x2 )
2x1 x2 1
+ 2 2 dx dx2 : (2.143)
a2 (x1 ) (x2 )
where x1 ; x2 ; x3 corresponds to the usual Cartesian coordinates (x; y; z):

If one pic a point P with coordinates x1p ; x2p so that one may introduce
the transformation de…ned by
x1 = x01 x1p ; x2 = x02 x2p ) dx1 = dx01 ; dx2 = dx02
and express the metric as
2 2
ds2 = g11 dx01 + g22 dx2 + g12 dx01 dx02 :
where
2
x01 x1p
g11 x01 ; x02 = 1+ 2 2;
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
2
x02 x2p
g22 x01 ; x02 = 1+ 2 2
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
2
2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
g12 x01 ; x02 = 2 2
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
Show that the metric is Locally Cartesian at point P .
Solution: For a locally Cartesian, one must be able to show that at point P
0
0 @gab (x0 )
gab (xaP ) = ab ; = 0: (2.144)
@x0c xa
P
We note that for the 2D sphere in the 3D manifold, using the metric we
…nd
g11 x1p ; x2p = g22 x1p ; x2p = 1; g12 x1p ; x2p = 0
and
" 2 #
@g11 x01 ; x02 @ x01 x1p
= 2 2
@x01 @x01 a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p
2 3
01 3
6 2 x x1p 2 x 01
x1p 7
=4 2 2 +h i 5
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p 2 2 2
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p
=0
Similarly one can easily show that
" 2 #
@g11 x01 ; x02 @ x01 x1p
= 2 2
@x02 @x02 a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p
2 3
2
6 2 x01 x1p x02 x2p 7
= 4h i 5 =0
2 2 2
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p
2.7. LOCAL CARTESIAN COORDINATES AND TANGENT SPACE 63
" 2 #
@g22 x01 ; x02 @ x02 x2p
= 2 2
@x01 @x01 a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p
2 3
2
6 2 x01 x1p x02 x2p 7
= 4h i 5 =0 (2.145)
2 2 2
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p
" 2 #
@g22 x01 ; x02 @ x02 x2p
= 2 2
@x02 @x02 a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p
2 3
02 3
6 2 x x2p 2 x 02
x2p 7
=4 2 2 +h i 5
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p 2 2 2
a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p
=0 (2.146)
" 2 #
@g12 x01 ; x02 @ 2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
= 2 2 =0
@x01 @x01 a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p
" 2 #
@g12 x01 ; x02 @ 2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
= 2 2 (2.147)
=0
@x02 @x02 a2 x01 x1p x02 x2p
x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p
Tangent Space to Manifolds: for an arbitrary point P in an N dimensional

Riemannian manifold we can …nd a space that consist of coordinates (xa ) such
that in the Neighborhood of P the line element is Euclidean. That means the
line element is
2 2 2
ds2 = dx1 + dx2 + ::: dxN
this space is called the tangent space, T p . You can see in Fig.2.10, three di¤erent
two-dimensional Tangent spaces (shown in red with green rectangular grids) at
three di¤erent points on a 2D surface embedded in a 3D manifold. Fig.2.10 In
each of these tangent spaces in Fig. 2.10, note that
2 2
ds2 = dx01 + dx02 : (2.148)
as you can see from the rectangular shape of the grids. We can show this
quantitatively using the function that de…nes the surface. The surface shown in
Fig. 2.10 is de…ned by the function
x3 x1 ; x2 = sin2 (x1 ) + cos(x2 ) (2.149)
which one may write as
g x1 ; x2 ; x3 = sin2 (x1 ) + cos(x2 ) x3 = 0 (2.150)

Figure 2.10: Three di¤erent tangent spaces (in this case tangent plane) at three
di¤erent points on the manifold.
so that
@g @g @g
dg = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 = 0
@x1 @x2 @x3
@g @g @g
) dg = x
^+ y^ + z^ dx1 x
^ + dx2 y^ + dx3 z^ = 0
@x1 @x2 @x3
~ x1 ; x2 ; x3 d~r x1 ; x2 ; x3 = 0;
dg = A (2.151)
where
~ x1 ; x2 ; x3 = @g x
A ^+
@g
y^ +
@g
z^
@x 1 @x 2 @x3
@g @g @g
1
= 2 sin(x1 ) cos(x1 ); 2 = sin(x2 ); 3 = 1 (2.152)
@x @x @x
Note Eq. (2.151) shows that the vector A ~ x1 ; x2 ; x3 is normal to the surface
1 2 3
at the point with coordinates x ; x ; x :Now let’s pick a point, P , on the
surface with coordinates, ~rp = x1p ; x2p ; x3p and another neighboring point Q
with coordinates ~r = x1 ; x2 ; x3 that are at the same plane that is tangent to
the surface at point P, then we have for the vector on this plane given by
~r = ~r ~rp = x1 x1p x
^ + x2 x2p y^ + x3 x3p z^ (2.153)
and the vector normal to this tangent plane at point P is given by
~ x1 ; x2 ; x3 = @g @g @g
A p p p x
^+ y^ + z^ = m1 x
^ + m2 y^ z^ (2.154)
@x1 @x2 @x3 x1p ;x2p ;x3p
2.8. THE SIGNATURE OF A MANIFOLD 65
where
m1 = 2 sin(x1p ) cos(x1p ); m2 = sin(x2p ) (2.155)
The equation of the tangent plane at this point is determined by
~ x1 ; x2 ; x3
g=A ~r x1 ; x2 ; x3
= m1 x1 x1p + m2 x2 x2p x3 x3p = 0
) x3 x1 ; x2 = m1 x1 x1p + m2 x2 x2p + sin2 (x1p ) + cos(x2p ) (2.156)
or
x3 x1 ; x2 = 2 sin(x1p ) cos(x1p ) x1 x1p sin(x2p ) x2 x2p + x3p : (2.157)
Introducing the coordinate transformation de…ned by
x01 = x1 x1p ; x02 = x2 x2p ; x03 = x3p

) dx01 = dx1 ; dx02 = dx2 ; dx03 = 0 (2.158)
then the metric in the tangent space becomes

2 2 2 2 2 2
(ds) = dx01 + dx02 + dx03 = dx01 + dx02 (2.159)
2.8 The signature of a manifold

Let’s consider an arbitrary point P in the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds de-
scribed by the coordinates, xa ; and make a transformation to local Cartesian
coordinates, x0a ; at this point. Suppose this transformation, which satis…es the
conditions in Eq. (2.137) and (2.138), is given by
a b
0 @x @x
gcd (x0 ) = gab (x0 ) : (2.160)
@x0c @x0d
Then at point, P; if the coordinates are x0p = x1p ; x2p ; x3p ; :::xN
p ;
a b
0 @x @x
gcd (xp ) = gab (xp ) ; (2.161)
@x0c xp @x0d
xp
and if the transformation leads to Local Cartesian, we must have

0
0 @gab (x0 )
gcd (xp ) = cd c ; = 0; (2.162)
@x0c x0 =xp
for pseudo-Riemannian manifolds in general. In fact c = 1 for Local Cartesian

in a Riemannian manifolds. Therefore, the transformation metric
a b
0 @x @x
gcd (x0 ) = gab (x0 ) ; (2.163)
@x0c @x0d
for local Cartesian at point P; one can write

a b
0 @x @x
gcd (xp ) = cd c = gab (x0 ) (2.164)
@x0c xp @x0d
xp
a b
0 @x @x
) gcd (xp ) = gab (xp ) : (2.165)
@x0c xp @x0d
xp
This can be put using matrices as
G0 = X T GX: (2.166)
One can easily show this by considering, N = 2, and the matrices
1 0 g11 x1p ; x2p g12 x1p ; x2p

G0 = ;G =
0 2 g21 x1p ; x2p g22 x1p ; x2p
2 1 01 1 3
@x (x ;x02 ) @x (x01 ;x02 )
6 @x01 @x02 7
6 x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p 7
X = 6 2 2 7;
4 @x (x01 ;x02 ) @x (x01 ;x02 ) 5
@x01 @x01
x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p
2 1 2 3
@x (x01 ;x02 ) @x (x01 ;x02 )
6 @x01 @x01 7
6 x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p 7
XT = 6 1 2 7 (2.167)
4 @x (x01 ;x02 ) @x (x01 ;x02 ) 5
@x02 @x01
x1p ;x2p x1p ;x2p
Since the matrix G0 is a diagonal matrix, the transformation is a similarity

transformation (Mathematical Methods II). This means X forms the eigen vec-
tor matrix and G0 forms the eigenvalue matrix and
XT = X 1
) G0 = X 1
GX: (2.168)
Using the inverse transformation matrix, X 0 ; and the corresponding inverse

matrix, X 0 1 ; one must recover the matrix G,
G = X0 1
G0 X 0 = X 0 1
X 1
GXX 0 (2.169)
Therefore we must have
XX 0 = I ) X 0 = X 1
(2.170)
a a
This can be true if the transformation from x ! x0 is linear. The transforma-
tion matrix, X; with element Xba ; at point P each element must be a constant
and we can write
a
x0 = Xba xb : (2.171)
2.8. THE SIGNATURE OF A MANIFOLD 67
Since the metric tensor is symmetric it can be diagonalized by a similarity trans-

formation provided we chose the columns of X to be the normalized eigenvectors
of the matrix G. This means
2 3
1 0 ::: 0
6 0 2 ::: 0 7
6 7
6 : : 7
0
G =6 6 7; (2.172)
6 : : : : 77
4 : : 5
0 0 ::: N
where 1; 2 ::: N are the eigenvalues of the matrix G: The metric
ds2 = gcd (x0 ) dx0c dx0d ; (2.173)
is positive for strictly Riemannian. This means gcd (x) must be positive de…nite
and the eigenvalues, a ; for G are also positive de…nite. On the other hand
for Pseudo Riemannian since the metric can be negative the eigenvalues can
a
be negative.p Now if we scale the coordinates x0 by these eigenvalues (i.e.
0a 0a 0
x ! x = j a j), for the metric tensor, G , we can easily show
2 3
1 0 ::: 0
6 0 1 ::: 0 7
6 7
6 : : 7
0
G =66 7: (2.174)
6 : : : 7 7
4 : : 5
0 0 ::: 1
Thus , at any arbitrary point, P; in a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, it is always
a
possible to …nd a coordinate system x0 such that in the neighborhood of P we
have h i
0 2
gab (x0 ) = ab + O x0 x0p ; (2.175)
where [ ab ] = diag ( 1; 1; :::; 1) : The number of positive entries (N+ ) minus
the number of negative entries (N ) in [ ab ] is called the signature of the man-
ifold. For example for the Minkowski spacetime manifold where the metric is
given by
2
ds2 = d (ct) dx2 dy 2 dz 2 (2.176)
2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
=6 4 0 0
7: (2.177)
1 0 5
0 0 0 1
the signature is 2.
N-dimensional volume without a constraint: In an N-dimensional (pseudo)
Riemannian manifold with orthogonal coordinates system where the metric ten-
sor is diagonal, the full N-dimensional volume element dN V is
p
dN V = jgjdx1 dx2 dx3 :::dxN (2.178)
where jgj is the determinant of the matrix

2 3
g11 0 ::: 0
6 0 g22 ::: 0 7
6 7
6 : : 7
G = [gab ] = 6
6 :
7
7 (2.179)
6 :: ::: : 7
4 : : 5
0 0 ::: gN N
Chapter 3
Vector Calculus on
manifolds
3.1 The tangent vector

The tangent vector, ~t; at point p on a Manifold is the vector that lies in the
tangent space, Tp ; at that point, p1 ; and is given by
~t = lim ~s ~s (u + u) ~s (u)
= lim ; (3.1)
u!0 u u!0 u
where s is the in…nitessimal separation vector between the point P with coor-
Figure 3.1: A tangent vector at point P in the tangent space.
dinate (u; s (u)) and some nearby point Q with coordinate (u + u; s (u + u))
on the curve, C, in the manifold corresponding (see Fig.??).
69
70 CHAPTER 3. VECTOR CALCULUS ON MANIFOLDS
3.2 The basis vectors

At each point P on a manifold we can de…ne a set of linearly independent basis
vectors, eâ (x) ; for the tangent space, Tp : The number of the basis vectors is
equal to the dimension of Tp : Any vector …eld at point P; ~v (x) ; can then be
expressed as linear combination of these basis vectors
~v (x) = v a (x) eâ (x) ; (3.2)
where v a (x) are known as the controvariant components of the vector …eld,
~v (x) ; in the basis eâ : For any set of basis vectors we can de…ne another set of
basis vectors known as the dual basis vectors, eâ (x) ; de…ned by
a
eâ (x) e^b (x) = b: (3.3)
The dual basis vectors, eâ ; and the basis vectors, e^b ; form a reciprocal system
of vectors. The local vector …eld ~v (x) can also be expressed in terms of the dual
basis vectors as
~v (x) = va (x) eâ (x) ; (3.4)
where va (x) are known as the covariant components of the vector …eld, ~v (x) ;
in the dual basis vectors, eâ (x) : The controvariant and covariant components
of the vector …eld can be determined using Eq. (3.3)
a
~v (x) e^b (x) = v a (x) eâ (x) e^b (x) = v a (x) b = v b (x) : (3.5)
Similarly
va (x) = ~v (x) eâ (x) : (3.6)
The coordinate basis vectors: in any particular coordinate system xa ;we
can de…ne at every point P of the manifold a set of N coordinate basis vectors
~s
eâ = lim ; (3.7)
ax !0 xa
where ~s is the in…nitessimal separation vector between point P and some nearby
point Q with coordinate separation xa from P . For exampleThus eâ is the
tangent vector to the xa coordinate curve at the point P: As an example we
reconsider the 2D (blue) surface embedded in a 3D Manifold shown in Fig. 3.2.
We recall that this surface is de…ned by
x3 x1 ; x2 = sin2 (x1 ) + cos(x2 ) (3.8)
where x1 ; x2 ; and x3 are the usual Cartesian coordinates (x; y). The tangent
plane at point P is given by
x3 x1 ; x2 = 2 sin(x1p ) cos(x1p ) x1 x1p sin(x2p ) x2 x2p + x3p : (3.9)
where x1p ; x2p ; x3p are the coordinates for point P . We note that a point on the
surface can de…ned by a vector
^ + x2 y^ + sin2 (x1 ) + cos(x2 ) z^
~s = x1 x (3.10)
3.3. THE METRIC FUNCTION AND COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS71
Figure 3.2: The basis vectors in the tangent space.
so that
~s = x1 x
^ + x2 y^ + 2 sin(x1 ) cos(x1 ) x1 sin(x2 ) x2 z^ (3.11)
The two basis vectors, e^1 and e^2 ; at point P , in Fig. 3.2 are given by
~s x2 1 1 2 x
2
e^1 = lim = lim x
^ + y
^ + 2 sin(x ) cos(x ) sin(x ) (3.12)
z^ ;
1
x !0 x1 x1 !0 x1 x1
~s x1 1 1 x
1
e^2 = lim = lim x
^ + y
^ + 2 sin(x ) cos(x ) sin(x2 ) (3.13)
z^
x2 !0 x2 x2 !0 x2 x2
and noting that

x1 x1
2
= 2 =0
x x
we …nd
^ + 2 sin(x1 ) cos(x1 )^
e^1 = x z ; e^2 = y^ sin(x2 )^
z (3.14)
3.3 The metric function and coordinate trans-

formations
In…nitesimal vector separation: Consider two points P and Q on a manifold
with coordinates xa and xa + dxa ; where dxa is none zero for all a, then the
in…nitessimal vector separation between these two points is given by
d~s = eâ (x) dxa (3.15)

The metric function-the covariant components: The equation that deter-

mines the elements of the metric tensor in the metric
ds2 = gab (x) dxa dxb (3.16)
can be obtained from the inner product of the in…nitessimal vector separation.
We note that
ds2 = d~s d~s = eâ (x) dxa e^b (x) dxb = eâ (x) e^b (x) dxa dxb
) ds2 = gab (x) dxa dxb ; (3.17)
where
gab (x) = eâ (x) e^b (x)
is the metric function
Example 3.1 Let’s reconsider the 2D sphere of radius, a, in a 3D Euclidean

space. For an origin set at the north pole of the sphere, a point P is
described by the vector
p
^ + sin (') y^ + a2
~s = cos (') x 2z
^
Figure 3.3: 2D sphere of radius a embedded in 3D Euclidean space. The origin

of the Cartesian coordinates (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) [or (x; y; z)] is set at the north pole.
(x01 = ; x02 = '):
(a) Find the basis vectors e^01 and e^02 in the tangent space at point P.
(b) Re-derive the metric elements for a 2D sphere from the basis vectors.
Solution:
(a) We note that the tangent vector connecting point P with coordinate ( ; ')
with its neighboring point Q with coordinates ( + ; ' + ') (See Fig.
3.4) is expressible as
p
~s = ( cos (')) x
^ + ( sin (')) y^ + a2 2 z^
= [cos (') sin (') '] x
^ + [sin (') + cos (') '] y^
d
p z^ (3.18)
a2 2
" #
= cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ p z^ +[ sin (') x
^ + cos (') y^] '
a2 2
(3.19)
There follows that

~s
e^ = lim
!0
" #
'
= cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ p z^ + [ sin (') x
^ + cos (') y^] :
a2 2
(3.20)
and
~s
e^' = lim
'!0 '
" #
= cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ p z^ +[ sin (') x
^ + cos (') y^] :
a2 2 '
(3.21)
Noting that
= =0 (3.22)
' '
we …nd
e^ = cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ p z^: (3.23)
a2 2
and
e^' = sin (') x
^ + cos (') y^: (3.24)
Figure 3.4: The basis vectors (^

e ; e^' ) at a point P in the tangent space of a 2D
sphere embedded in a 3D Euclidean space.
(b) The metric elements can be determined using the basis vectors
gab (x) = eâ (x) e^b (x) ; (3.25)
and one …nds

2
a2
g11 = g = e^ e^ = 1 = ;
a2 2 a2 2
2
g22 = g'' = e^' e^' = ; g12 = g21 = 0 (3.26)
Homework: Consider the 3D sphere of radius, a, in a 4D Euclidean space.

A point P on this 3D sphere is described by the vector
p
^ + r sin ( ) sin (') y^ + r cos ( ) z^ + a2 r2 w
~s = r sin ( ) cos (') x ^ (3.27)
(a) Find the basis vectors e^r ; e^ ; and e^' in the tangent space at point P .
(b) Re-derive the metric elements for a 3D sphere from the basis vectors.
The metric function-the controvariant components: noting that the in…n-

itessimal distance between point P and Q can be expressed using the in…nites-
simal vector separation
d~s = eâ (x) dxa (3.28)
we have
b
e^b (x) d~s = e^b (x) eâ (x) dxa = a dx
a
= dxb : (3.29)
Expressing the in…nitessimal vector separation using the dual coordinates basis
vectors as
d~s = eâ (x) dxa (3.30)
we also …nd
b
e^b (x) d~s = e^b (x) eâ (x) dxa = a dx
a
= dxb : (3.31)
Thus the metric
ds2 = d~s d~s = eâ (x) dxa e^b (x) dxb = g ab (x) dxa dxb ; (3.32)
where the controvariant components of the metric tensor can be de…ned as
g ab (x) = eâ (x) e^b (x) (3.33)
Orthonormal basis vector: at a point on a manifold an orthonormal basis

vectors are de…ned by
eâ (x) e^b (x) = ab ; (3.34)
where 2 3
1 0 ::: 0
6 0 1 ::: 0 7
6 7
6 : : 7
[ ab ] = 6
6
7:
7 (3.35)
6 : : : : 7
4 : : 5
0 0 ::: 1
or in short [ ab ] = diag ( 1; 1; :::; 1) is the Cartesian line element of the
tangent space, Tp ; and depends on the signature of the pseudo-Riemannian
manifold.
Basis vectors and coordinate transformations: Suppose we make a
coordinate transformation from xa where the basis vectors are eâ to a new an-
other coordinates x0a we want to …nd how the new basis vectors are transformed
into, e^0a . If we consider point P and another point Q at an in…nitesimal distance
away from point P . The in…nitesimal displacement, d~s; between these points is
independent of the coordinate transformation and we must have
d~s = eâ dxa = e^0c dx0c (3.36)
Using
@xa 0b
dxa = dx ; (3.37)
@x0b
we have
@xa
d~s = eâ dxa = eâ dx0b = e^0c dx0c : (3.38)
@x0b
Noting that
e^b e^b = 1
we have
@xa
eâ dx0b = e^0b e^0b e^0c dx0c = e^0c e^0b e^0b dx0c = e^0b bc dx0c (3.39)
@x0b
@xa
) eâ dx0b = e^0b dx0b : (3.40)
@x0b
so that
@xa
e^0b =
eâ : (3.41)
@x0b
Homework: Show that for the dual basis vector
@x0a c
e^0a = e^ : (3.42)
@xc
Components of a vector in coordinate transformations: In coordinate
transformations the vector components are di¤erent but the vector itself is un-
changed. Suppose the vector, ~v ; is a vector at point P in the xa coordinate
system and ~v 0 is the vector in the x0a coordinates at the same point on the
manifold. These vectors may be expressed in terms of the basis vectors in the
two coordinates di¤erently
~v = v a eâ ; ~v 0 = v 0a e^0a (3.43)
or in terms of the dual basis vectors
~v = va eâ ; ~v 0 = va0 e^0a (3.44)
But the vector is the same since it describes a geometrical entity that is inde-
pendent of the coordinate system. Therefore, we must have
~v = v a eâ ; = v 0a e^0a ; (3.45)
so that taking the inner product of ~v and e^0b , we can write

b
v a e^0b eâ = v 0a e^0b e^0a ) v 0a a = v a e^0b eâ ) v 0b = v a e^0b eâ : (3.46)
Applying the relation in Eq. (3.42), one can write
@x0b c
e^0b = e^ ; (3.47)
@xc
so that
@x0b c @x0b @x0b a
c
e^ eâ = v a c ca =
v 0b = v a v : (3.48)
@x @x @xa
Homework: Show that for the covariant components of a vector transformed by
the equation
@xa
vb0 = va : (3.49)
@x0b
3.3.1 Raising and lowering vector indices

The scalar product: The scalar product of two vectors at a point, P; on a
manifold
~v = v a eâ : (3.50)
and
w
~ = w^
eb : (3.51)
is given by
~ = v a eâ wb e^b = gab v a wb :
~v w (3.52)
where
gab = eâ e^b : (3.53)
is the covariant components of the metric tensor. We can also use the dual basis
vectors to express the vectors ~v (x) and w
~ (x)
~v = va eâ : (3.54)
and
~ = wb e^b :
w (3.55)
so that the inner product becomes
~ = va eâ wb e^b = g ab va wb :
~v w (3.56)
where
g ab = eâ e^b : (3.57)
We can use the covariant and controvariant components of the vectors to deter-
mine the inner products
a a
~ = v a eâ wb e^b = eâ e^b v a wb =
~v w b v wb = v a wa (3.58)
or
a
~ = va eâ wb e^b = eâ e^b va wb =
~v w b va w
b
= va w a : (3.59)
Whichever way we determine the inner products we must get the same values.
Thus from Eqs. (3.52) and (3.58), we …nd
~ = gab v a wb = v a wa ) gab wb = wa :
~v w (3.60)
Similarly, from Eqs. (3.56) and (3.59), we …nd
~ = g ab va wb = va wa ) g ab wb = wa :
~v w (3.61)
From Eq. (3.60), we note that the covariant form of the metric tensor can be
used to lower an index and from Eq. (3.61) we also see that the controvariant
form of the metric tensor can be used to raise an index. Applying Eqs. (3.60)
and (3.61), we can express the basis vectors
eâ = gad e^d (3.62)

and
e^c = g cb e^b : (3.63)
Then noting that the inner product
a a
eâ e^c = c ) gad e^d g cb e^b = gad g cb e^d e^b = c
d a
) gad g cb e^d e^b = gad g cb b = c
a
) gab g cb = g cb gab = c: (3.64)
This means the metric tensor [g ab ] with the controvariant components, g ab ; is

the inverse matrix of the metric tensor [gab ] with the covariant elements, gab ; :
Thus
GG~ = GG~ = I;
~ = [g ab ] is its inverse.
where G = [gab ] is the metric tensor and G
3.4 The inner product and null vectors

The scalar product of two vectors at a point on a manifold which can be ex-
pressed in four di¤erent ways
gab v a wb = va wa = g ab va wb = v a wa (3.65)
Suppose we take the scalar product of vector, ~v ; with itself, we have
gab v a v b = g ab va vb = v a va = va v a ; (3.66)
and it can be zero without the vector being actually be a zero vector. We can
see this if we recall the pseudo-Riemannian manifold metric
ds2 = gab (x) dxa dxb
which could be zero or negative. To accommodate such kind of vectors we de…ne

the length of a vector, ~v , as
q q p q
v = jgab v a v b j = jg ab va vb j = jv a vb j = jva v b j: (3.67)
As is the case in pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the length of a vector can be

zero without the vector being a zero vector (i.e. va 6= 0). Vectors with length
(magnitude) zero with none zero components is known as Null vectors.
The cosine angle between vectors: The angle between two non-null
vectors at a point on a manifold is de…ned by:
v a wa
cos ( ) = p p (3.68)
jvb v b j jwc wc j
In the pseudo-Riemannian manifold, Eq. (3.68) can lead to jcos ( )j > 1:

3.5. THE AFFINE CONNECTIONS 79
Orthogonal vectors: two vectors
~v = v a eâ : (3.69)
and
~ = wb e^b :
w (3.70)
are said to be orthogonal when
gab v a wb = g ab va wb = v a wa = va wa = 0: (3.71)
3.5 The a¢ ne connections

It is important to know how vectors changes as the coordinate or the parameter
that de…nes the coordinate changes . For example, in Mankawski space time we
may be interested in the 4D momentum, P~ how it changes with time (the proper
time, ) so that one can explain the condition for conservation of momentum
in general relativity. In such cases for the 4D momentum expressed in terms of
its controvariant components as
P~ = pa eâ (3.72)
one must be able to determine
dP~ d a dpa d^
ea
= (p eâ ) = eâ + pa (3.73)
d d d d
For the coordinates xa = xa ( ) ; we have
d^
ea ea dxb
@^
= (3.74)
d @xb d
so that
dP~ dpa dxb @^
ea
= eâ + pa : (3.75)
d d d @xb
In order to better understand the origin of the a¢ ne connections we shall re-
reconsider the 2D sphere embedded in a 3D manifold. We saw that the tangent
space is a plane with basis vectors de…ned by
e^ = cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ p z^: (3.76)
a2 2
and
e^' = sin (') x
^ + cos (') y^: (3.77)
There follows that
@^
e @^
e' 1
= = sin (') x
^ + cos (') y^ = e^' = f ' ( ; ') e^' : (3.78)
@' @
where
1
f ' ( ; ') = ;
is a function that connects the change in the basis vectors with respect to the
coordinates to the basis vectors. Here we note that we are still in the tangent
space. However, if we switch the variables for the derivatives, we …nd
" #
2
@^
e 1 a2
= p + z
^ = z^;
@ a2 2
(a2 2 )3=2 (a2 2 )3=2
@^
e'
= cos (') x
^ sin (') y^ = (cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^) :
@'
that we can not tell whether it belongs to the tangent space or not. In order to
…nd out that we introduce a basis vector normal to the tangent space in terms
of the basis vector in the tangent space as
e^? = e^ e^' :
This normal basis vector is found to be
2
e^? = p (cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^) + z^: (3.79)
a2 2
Combining this relation with the basis vector, e^ ;
e^ = cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ p z^: (3.80)
a2 2
one …nd !
a2 2
1
z^ = e^? p e^ (3.81)
a2 a2 2
and r
2 2
1
cos (') x
^ + sin (') y^ = 1 e^? e^ : (3.82)
a a2 a2
Using these relations, we can then write
r
2 3
@^
e 1
@^
e'
= p e^ + e^? ; = 1 e^? + 2 e^ : (3.83)
@ a2 2 @' a a2 a
or
@^
e @^
e'
= [f ( ; ')]jj e^ +[f ( ; ')]? e^? ; = [f'' ( ; ')]jj e^ +[f'' ( ; ')]? e^? :
@ @'
(3.84)
where
1
[f ( ; ')]jj = p [f ( ; ')]? =
a2 2
r
2 3
[f'' ( ; ')]jj = 1 [f'' ( ; ')]? = (3.85)
a a2 a2
These results show that the derivatives for the basis vectors can lead to compo-
nents that does not belong to the tangent space. Let’s see where these compo-
nents are located for a speci…c point for a 2D sphere with radius,
p a = 2 units.
The point we shall consider has coordinates (x = 1; y = 0; z = 3) which is on
the surface of the 2D sphere. At this point the two basis vectors (^ e ; e^' ) and
the vector normal to the tangent space, are shown in Fig. 3.5.
p
@^
e 1 @^
e 3 1
= p e^ + e^? ; ' = e^? + e^ : (3.86)
@ 3 @' 4 4
Therefore, generally for none spherical geometry or none Euclidean manifold,
the change in the basis vectors with respec to the coordinate at a point on a
manifold (derivative of the basis vector at that point) can have both normal and
tangential components to the tangent space. However, since we are con…ned to
the tangent space, for example in the 2D sphere of radius a, we are con…ned to
the tangent space that is a plane and the normal component does not belong
to the tangent space at that particular point. Therefore, we shall consider only
the projection parallel to the tangent space at point P;
@^
ea eâ
= lim : (3.87)
@xc c
x !0 xc jjTp
Suppose we represent the coe¢ cients resulting from the derivative of the basis
vectors that are components that belong to the tangent space at the point
(e.g.[fac ( ; ')]jjTp ) by bac ; then we can write
@^
ea 1 2 3 N b
= ac e
^1 + ac e
^2 + ac e
^3 ::: + ac e
^N = ac e
^b ; (3.88)
@xc
where N is the dimension of the tangent space. The N 3 coe¢ cients bac are
known collectively as the a¢ ne connection or in older textbooks, the Christo¤el
symbol (of the second kind) at point P .
Homework:
(1) Find all the elements for the a¢ ne connection, bac ; for a point on a 2D
sphere embedded in a 3D Euclidean space. Note that in the expressions
@ê ' @^
e '
= e^ + e^' ; = 'e
^ + 'e
^' ;
@ @'
@^
e' ' @ê' '
= ' e^ + ' e^' ; = '' e
^ + '' e
^' ; (3.89)
@ @'
you are going to determine
' ' ' '
; ; '; '; ' ; ' ; '' ; and '' : (3.90)
Also in this case the origin is at the center of the sphere.

(2) Find all the elements for the a¢ ne connection, bac ; for a point on a 3D
sphere embedded in a 4D Euclidean space. Note that in the expressions
Taking the scalar product of Eq. (3.88) and the dual basis vectors,
@^
ea
e^d = b d
ac e
^ e^b ; (3.91)
@xc
applying the properties of the dual basis vectors
d
e^d e^b = b (3.92)
we …nd
@^
ea @^
ea
e^d= bac db ) d
ac = e^d (3.93)
@xc @xc
Since d is a dummy index, we can write
b @^
ea
ac = e^b = e^b @c eâ (3.94)
@xc
From now on we will use the notation @c eâ ;
@^
ea
@c eâ = : (3.95)
@xc
Di¤erentiating Eq. (3.92) with respect to the coordinate, xc ; and applying the
notation, we …nd
b
eâ @c e^b + e^b @c eâ = @c a = 0 ) e^b @c eâ = eâ @c e^b (3.96)
Using the de…nition of the derivative of the basis vectors and our notation
@^
ea b d
@c eâ = = bac e^b ) e^d @c eâ = b
ac e
^b e^d = ac b = d
ac (3.97)
@xc
d
) ^d @c eâ
ac = e (3.98)
applying this relation,
e^b @c eâ = eâ @c e^b ) e^b @c eâ = a

bc ; (3.99)
and noting that

e^b e^b = 1 (3.100)
we …nd
e^b @c eâ = a
bc e
^b e^b = e^b a b
bc e
^
a a b
) @c e^ = bc e
^ (3.101)
The a¢ ne connection under coordinate transformation: Suppose we

make the coordinate transformation xa ! x0a ; for the a¢ ne connection
b @^
ea
ac = e^b : (3.102)
@xc
we have
0b e0a
@^
ac = e^0b : (3.103)
@x0c
so that applying the relations
@xf @x0b d
e^0a = 0a
e^f ; e^0b = e^ : (3.104)
@x @xd
we may write
0b @x0b d @ @xf
ac = e^ e^f
@xd @x0c @x0a
@x0b d ef @xf
@^ @ 2 xf
= e^ + e
^ f
@xd @x0c @x0a @x0c @x0a
@x0b @xf d @^
ef @ 2 xf @x0b d
= e
^ + e^ e^f : (3.105)
@xd @x0a @x0c @x0c @x0a @xd
Using the chain rule one can write
@^
ef ef @xg
@^
=
@x0c @xg @x0c
so that Eq. (3.105) becomes
0b @x0b @xf @xg d @^ ef @ 2 xf @x0b d

ac = d 0a 0c
e^ g
+ e^ e^f (3.106)
@x @x @x @x @x0c @x0a @xd
Now applying
@^
ef f
e^d = d
fg; e^d e^f = d
@xg
Eq. (3.106) becomes
0b @x0b @xf @xg d @x0b @ 2 xd

ac = fg + (3.107)
@xd @x0a @x0c @xd @x0c @x0a
Homework: If we swap the derivatives with respect to x and x0 in the expression

@x0b @ 2 xd
@xd @x0c @x0a
we will …nd
@x0b @ 2 xd @xd @xf @ 2 x0b
=
@xd @x0c @x0a @x0a @x0c @xd @xf
show that we arrive at an alternative expression for the a¢ ne connect under
coordinates transformations
0b @x0b @xf @xg d @xd @xf @ 2 x0b

ac = fg (3.108)
@xd @x0a @x0c @x0a @x0c @xd @xf
The a¢ ne connection and the metric: we recall the a¢ ne connection
b @^
ea
ac = e^b (3.109)
@xc
in a similar manner we can also write
b @^
ec
ca = e^b (3.110)
@xa
b
The di¤erence between Eq. (3.109) and (3.110), Tac
b b b
Tac = ac ca (3.111)
is known as the torsion tensor. We will consider a torsionless manifolds, for
which
b
Tac = 0 ) bac = bca : (3.112)
We will determine the relationship between the a¢ ne connection and the metric
for a torsionless manifold. We recall the metric
gab = eâ e^b
so that
@gab
= @c gab = @c (^
ea e^b ) = eâ @c e^b + e^b @c eâ : (3.113)
@xc
Applying the relation
@c e^b = dbc e^d (3.114)
we can rewrite Eq. (3.113) as
d d
@c gab = e^b ac e
^d + eâ ^d = dac e^b
bc e e^d + d
bc e
â e^d
d d
) @c gab = ac gbd + bc gad : (3.115)
Similarly
@b gca = @b (^
ec eâ ) = e^c @b eâ + eâ @b e^c
d d
) @b gca = e^c ab e
^d + eâ cb e
^d
d d
) @b gca = g
ab cd + cb gad (3.116)
and
d d
@a gbc = ba gdc + ca gbd (3.117)
Now combining Eqs. (3.115)- (3.117), we can write
d d d d
@c gab + @b gca @a gbc = ac gbd + bc gad + ab gcd + cb gad
d d
ba gdc ca gbd (3.118)
b b
Recalling that we will be interested in a torsionless manifold where ac = ca ;
Eq. (3.118)
@c gab + @b gca @a gbc = 2 dbc gad : (3.119)
Multiplying Eq. (3.120) by g pa ;
g pa (@c gab + @b gca @a gbc ) = 2 d pa

bc g gad (3.120)
From Eq. (3.64), we have

a
g ab gbc = c

d p
g pa (@c gab + @b gca @a gbc ) = 2 bc d (3.121)
Since the summation is over d, replacing d by p, we …nd

p
g pa (@c gab + @b gca @a gbc ) = 2 bc (3.122)
Now relabeling the index a by d

p
g pd (@c gdb + @b gcd @d gbc ) = 2 bc (3.123)
and then the index p by a; we can write
a g ad
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (3.124)
2
The right hand side of Eq. (3.124) is known as the metric connection and is
a
often represented by bc
Useful Formulae:
d
abc = gad bc (3.125)
Multiplying by g f a
f f
gf a abc = g f a gad d
bc = d
d
bc = bc
f fa
) bc =g abc (3.126)
Applying the relation in Eq (3.124), we can express Eq. (3.125) as
f gf d
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (3.127)
2
Relabeling the index d by a in Eq. (3.127), we have
f gf a
bc = (@b gca + @c gab @a gbc ) (3.128)
2
so that equating Eqs. (3.126) and (3.128), we …nd
1
abc = (@b gca + @c gab @a gbc ) (3.129)
2
The quantity abc is traditionally known as a Christo¤ el symbol of the …rst kind.
Noting that
1
bac = (@a gcb + @c gba @b gac ) (3.130)
2
we can write
1
abc + bac = (@b gca + @c gab @a gbc + @a gcb + @c gba @b gac ) (3.131)
2
taking into account the symmetry of the metric tensor, from Eq. (3.131), we
…nd
@c gab = abc + bac (3.132)
Eq. (3.132) allows us to express the partial derivative of the metric components
in terms of the connection coe¢ cients.
We recall that the determinant of the matrix G can be expressed as
a+b
det G = gab ( 1) Mab = gab fcof [G]ab g ; (3.133)
where
a+b
[cof [G]]ab = ( 1) Mab (3.134)
is the the cofactor matrix to G which is determined from the minor, Mab and it
is a constant matrix. We recall that the minor of matrix G denoted by Mab is
the determinant of the matrix formed from matrix G by removing the ath row
and bth column. Let det G = g; so that
g = gab cof [G]ab ) @c g = cof [G]ab @c gab : (3.135)
Noting that the cofactor matrix can be expressed as
g ab g = g ab gab cof [G]ab ) cof [G]ab = g ab g (3.136)
we may write
@c g = cof [G]ab @c gab = gg ab @c gab : (3.137)
Now using the relation (3.132), we can write
@c g = gg ab @c gab = gg ab ( abc + bac ) : (3.138)
We recall
d
abc = gad bc (3.139)
3.6. LOCAL GEODESIC AND CARTESIAN COORDINATES 87
so that
@c g = gg ab ( abc + bac ) = gg ab gad d

bc + gbd d
ac
b d a d
= g g ab gad d
bc + g ab gbd d
ac =g d bc + d ac
b a
= g bc + ac : (3.140)
Taking into account that a and b are dummy indices, we can replace b by a so
that
@c g = 2g aac (3.141)
This can be rearranged as
a 1 1 p
ac = @c g = @c ln jgj = @c ln jgj: (3.142)
2g 2
Now for the sake of convenience if we replace c by b, we may write the above
equation as p
a
ab = @b ln jgj (3.143)
The modulus is for the case where the manifold is seudo-Riemannian where the
metric elements can be negative.
3.6 Local geodesic and Cartesian coordinates

Let’s consider a manifold with coordinates system, xa ; and a point P on this
manifold with coordinates, xaP : Let’s now de…ne a new system of coordinates,
x0a ; in terms of xaP ; and the coordinates xa as
1
x0a = xa xaP + a
bc (P ) xb xbP (xc xcP ) : (3.144)
2
We must know that under this transformation how the a¢ ne connection trans-
formed. We recall that under coordinate transformation xa ! x0a ; the a¢ ne
connection is transformed according to

ac = fg : (3.145)
In order to determine this at point P, we need to di¤erentiate Eq. (3.144)
@x0a @xa 1 a @
= + bc (P ) xb xbP (xc xcP )
@xd @xd 2 @xd
@xa 1 a @xb @xc
= + bc (P ) (xc xcP ) + xb xbP ; (3.146)
@xd 2 @xd @xd
where we used the fact that abc (P ) ; xaP ; xbP ; and xcP are constant at point P.
The coordinates xa are independent coordinates,
@xa a @xb b @xc c
= d; = d; = d (3.147)
@xd @xd @xd
so that
@x0a 1 n o
a a b c
= d + bc (P ) (xc xcP ) d + xb xbP d (3.148)
@xd 2
which results in
@x0a a 1 a
= d + dc (P ) (xc xcP ) + a
bd (P ) xb xbP (3.149)
@xd 2
The summation indices are dummy indices and therefore we can replace b by c
in the second term so that
@x0a a 1 a
= d + [ dc (P ) (xc xcP ) + a
cd (P ) (xc xcP )] (3.150)
@xd 2
Since for a torsionless manifold
a a
dc (P ) = cd (P ) ;
we can write
@x0a
= ad + adc (P ) (xc xcP ) (3.151)
@xd
We are interested in the a¢ ne connection at point P so that when we are
evaluating Eq. (3.151) at xc = xcp , we …nd
@x0a a
= d (3.152)
@xd P
Similarly, the inverse is also given by
@xa a
= d (3.153)
@x0d P
Di¤erentiating Eq. (3.151) with respect to xe , we have
@x0a @ a @
= + adc (P ) e (xc xcP )
@xe @xd @xe d @x
@x0a
) = adc (P ) ce = a
de (P ) (3.154)
@xe @xd
Using the results in Eqs. (3.152)-(3.154), the transformation equation for the
a¢ ne connection

ac = fg (3.155)
at point P becomes
0b b f g d d f b
ac (P ) = d a c fg (P ) a c df (P ) (3.156)
3.7. THE GRADIENT, THE DIVERGENCE, THE CURL ON A MANIFOLD89
which simpli…ed into

0b b f d d b b d b
ac (P ) = d a f c (P ) a dc (P ) = d ac (P ) ac (P ) (3.157)
0b b b
) ac (P ) = ac (P ) ac (P ) = 0:
The result in Eq. (3.157) shows that for the coordinate transformation de…ned
by Eq. (3.144), the a¢ ne connection becomes zero. Such coordinates where
the a¢ ne connection becomes zero at a point P on a manifold is known as local
geodesic coordinates about P .
In chapter 2 we have shown that the conditions for local Cartesian coordi-
nates at a given point P in a seudo-Riemmanian manifold are
0
gab (P ) = ab ; (3.158)
0 0
@gab (x )
= 0 (3.159)
@x0c P
where [ ab ] = diag ( 1; 1; :::; 1) : We have also learned that the number of
positive entries (N+ ) minus the number of negative entries (N ) in [ ab ] is called
the signature of the manifold. For geodesic coordinates Eq. ( 3.159) can easily
be shown applying the equation that relates the connection with the metric in
Eq. (3.115). For the x0a coordinates, Eq. (3.115) can be written as
0 0d 0 0d 0
@c gab = ac gbd + bc gad (3.160)
When this equation is evaluated at point P
0
0 @gab (x0 ) 0d 0 0d 0
@c gab = = ac (P ) gbd (P ) + bc (P ) gad (P ) (3.161)
@x0c P
and for a geodesic coordinates the connection is zero at point P , and therefore
0
@gab (x0 )
= 0:
@x0c P
It is important to note that for geodesic coordinates the metric does not nec-
essarily satisfy Eq. (3.158). But we can …nd coordinates x00a that satisfy Eq.
(3.158) by making a linear transformation to the x0a
x00a = Xx0a (3.162)
where Xba are constants.
3.7 The gradient, the divergence, the curl on a

manifold
Before we see how the a gradient of a scalar, the divergence or the curl of a vector
is determined on a manifold, …rst we need to know how a vector is di¤erentiated.
Consider a vector, ~v , in terms of its controvariant components
~v = v a eâ ; (3.163)
where eâ are the coordinate basis vectors. The derivative of this vector with
respect to the coordinate, xb ; can be expressed as
@~v
= @b~v = @b (v a eâ ) = eâ @b (v a ) + v a @b (^
ea ) (3.164)
@xb
We recall
c
@b (^
ea ) = ab e
^c
so that
@b~v = (@b v a ) eâ + c a
ab v e
^c (3.165)
Switching the places for ther indices c and a one can write
c a a c
ab v e
^c = cb v e
â (3.166)
so that
@b~v = (@b v a ) eâ + v c a
cb e
â = (@b v a + a c
cb v ) e
â (3.167)
The quantity in the bracket which is represented as
rb v a = @b v a + a c
cb v (3.168)
is known as the covariant derivative of the vector components. Thus the deriv-
ative of a vector can be expressed as
@b~v = (rb v a ) eâ (3.169)
For geodesic coordinates where the a¢ ne connection vanishes,

a
cb =0
the covariant derivative reduces to
rb v a = @ b v a (3.170)
which is just the ordinary derivative that we are very familiar with!
Homework: Suppose the vector is expressed in terms of its covariant compo-
nents
~v = va eâ (3.171)
show that
c
rb va = @b va ab vc (3.172)
The covariant derivative of a scalar function: for a scalar function
the covariant derivative is
rb = @ b (3.173)
The gradient: The gradient of a scalar function is given by
r = (@a ) eâ (3.174)

3.7. THE GRADIENT, THE DIVERGENCE, THE CURL ON A MANIFOLD91
The divergence: The divergence of a vector …eld expressed in terms of its

covariant components
~v = v a eâ (3.175)
is given by
r ~v = ra v a (3.176)
Using the relation we obtained
cb v (3.177)
for b = a and replacing c by b, we …nd
r ~v = ra v a = @a v a + a b
ba v : (3.178)
Using the relation

a
p 1 p
ab = @b ln jgj = p @a jgj (3.179)
jgj
we can write
1 p 1 h p i
r ~v = @a v a + v a p @a jgj = p @a v a jgj (3.180)
jgj jgj
The Laplacian: We recall that in the Euclidean space the Laplacian of the
scalar function, ; is given by
r2 = r r : (3.181)
Applying Eq. (3.174) we can write
r2 = r [(@a ) eâ ] : (3.182)
But in order to apply the relation we derive for the divergence in Eq. (3.180),
we need the vector
~v = (@a ) eâ = va eâ : (3.183)
in terms of its controvariant components. We have seen that the index can be
raised or lowered using the metric tensor. In this case we want to raise it, so we
have
g ab vb = v a
and we can express the vector ~v as
~v = v a eâ = g ab (@b ) eâ : (3.184)
Then the Laplacian becomes
r2 = r g ab (@b ) eâ : (3.185)
Now applying the relation

1 h p i
r ~v = p @a v a jgj (3.186)
jgj
we may write the Laplacian

1 hp i
r2 = ra ra = p @a jgjg ab @b : (3.187)
jgj
The Laplacian symbol r2 is used in the usual 3-D Euclidean space or in an

N-D manifold. In 4-D spacetime manifold, as you will see (or have seen) in the
relativistic electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics IV (Electricity & Magnetism
II), r2 is replaced by 2 known as the d’Alembertian operator.
Curl: The curl is de…ned as a rank-2 antisymmetric tensor with components
(curl ~v )ab = ra vb r b va : (3.188)
Using the relation

c c
rb va = @b va ab v (3.189)
we can express the curl as
c c c c
(curl ~v )ab = @a vb ab v @ b va + ab v = @a vb @b va : (3.190)
3.8 Intrinsic derivative of a vector along a curve

We will encounter vector …elds that does depend on a curve instead of the entire
or some region of the manifold. In such cases the curve may be de…ned by the
coordinates xa that depends on some parameter, u: Let’s consider a vector, v;
expressed in terms of its controvariant components. Since the coordinates on
this curve depends on the parameter, u, this vector can be expressed in terms
of this parameter as
~v (u) = v a (u) eâ (u) : (3.191)
The derivative of this vector along this curve is given by
d d a d^
ea (u) dv a (u)
~v (u) = [v (u) eâ (u)] = v a (u) + eâ (u) (3.192)
du du du du
d ea (u) dxb
d^ dv a (u)
) ~v (u) = v a (u) b
+ eâ (u) (3.193)
du dx du du
Using the relation
d^
ea d
= ab e
^d (3.194)
dxb
we have
d dxb d dv a
~v = v a ab e
^d + eâ (3.195)
du du du
and replacing the index a by c in the …rst term
d dxb dv a
~v = v c d
cb e
^d + eâ (3.196)
du du du
3.9. PARALLEL TRANSPORT 93
and d by a
d dxb dv a dv a a c dx
b
~v (u) = v c a
cb e
â + eâ = + cb v eâ ; (3.197)
du du du du du
which we put in the form

d Dv a
~v (u) = eâ ; (3.198)
du Du
where
Dv a dv a a c dx
b
= + cb v (3.199)
Du du du
is called the intrinsic (or absolute) derivative of the component v a : Substituting
dv a dv a dxb
= (3.200)
du dxb du
into Eq. (3.199), we …nd
Dv a @v a dxb a c dx
b
dxb a c dx
b
dxb
= + cb v = @b v a + cb v = (@b v a + a c
cb v )
Du @xb du du du du du
Dv a dxb
) = (rb v a ) ; (3.201)
Du du
where we used the relation in Eq. (3.168).
Homework: Suppose the vector, ~v ; depends on the parameter u on a curve
de…ned by xa (u) is expressed in terms of its covariant components
~v = va (u) eâ (u) : (3.202)
Show that the intrinsic derivative of this vector is given by

c
Dva dva b dx
= ac vb (3.203)
Du du du
3.9 Parallel transport

In order to understand the idea of parallel transport of a vector on a manifold
let’s consider motion of a particle in space. Suppose the position of the particle
depends on time, t, then the displacement is parametrized by time t, D ~ (t) : The
velocity of the particle is given by
~
dD
~v = (3.204)
dt
and the acceleration by
d~v
~a = : (3.205)
dt
Suppose you plot the displacement of the particle at di¤erent times, then you
would get generally a curve. The particle would have a constant velocity through
this curve provided its acceleration is zero.
d~v
~a = = 0: (3.206)
dt
This means the particle travels along this curve with a constant velocity. The
velocity would have the same magnitude and direction. The velocity vector
remains parallel at each point on the curve describing the displacement of the
particle as a function of time.
On a curve C on a manifold (See Fig.3.5), a parallel transport of a vector
Figure 3.5: Parallel transport of a vector ~v (Shown by the yellow parallel arrows)
on a manifold.
~v = va (u) eâ (u) (3.207)

is when the intrinsic derivative of this vector is zero
c
Dva dva b dx
= ac vb =0 (3.208)
Du du du
3.10 Null curves, non-null curves, and a¢ ne pa-

rameter
We recall that the tangent vector t at point p on a Manifold is the vector that
lies in the tangent space Tp at that point and is given by
~t = lim @~s = d~s ; (3.209)

u!0 u du
where @~s is the in…nitessimal separation vector between the point P and some
nearby point Q on the curve on the manifold corresponding to the parameter
value u + u
3.10. NULL CURVES, NON-NULL CURVES, AND AFFINE PARAMETER95
In a given coordinate system xa with basis vectors eâ , we can express the
in…nitessimal separation vector d~s as
dxa
d~s = du^
ea (3.210)
du
so that the tangent vector becomes
a
~t = dx eâ (3.211)
du
Recalling that in pseudo-Riemmanian manifold the length of a vector ~v is given
by q q q
p
jvj = jgab v a v b j = jg ab va vb j = jv a vb j = jva v b j (3.212)
we have s p
q
dxa dxb jg ab dxa dxb j
jtj = jgab ta tb j = g ab = (3.213)
du du du
we recall the metric or the interval (the distance squared along the curve on the
manifold between the two points P and Q) is
ds2 = g ab dxa dxb
Eq. (3.213) becomes

~t = d~s (3.214)
du
The non-null vectors and the a¢ ne parameter: for the non-null vec-
tors ~t 6= 0: This means according to Eq. (3.214) the distance ds at all points on
the curve must be di¤erent from zero and therefore it depends on the parameter
u at all points on the curve, s = s (u). If parameter u and the distance s are
related by
u = as + b (3.215)
for a; b 6= 0; the parameter u is called the a¢ ne parameter on the curve.

The null vectors: if the tangent vector is a null vector, then
~t = d~s = 0 (3.216)
du
at all points on the curve and the distance, s; does not depend on the parameter,
u; and we clearly can not use it as a¢ ne parameter since it does not satisfy the
condition in Eq. (3.215). But it is possible to …nd a privileged family of a¢ ne
parameter.
3.11 The calculus of variation-(a review from

Theoretical Physics I)
3.11.1 Geodesic and stationary points
Geodesic: The curve along a surface which marks the shortest distance between
two neighboring points. Finding geodesics is one of the problems which can be
solved using the calculus of variation.
Stationary point: A point with coordinates, (x0 ; f (x0 ));on a curve de…ned
by the function f (x) is said to be a stationary point when
df (x)
= 0: (3.217)
dx x=x0
Figure 3.6: Stationary points.
3.11.2 The geodesic in Euclidean space

Consider two points in a x-y plane P1 and P2 . Prove that the shortest distance
between the two points is the distance measured along a straight line (i.e. show
that the geodesic is given by an equation of a straight line, y (x) = mx + b.)
3.11. THE CALCULUS OF VARIATION-(A REVIEW FROM THEORETICAL PHYSICS I)97
Figure 3.7: Geodesic and none geodesic paths.
Let’s consider two points on the x-y plane. Let P1 be (x1 ; y1 ) and P2 be
(x2 ; y2 ) : Then the distance between these points is given by the integral
Z (2)
L= ds; (3.218)
(1)
where
s s
p dy
2
dx
2
ds = dx2 + dy 2 = 1+ dx = 1+ dy: (3.219)
dx dy
We may rewrite this distance as

s
Z (2) 2
dy
L= 1+ dx: (3.220)
(1) dx
Out of the in…nitely many functions that can be used to connect the two points,
we want to determine the one that would give the minimum distance. Let these
function be denoted by Y (x) : From these in…nite number of functions there is
only one function that gives the minimum distance between the two points. If
this function is y (x) ; then we may write Y (x) in terms of y (x) as
Y (x; ) = y (x) + (x) ; (3.221)
where (x) is an arbitrary function which must satisfy the condition
(x1 ) = (x2 ) = 0 (3.222)
so that at the two end points (x = x1 = x2 ), we …nd
Y (x; ) = y (x) : (3.223)

Here is the constant of variation. It is this constant that determines by how

much Y (x) di¤ers from y (x). Now in terms of Y (x), we may write
Z (2) p
L( ) = 1 + Y 0 2 dx; (3.224)
(1)
where
dY (x; )
0
Y = : (3.225)
dx
We are interested in the path that gives the the minimum distance between the
two points (i.e. the geodesic). The necessary condition for the distance, L ( ) ;
to be minimum is that the length function, L ( ) ; must have a stationary point
at ( = 0; L ( = 0)). This requires
dL ( )
= 0; (3.226)
d =0
which leads to
"Z #
(2)
dL ( ) 1 1 dY 0 (x; )
= p (2Y 0 ) dx = 0: (3.227)
d =0 (1) 2 1 + Y 02 d
=0
Using
Y (x; ) = y (x) + (x) (3.228)
we may write
dY dy d
= + ) Y 0 (x; ) = y 0 (x) + 0
(x) (3.229)
dx dx dx
so that
dY 0 ( ) d 0 0 0
= [y (x) + (x)] = (x) : (3.230)
d d
There follows that
Y 0 (x; )j =0 = y 0 (x) : (3.231)
and
dY 0 ( ) 0
= (x) (3.232)
d =0
In view of these results, one …nds for the stationary point
Z (2)
dL ( ) 1 1 dY 0 ( )
= p 02
(2Y 0 ) dx
d =0 (1) 2 1+Y d
=0
Z (2)
y 0 (x) 0 (x)
= p dx = 0: (3.233)
(1) 1 + y 02 (x)
Using integration by parts
Z Z
udv = uv vdu (3.234)
for
0
(x) = dv ) v = (x) ; (3.235)
that gives !
y0 d y0
u= p ) du = p dx; (3.236)
1 + y0 2 dx 1 + y0 2
we may write the integral as
Z x2 Z !
(2) x2
y 0 0 (x) y0 d y0
p dx = p (x) (x) p dx = 0:
(1) 1 + y0 2 1 + y0 2 x1 dx 1 + y0 2
x1
(3.237)
Due to the conditions
(x1 ) = (x2 ) = 0 (3.238)
the …rst term in the above expression becomes zero. Thus one can write
Z (2) Z x1 !
dL ( ) y 0 0 (x) d y0
= p dx = (x) p dx = 0:
d =0 (1) 1 + y0 2 x1 dx 1 + y0 2
(3.239)
Since (x) is an arbitrary function, for the integral to be zero, we must have
!
d y0 y0
p =0) p = c; (3.240)
dx 1+y 02
1 + y0 2
where c is a constant. Upon solving for y 0

1=2
c2
y0 = = m: (3.241)
1 c2
Note that we have introduced another constant in terms of the constant c. There
follows that
dy
= m ) y (x) = mx + b; (3.242)
dx
which is equation of a straight line.
3.11.3 The general problem

In the previous section we saw the application of the calculus of variation to
show that the shortest path connecting two points on a plane (the geodesic) is
a straight line
dy
= m ) y (x) = mx + b: (3.243)
dx
Next we shall consider the application of the calculus of variation to the general
problem. In an Euclidean space a surface is de…ned by the function, F (x; y; z) ;
where it depends on the Cartesian coordinates x; y; and z: Instead of the Euclid-

dy
ean space let’s consider a surface de…ned by the function, F x; y (x) ; y 0 (x) = dx :
This surface could, for example, be a surface on a phase space if we replace
dy py
x ! t; y (x) ! y (t) ; y 0 (x) ! y 0 (t) = = vy (t) =
dt m
describing the dynamics of a particle mass, m, moving along the y-direction in
py y^
terms of the parameters (time = t; position = y (t) ; velocity = vy (t) y^ = m ),
where py y^ is the momentum: In classical mechanics, the dynamics of a particle
is determined by an equation derived from Newton’s second law. As we shall
see, this equation can be derived from a more general equation know as the
Euler-Lagrange Equation
@ @F @F
= 0; (3.244)
@x @y 0 @y
where F = F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) is the function that de…nes the surface constructed
by the set of points with coordinates, (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)):The Euler-Lagrange Equa-
tion is derived by applying the calculus of variation. In general, in the problem
that we want to solve applying the calculus of variation, we know the coordi-
nates of two di¤ erent points (x1 ; y (x1 ) ; y 0 (x1 )) and (x2 ; y (x2 ) ; y 0 (x2 )) on the
surface de…ned by F = F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)): Form the in…nitely many trajectories
that can connect these two points, there is only one trajectory on this surface
that is the shortest (the Geodesic). Finding the Geodesic is the general problem
that can be solved applying the calculus of variation.
The surface is de…ned by the function F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)): The distance be-
tween these two points determined by evaluating the integral
Z x2
I= F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) dx: (3.245)
x1
To determine the equation for the function F that gives the shortest length
joining the two points, let the function for any path connecting the two points
be Y (x) : From these in…nite number of functions there is only one function that
gives the minimum distance between the two points. If this function is y (x) ;
then we may write Y (x) in terms of y (x) as
Y (x; ) = y (x) + (x) ; (3.246)
where (x) is an arbitrary function which must satisfy the condition
(x1 ) = (x2 ) = 0 (3.247)
so that at the two points (x = x1 = x2 ), we …nd
Y (x; ) = y (x) : (3.248)
We also have
dY (x; ) dY ( )
= (x) ) = (x) ; (3.249)
d d =0
and
dY dy d
= + or Y 0 (x; ) = y 0 (x)+ 0
(x) ) Y 0 (x; )j =0 = y 0 (x) ; : (3.250)
dx dx dx
There follows
dY 0 ( ) d 0 0 0 dY 0 ( ) 0
= [y (x) + (x)] = (x) ) = (x) (3.251)
d d d =0
For the Geodesic the integral

Z x2
I( )= F (x; Y (x; ) ; Y 0 (x; )) dx; (3.252)
x1
must be stationary, that means

Z x2
dI ( ) d
= [F (x; Y (x; ) ; Y 0 (x; ))] dx = 0: (3.253)
d =0 x1 d =0
Noting that
d @F dY ( ) @F dY 0 ( )
[F (x; Y (x; ) ; Y 0 (x; ))] = +
d =0 @Y d @Y 0 d =0
@F dY ( ) @F dY 0 ( )
= + 0
(3.254)
@Y =0 d =0 @Y =0 d =0
and substituting
dY ( )
Y (x; )j =0 = y (x) ; = (x) ; Y 0 (x; )j =0 = y 0 (x) ;
d =0
dY 0 ( ) 0
= (x) ; (3.255)
d =0
we …nd
d @
[F (x; Y (x; ) ; Y 0 (x; ))] = F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) (x)
d =0 @y
@
+ F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) 0 (x) ; (3.256)
@y 0
Then the integral for the Geodesic line becomes

Z x2
dI ( ) @
= F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) (x) dx + (3.257)
d =0 x1 @y
Z x2
@
+ F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) 0 (x) dx: (3.258)
x1 @y 0
Using integration by parts the second integral can be written as

Z x2 x2
@ @ @F
0
F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) 0 (x) dx = (x)
x1 @y @x @y 0 x1
Z x2
@ @F
(x) (x) dx (3.259)
x1 @x @y 0
recalling that
(x1 ) = (x2 ) = 0 (3.260)
we …nd
Z x2 Z x2
@ @ @F
F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) 0
(x) dx = (x) (x) dx:
x1 @y 0 x1 @x @y 0
(3.261)
Thus the stationary integral can be put in the form
Z x2
dI ( ) @
= F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)) (x) dx+
d =0 x1 @y
Z x2
@ @F
(x) (x) dx = 0: (3.262)
x1 @x @y 0
or
Z x2
dI ( ) @ @F @F
= (x) dx = 0: (3.263)
d =0 x1 @x @y 0 @y
There follow that

@ @F @F
=0 (3.264)
@x @y 0 @y
where F = F (x; y (x) ; y 0 (x)):

3.12. THE GEODESIC ON A MANIFOLD 103
3.12 The geodesic on a manifold

We recall that a local geodesic at point P is where the a¢ ne connection is zero
0b b b
ac (P ) = ac (P ) ac (P ) = 0: (3.265)
Suppose we have a set of points in Euclidean space de…ning a geodesic curve,

then at all of these points the a¢ ne connection must vanish.
f
@c e^b = bc e
^f =0 (3.266)
The basis vector with respect to the coordinates xc does not change along the
geodesic curve. This means for the tangent vector
a
~t = dx eâ (3.267)
du
to the curve at least the direction remains the same. In the Euclidean space
this makes the curve to be a straight line where the tangent vectors has same
direction along the line. Thus for Euclidean space the geodesic is a straight line.
For general curve de…ned by xa = xa (u) ; on a manifold, if the curve is
geodesic then the tangent curve must have the same direction at all points on
the curve. This mean the change in the tangent vector with respect to the
parameter u is then only the magnitude that changes and it is given by
d~t dxa
= (u) ~t = (u) eâ ; (3.268)
du du
where (u) is some function of u: Using our result for intrinsic derivative of a
vector ~v (u)
d Dv a dv a dxb
~v (u) = eâ = + acb v c eâ ; (3.269)
du Du du du
for the tangent vector intrinsic derivative, we have
d~t Dta dta a c dx

b
= eâ = + cb t eâ ; (3.270)
du Du du du
so that substituting this into Eq. (3.268), we …nd
dta a c dx
b
dxa
+ cb t = (u) (3.271)
du du du
Noting that
a
~t = dx eâ = ta eâ (3.272)
du
Eq. (3.271) can be written as
d2 xa a dx
c
dxb dxa
+ cb = (u) (3.273)
du2 du du du
The result in Eq. (3.273) is valid for both non-null and null geodesics parame-
terized in terms of some general parameter u. For a¢ ne parameter u where it
is related to the distance s on the curve
u = as + b (3.274)
we have
du = ads (3.275)
and
~t = ds = 1 (3.276)
du a
which is a tangent vector with a constant length that is independent of the
parameter u: This means
d ~t
= (u) ~t = 0 ) (u) = 0 (3.277)
du
Therefore in general for a privilege parameter, where (u) = 0; called the a¢ ne
parameter the equation for the geodesic in Eq. (3.273) can be written as
d2 xa a dx
c
dxb
+ cb =0 (3.278)
du2 du du
Eq. (3.278) is a parallel transport for the tangent vector that we discussed in
the previous section.
Dta dta dxb
= + acb tc =0 (3.279)
Du du du
which can be shown by replacing
dxa dxc
= ta ; = tc (3.280)
du du
in Eq. (3.278).
Homework:
If we change the a¢ ne parameter u to u0; the coordinates that de…ne the
geodesic curve would change from xa (u) to xa (u0 ) : Show that in terms of the
new a¢ ne parameter, u0; the geodesic in Eq. (3.278) becomes
!
d2 u
d2 xa c
a dx dx
b
du02 dxa
+ cb = du
(3.281)
du02 du0 du0 du0
du0
3.13 Stationary property of the non-null geo-

desic
Let’s consider the curve C in our manifold de…ned by the coordinates xa (u) :
Suppose we have two points 1 and 2 on this curve and we are interested in the
3.13. STATIONARY PROPERTY OF THE NON-NULL GEODESIC 105
length along this curve joining these two points, this length can be determined
from
Z 2 Z 2q Z 2s
dxa dxb
L= ds = jgab dxa dxb j = gab du (3.282)
1 1 1 du du
or using the notation

dxa
= x_ a (3.283)
du
this length can be expressed as
Z 2q Z 2
L= jgab x_ a x_ b jdu: = F du; (3.284)
1 1
where q
ds
jgab x_ a x_ b j = s_ =
F = (3.285)
du
Using the principle of variation that you have learned in Theoretical Physics Part
I and revised in the previous section the curve along a surface which marks the
shortest distance between two neighboring points is the geodesic. Using the
principle of variation it can be shown that the integral must be stationary for
the geodesic and the function satis…es the Euler-Lagrange Equation:
d @F @F
= 0: (3.286)
du @ x_ c @xc
Using Eq. (3.285), we have

q
@F @ x_ a x_ b @c gab x_ a x_ b @c gab
= jgab x_ a x_ b j = p =
@xc @xc 2 jgab x_ a x_ b j 2s_
q
@F @ gab @ x_ a @ x_ b
= jgab x_ a x_ b j = p x_ b c + x_ a c
@ x_ c @ x_ c 2 jgab x_ a x_ b j @ x_ @ x_
g x_ b gab x_ a gcb x_ b gac x_ a
= p ab a
c + p b
c = p + p
2 jgab x_ a x_ b j 2 jgab x_ a x_ b j 2 jgcb x_ c x_ b j 2 jgac x_ a x_ c j
@F gcb x_ b gac x_ a
) c
= p + p (3.287)
@ x_ 2 jgcb x_ c x_ b j 2 jgac x_ a x_ c j
If we replace b by a in the …rst term, we can write

@F gca x_ a gac x_ a gac x_ a gac x_ a
c
= p + p =p =
@ x_ c a a
2 jgca x_ x_ j 2 jgac x_ x_ jc a c
jgac x_ x_ j s_
so that the Euler-Lagrange Equation becomes
d gac x_ a x_ a x_ b @a gab
= 0: (3.288)
du s_ 2s_
For the …rst terms we may write
d gac x_ a x_ a dgac gac dx_ a d 1 x_ a dgac gac dx_ a s•

= + +gac x_ a = + gac x_ a 2
du s_ s_ du s_ du du s_ s_ du s_ du s_
(3.289)
and noting that
dgac @gac dxb
= = (@b gac ) x_ b (3.290)
du @xb du
we …nd
d gac x_ a 1 s•
= (@b gac ) x_ a x_ b + gac x
•a gac x_ a (3.291)
du s_ s_ s_
Now substituting Eq. (3.291) into Eq. (3.288), we …nd
1 s• x_ a x_ b @a gab
(@b gac ) x_ a x_ b + gac x
•a gac x_ a = 0: (3.292)
s_ s_ 2s_
x_ a x_ b @a gab s•
•a + (@b gac ) x_ a x_ b
) gac x = gac x_ a : (3.293)
2 s_
Noting that we can interchange the indices and write
(@b gac ) x_ a x_ b = (@a gbc ) x_ b x_ a (3.294)
so that
1
(@b gac ) x_ a x_ b =
(@b gac ) x_ a x_ b + (@a gbc ) x_ b x_ a (3.295)
2
Substituting Eq. (3.295) into Eq. (3.293), we have
1 a b s•
•a +
gac x x_ x_ @b gac + x_ b x_ a @a gbc x_ a x_ b @a gab = gac x_ a : (3.296)
2 s_
1 s•
•a +
gac x [@b gac + @a gbc @a gab ] x_ a x_ b = gac x_ a : (3.297)
2 s_
and multiplying by g dc ;
1 s• dc
g dc gac x
•a + g dc [@b gac + @a gbc @a gab ] x_ a x_ b = g gac x_ a : (3.298)
2 s_
d
Now applying the relationg dc gac = a; we …nd
d a 1 s• d a
ax
• + g dc [@b gac + @a gbc @a gab ] x_ a x_ b = ax
_ : (3.299)
2 s_
which simpli…es into
1 s•
•d + g dc [@b gac + @a gbc
x @a gab ] x_ a x_ b = x_ d : (3.300)
2 s_
3.13. STATIONARY PROPERTY OF THE NON-NULL GEODESIC 107
Using the expression for the a¢ ne connection in terms of the metric
a 1 dc
bc = g [@b gac + @a gbc @a gab ] (3.301)
2
we …nd
s•
•d +
x a a b
bc x
_ x_ = x_ d : (3.302)
s_
Comparing the result in Eq. (3.302) with Eq. (3.281)
!
d2 u
d2 xa c
a dx dx
b
du02 dxa
02
+ cb 0 0
= du
(3.303)
du du du du0
du0
we see that these equations are equivalent to one another.

Chapter 4
Tensor Calculus on
manifolds
4.1 Tensors …elds and rank of a tensor

In order to understand what a tensor is and what is its rank is, it is important
to have a better understanding of a vector …eld, ~v ; on a manifold. How do we
de…ne a vector …eld on a manifold. We have learned that a vector …eld at a
given point, P , on a manifold is de…ned by the tangent plane, TP ; at that point
on the manifold. This tangent plane is de…ned by the tangent vector, ~t. The
tangent plane is de…ned by the basis vectors, eâ . We can denote the number
produced by the action of the vector, ~t on the vector, ~v ; (the component of the
vector …eld, ~v ; on the tangent space) by the scalar product
~t (~v ) = ~t ~v : (4.1)
This maps the vector …eld, ~v ; to the tangent space, Tp : In this case one vector (~v )
is linearly mapped into the tangent space by the tangent vector ~t (i.e. ~t ! ~t (~v )).
Therefore the tangent vector ~t forms a …rst rank tensor t.
A tensor : Based on the notion of a vector on a manifold, a tensor is de…ned
by the precise set of operations applied to the a set of vectors to produce a
scalar and the number of vectors in the set determines the rank of the tensor.
If there are N number of vectors in the set, the tensor is N th rank tensor (See
the table below)
Tensor Operation Rank
t (~u; ~v ) ~u ~v 2
t (~u; ~v ; w)
~ ~u ~v w
~ 3
t (~u; ~v ; w;
~ ~x) ~u ~v w
~ ~x 4
t (~u; ~v ; w;
~ ~x; ~y ) ~u ~v w
~ ~x ~y 5
From this table we can easily see that a scalar …eld can be classi…ed as a
zero ranked tensor …eld since it does not depend on a vector …eld.
109
110 CHAPTER 4. TENSOR CALCULUS ON MANIFOLDS
A tensor is a linear map of the vectors into the real and therefore any ranked
tensor is linear. This means, for example, for 1st rank tensor, we must have
~t ( ~u + ~v ) = ~t ( ~u) + ~t ( ~v ) = ~t (~u) + ~t (~v ) (4.2)
Homework: Show that 2nd rank tensor is linear.

Components of a tensor : We recall that the tangent plane is de…ned in terms
of the basis (~ea ) or dual basis vectors (~eb ). When vectors are expressed in terms
of basis or dual basis vectors, we can determine the components of a tensor in
di¤erent forms. But …rst let’s consider if the vectors, ~v and ~u; are just the basis
or the dual basis vectors. In this case we have
(a) 1st rank tensor
t (~ea ) = ~t ~ea = ta ; (4.3)

b
t ~e = ~t ~eb = tb : (4.4)
(b) 2nd rank tensor
t ~ea ; ~eb = tab ; t (~ea ; ~eb ) = tab (4.5)

b
t ~ea ; ~e = tba ; a
t (~e ; ~eb ) = tab (4.6)
Example 4.1 Let’s reconsider the 2D sphere in the 3D manifoldFor the vector
on the tangent plane shown in Fig. 4.1
t (~ea ) = t1~e1 + t2~e2 or t (~ea ) = t1~e1 + t2~e2

4.1. TENSORS FIELDS AND RANK OF A TENSOR 111
we have
t1 = t (~ea ) ~e1 = t1~e1 + t2~e2 ~e1 ; t2 = t (~ea ) ~e2 = t1~e1 + t2~e2 ~e2
t1
) t (~ea ) =
t2
which is a 1-st rank tensor. Now let’s consider a quantity de…ned by an

operation on set that consist of two vectors as
t (~ea ; ~eb ) = (~e1 ~e1 ) + (~e2 ~e1 ) + (~e1 ~e2 ) + (~e2 ~e2 )
g11 g12
) t (~ea ; ~eb ) =
g21 g22
which forms a 2-nd rank tensor. Using the dual basis vector, we can also
express this 2-nd rank tensor as
t ~ea ; ~eb = ~e1 ~e1 + ~e2 ~e1 + ~e1 ~e2 + ~e2 ~e2
g11 g12
) t ~ea ; ~eb =
g21 g22
or
t ~e;a ~eb = ~e1 ~e1 + ~e2 ~e1 + ~e2 ~e2 + ~e2 ~e2
g 12 g 12
) t ~e;a ~eb =
g 21 g 22
Now we can apply the linearity of tensors to determine the components of

a tensor for the general case where we have two vectors, ~v and ~u; expressed in
terms of the covariant or controvariant components
~u = ua~ea ; ~v = vb~eb ; (4.7)

a b
~u = u ~ea ; ~v = v ~eb : (4.8)
(a) 1st rank tensor
t (~u) = t (ua~ea ) = t (~ea ) ua = ta ua ; (4.9)

a a a
t (~u) = t (u ~ea ) = u t (~ea ) = ta u (4.10)
(b) 2nd rank tensor
t (~u; ~v ) = t ua~ea ; vb~eb = t ~ea ; ~eb ua vb = tba ua vb ; (4.11)

a b a b
t (~u; ~v ) = t ua~e ; v ~eb = t (~e ; ~eb ) ua v = tab ua v b ; (4.12)
a b a b
t (~u; ~v ) = t u ~ea ; v ~eb = t (~ea ; ~eb ) u v = tab ua v b : (4.13)
Note that
t (~u; ~v ) = tab ua v b = tba ua vb = tab ua v b (4.14)
Symmetries of a tensor: A tensor can be symmetric or antisymmetric.

For a second ranked tensor t (~u; ~v )
t (~v ; ~u) ; Antisymmetric

t (~u; ~v ) =
t (~v ; ~u) ; symmetric
Any tensor can be expressed as a sum of symmetric and antisymmetric tensor.

Again if we consider a second rank tensor with elements tab , we can express this
elements as
1 1
tab = (tab + tba ) + (tab tba ) : (4.15)
2 2
Introducing the notations for the symmetric part
1
t(ab) = (tab + tba ) (4.16)
2
and the antisymmetric part
1
t[ab] = (tab tba ) (4.17)
2
we can write
tab = t(ab) + t[ab] : (4.18)
N th ranked tensor : for an N th ranked tensor the symmetric and antisymmetric
covariant components of the tensor, ta1 a2 :::aN are given by
1
t(a1 a2 :::aN ) = (addition over all permutations of the indices a1 a2 :::aN )
N!
(4.19)
and
1
t[a1 a2 :::aN ] = (Alternating subtraction and addition over
N!
all permutations of the indices a1 a2 :::aN ) (4.20)
1
t[a1 a2 a3 ] =
t[a1 a2 a3 ] (4.21)
3!
For example for 3rd rank tensor, we have
1
t(a1 a2 a3 ) = (ta a a + ta2 a1 a3 + ta1 a2 a3 + ta3 a2 a1 + ta1 a2 a3 + ta1 a3 a2 ) (4.22)
3! 1 2 3
and
1
t(a1 a2 a3 ) = (ta a a ta2 a1 a3 + ta1 a2 a3 ta3 a2 a1 + ta1 a2 a3 ta1 a3 a2 ) (4.23)
3! 1 2 3
Particular subset of indices permutation: we have a di¤erent notations when
the permutation is to particular subset of indices. This is described using a 4th
4.1. TENSORS FIELDS AND RANK OF A TENSOR 113
rank tensor.
1
t(ab)cd = (tabcd + tbacd ) (4.24)
2
symmetric permutation to indices a and b only
1
t[ab]cd = (tabcd tbacd ) (4.25)
2
antisymmetric permutation to indices a and b only
1
ta[bjcjd] = (tabcd tbdca )
2
antisymmetric permutation to indices b and d only (4.26)
Note that the symbol jj are used to exclude unwanted indices from the sym-
metrization () antisymmetrization [] implied.
Example 4.2 Let’s reconsider the 3D sphere in the 4D manifoldWe recall the
tangent space at a point on this 3D sphere form three basis and dual basis
vectors, ~e1 ; ~e2 ; ~e3 (or ~er ; ~e ; ~e' ) and ~e1 ; ~e2 ; ~e3 (or ~er ; ~e ; ~e' ). Write the
expression for the symmetric, t(123) and antisymmetric t[123] components.
Solution: The expressions for these components are given by
1
t(123) = t(123) + t(132) + t(213) + t(231) + t(312) + t(321)
3!
and
1
t[123] = t(123) t(132) + t(312) t(321) + t(231) t(213)
3!
Homework: Write the explicit form of the expressions for
(a) t(312)
(b) t[ab](cd)
4.2 The metric tensor revisited

A good example of a 2nd rank tensor is the metric tensor, g. Here more generally
we de…ne the metric tensor as a linear map of two vectors ~u and ~v into the
number that is the inner product
g (~u; ~v ) = ~u ~v (4.27)
We can easily see that the metric tensor is symmetric tensor as
g (~u; ~v ) = g (~v ; ~u) = ~v ~u (4.28)
We recall that covariant and controvariant components of the metric tensor are
given by
gab = g (~ea ; ~eb ) = ~ea ~eb ; g ab = g ~ea ; ~eb = ~ea ~eb (4.29)
and the mixed components
a
gab = g ~ea ; ~eb = g (~ea ; ~eb ) = b (4.30)
Raising and lowering tensor indices. Consider the third rank tensor, t; expressed
in terms of its covariant components
tabc = t (~ea ~eb ~ec ) (4.31)
or mixed components
tcab = t (~ea ~eb ~ec ) : (4.32)
We recall from chapter 3 that the covariant form of the metric tensor can be
used to lower and the controvariant to raise the index of a vector. This can be
extended to raising and lowering indices of a higher ranked tensor. For example,
we can lower the index of the 3-rd ranked tensor in Eq. (4.32) by multiplying
it with the covariant form of the metric tensor, gdc ;
gdc tcab = gdc t (~ea ~eb ~ec ) (4.33)
noting that
c
gdc = ~ed ~ec ; and ~eb ~ec = b
we have
c
gdc tcab = ~ed ~ec ~ea b = ~ed ~eb ~ea = tdba (4.34)
so that
tdba = gdc tcab (4.35)
4.3. MAPPING TENSORS INTO TENSORS 115
Since the indices are dummy variables and tensor tabc is symmetric, one can
write
tabc = gcd tdab (4.36)
An alternative way of showing this is to use the linearity of operations involving
tensors
gdc tcab = gdc t (~ea ; ~eb ; ~ec ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ; gdc~ec ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ; ~ed ) = tabd (4.37)
where we used
gdc~ec = ~ed
Noting that Homework: Raise the tensor tabc to tabc :
4.3 Mapping tensors into tensors

We have learned that tensor maps a set of vectors operation into real numbers.
For example we saw that 1st rank tensor t (~u) maps the vector ~u into real
numbers in the tangent space.
t (~u) = t (ua~ea ) = ua t (~ea ) = ta ua (4.38)
and the second rank tensor t (~u; ~v ) maps the operation involving the vectors ~u
and ~v into real numbers in the tangent space
t (~u; ~v ) = t ua~ea ; v b~eb = t (~ea ; ~eb ) ua v b = tab ua v b :
For example 2D sphere where the tangent space has two basis vectors t(~e1 ; ~e2 )we
t (~u; ~v ) = tab ua v b
= t11 u1 v 1 + t12 u2 v 1 + t11 u1 v 2 + t12 u2 v 2 + t21 u1 v 1 + t22 u2 v 1
+t21 u1 v 2 + t22 u2 v 2
and using matrices one can put this in the form
t11 t12 v1
t (~u; ~v ) = u1 u2
t21 t12 v2
The 2-nd rank tensor t(~ea ; ~eb ) maps the vector operation involving ~u (~ea ) and
~v (~ea ) into a real number in the tangent space. Now the question is, can we map
a tensor into another tensor of a di¤erent rank. Consider a 3-rd rank tensor
t (~u; ~v ; w)
~ which maps the three vectors into real numbers. Let’s replace the
two vectors (~u; ~v ) by the basis vectors (~ea ; ~eb ) in the tangent space,
t (~ea ; ~eb ; w)
~ = ~ea ~eb w:
~ (4.39)
Suppose we express the vector, w;

~ in terms of its controvariant components
~ = wc~ec ;
w (4.40)
we …nd
~ = t (~ea ; ~eb ; wc~ec ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ; ~ec ) wc = tabc wc = sab :

t (~ea ; ~eb ; w) (4.41)
which is a 2-nd rank tensor. We see that the 3-rd rank tensor t maps the vector,
w;
~ into a second rank tensor s: As another example let’s consider the third rank
tensor
t (~v ; ~eb ; w)
~ = ~v ~eb w:
~ (4.42)
Suppose we express the vectors, ~v and ~u; in terms of its controvariant compo-
nents
~ = wc~ec ; ~v = v a~ea ;
w (4.43)
then
~ = t (ua~ea ; ~eb ; wc~ec ) = t (~ea ~eb ~ec ) ua wc = tabc ua wc = vb ;

t (~u; ~eb ; w) (4.44)
where we …nd a 1st rank tensor, sb : This means the 3rd rank tensor mapped the
two vectors into 1st rank tensor (i.e. a vector).
4.4 Elementary tensor operations

Adding, subtracting, and multiplying by a scalar :
sab = s (~ea ; ~eb ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ) r (~ea ; ~eb ) = tab rab : (4.45)
Outer product: Consider two …rst rank tensors (i.e. two vectors) u (~
p) and v (~q) :
The outer product or (tensor product) of these two tensors, which is denoted
by u v is given by
u v (~ p; ~q) = u (~
p) v (~q) ; (4.46)
which is a second rank tensor. Suppose (~
p; ~q) ! (~ea ; ~eb ) ; then
u v (~ea ; ~eb ) = u (~ea ) v (~eb ) = ua vb : (4.47)
Now let’s consider 2-nd rank tensor, t (~ p; ~q), and 1-st rank tensor (a vector),
s (~r) ; the outer product of these two tensors give another tensor, h, of a di¤erent
rank given by
t s (~p; ~q; ~r) = t (~
p; ~q) s (~r) = h: (4.48)
The tensor h is a 3-rd rank tensor. Using the basis and dual basis vectors we
may express the components as
t s (~ea ; ~eb ; ~ec ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ) s (~ec ) = habc (4.49)

t s (~ea ; ~eb ; ~ec ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ) s (~ec ) = habc (4.50)
a b
t s ~e ; ~e ; ~ec = t ~e ; ~e s (~ec ) = hab
a b
c (4.51)
c
t s (~ea ; ~eb ; ~e ) = t (~ea ; ~eb ) s (~ec ) = hcab (4.52)
4.4. ELEMENTARY TENSOR OPERATIONS 117
Example 4.2 Let’s consider two vectors in the tangent space for a point in a
3D sphere embedded in 4D manifold given by
p~ = pa~ea ; ~q = q b~eb
where a; b = 1; 2; 3, and ~e1 ; ~e2 ; and ~e3 (or ~er ; ~e ; and ~e' ). Find the
components of the 2-nd rank tensor for
u v (~
p; ~q) = u (~
p) v (~q) ; (4.53)
Sol: The components of this 2-nd rank tensor are given by
u p; ~q) = pa q b~ea~eb
v (~
= p1 q 1~e1~e1 + p1 q 2~e1~e2 + p1 q 3~e1~e3
+p2 q 1~e2~e1 + p2 q 2~e2~e2 + p3 q 3~e3~e3
+p3 q 1~e3~e1 + p3 q 2~e3~e2 + p3 q 3~e3~e3
and using a matrix this is expressed as

2 1 1 3
p q p1 q 2 p1 q 3
u v (~ p; ~q) = 4 p2 q 1 p2 q 2 p3 q 3 5
p3 q 1 p3 q 2 p3 q 3
NB: from what we learned in all mathematical or physics courses up to this

point, what we know is that inner product of two 1-st rank tensor (two vectors)
is commutative. However, that generalization does not apply to higher ranked
tensor. So from now on we must keep in mind that inner product of tensors in
general is not commutative including the 1-st rank tensor for the reason described
in terms of tensor contraction. For example, if t is a 2-nd rank tensor and s is
a …rst rank tensor, the inner product
t s = tab sb (4.54)
and
s t = tab sa (4.55)
are not necessarily the same.
Like vectors (1-st rank tensor) tensors of higher rank are geometrical objects
too: We already know that vectors are geometrical objects that can be made
up from a linear combination of the basis vectors
t = ta~ea = ta~ea : (4.56)
The vector that de…nes a given geometry on a manifold, does not depend on how
it is represented. The geometry that a vector de…nes remain the same geometry
whatever representation we used to describe the vector. The same is true for
higher ranked tensors. As an example, let’s consider a 2-nd rank tensor with
component tab constructed from the outer product of two basis vectors
t = ~ea ~eb : (4.57)
The controvariant components of t
c d
t = ~ea ~eb ~ec ; ~ed = a b: (4.58)
Now suppose we have some general 2-nd rank tensor, t, with controvariant
components, tab (~ea ~eb ) : The action of this second rank tensor on two basis
vectors
tab (~ea ~eb ) ~ec ; ~ed = tab ca db = tcd (4.59)
Therefore what is true for example for 2-d rank tensor
t = tab (~ea ~eb ) = tba (~ea ~eb ) = tab ~ea ~eb (4.60)
is true for any ranked tensor.
4.5 Tensors and coordinate transformations

We recall the coordinates basis and the dual basis vectors, under the coordinate
transformation xa ! x0a ; are transformed as
@xa
e^0c = eâ : (4.61)
@x0c
and
@x0a c
e^0a =
e^ : (4.62)
@xc
1-st rank tensor: Suppose we have a 1-st rank tensor, t
t (~ea ) = ta~ea = ta~ea : (4.63)
in the x0a coordinate system is given by
@x0a @x0a c
t0a = t0 (~e0a ) = c
t (~ec ) = t (4.64)
@x @xc
@xc @xc
t0a = t0 (~e0a ) = 0a
t (~ec ) = tc (4.65)
@x @x0a
2-nd rank tensor: Suppose we have a 2-nd rank tensor, t ~ea ; ~eb ; t ~ea ; ~eb ;
and t (~ea ; ~eb ) in the x0a coordinate system is given by
@x0a @x0b cd
t0 ~e0a ; ~e0b = t (4.66)
@xc @xd
@xc @x0b d
t0 ~e0a ; ~eb0 = t (4.67)
@x0a @xd c
@xc @xd
t0 (~e0a ; ~e0b ) = tcd (4.68)
@x0a @x0b
4.6. TENSOR EQUATIONS AND THE QUOTIENT THEOREM 119
3-nd rank tensor: Suppose we have a mixed 3-rd rank tensor, tcab ! t (~ea ; ~eb ; ~ec )
in the x0a coordinate system is given by
@xc @xd @x0c f

t (~e0a ; ~e0b ; ~e0c ) = t (4.69)
@x0a @x0b @xf cd
4.6 Tensor equations and the quotient theorem

A tensor equation which holds in one coordinate system must hold in another
coordinate system. Suppose we have an equation that states two second rank
tensors, t and s are equal in the xa coordinate system. That means
tcd = scd (4.70)
Multiplying both sides of this equation by
@xc @xd
@x0a @x0b
we have
@xc @xd @xc @xd
0a 0b
tcd = scd (4.71)
@x @x @x0a @x0b
so that using Eq. (4.68), we …nd
t0ab = s0ab : (4.72)
Well Eq. (4.72) shows that the equality holds under the coordinate transfor-
mation. However, the question is that these components (set of quantities) are
actually form a tensor. The quotient theorem set’s the condition for a set of
quantities actually represent a tensor component.
The quotient theorem: if a set of quantities when contracted with a tensor
produces another tensor, then the original set of quantities are also a tensor.
Suppose in an N dimensional manifold you are given a 3-rd rank tensor,
t; and 1-st rank tensor, v: The tensor, t; has a set of N 3 quantities tabc and
the tensor v has N quantities of v a : Suppose we form a set of N 2 quantities
by contracting the 4-th rank tensor formed by the outer product of these two
tensors (i.e.sab = tabc v c ). Under coordinate transformation xa ! x0a , these set of
elements, using the transformation relations,
@x0a c
t0a = t (4.73)
@xc
c
@x
t0a = tc (4.74)
@x0a
in the new coordinate system are given by
@x0a d @xe @x0a @xe d @x0a @xe d f

s0a
b = s se = s = t0a 0c
v = t v : (4.75)
@xd @x0b @xd @x0b e bc
@xd @x0b ef
In the relation
@x0f c
v 0f =
v (4.76)
@xc
by switching the the primes with the none primes, we can write
@xf 0c
vf = v (4.77)
@x0c
Substituting this expression into Eq. (4.75), we …nd
@x0a @xe d @xf 0c @x0a @xe @xf d

t0a 0c
bc v = t v ) t0a t v 0c = 0 (4.78)
@xd @x0b ef @x0c bc
@xd @x0b @x0c ef
There follows that for an arbitrary vector components, v 0c ;
@x0a @xe @xf d

t0a
bc = t : (4.79)
@xd @x0b @x0c ef
We made a contraction to the set of elements tabc and still we found a tensor.
Therefore the set of element tabc must be the component of the 3-rd rank tensor.
That is the quotient theorem.
4.7 Covariant derivatives of a tensor

Suppose we consider the 1-st rank tensor v 0a in the x0a coordinates. The deriv-
ative of this tensor can be expressed as
@v 0a @v 0a @xc @xc @v 0a
= = (4.80)
@x0b @xc @x0b @x0b @xc
Using the transformation for 1-st rank tensor, we have
@x0a d
v 0a = v (4.81)
@xd
so that
@v 0a @xc @ @x0a d @xc @x0a @v c @xc @ 2 x0a c
0b
= 0b c d
v = 0b d c
+ v (4.82)
@x @x @x @x @x @x @x @x0b @xc @xd
We recall the covariant derivative from chapter 3
cb v (4.83)
so that the gradient of the …rst rank tensor can be expressed as
rv = (rb v a ) ~ea : = @b v a + a c
cb v (4.84)
rb v a forms a mixed 2-nd rank tensor. We denote this second rank tensor by
rv. Noting that
r = ~ea @a ; v = v b~eb
4.7. COVARIANT DERIVATIVES OF A TENSOR 121
we can express
rv = ~ea @a v b~eb = ~ea @a v b~eb = ra v b ~ea ~eb (4.85)
Let’s consider the the covariant derivative of a second rank tensor t with ex-
pressed in terms of its controvariant components tab
rc t = rc tab~ea ~eb (4.86)
Using the product rule, we have
@c t = @c tab ~ea ~eb + tab (@c~ea ) ~eb + tab~ea (@c~eb ) (4.87)
and recalling that

f
@c e^b = bc e
^f (4.88)
one can write
f
@c t = @c tab ~ea ~eb + tab f
ca e
^f ~eb + tab~ea cb e
^f (4.89)
f
@c t = @c tab (~ea ~eb ) + tab f
ca (~ef ~eb ) + tab cb (~ea e^f ) (4.90)
If we interchange the indices f and a in the second term and f by b in the third
terms, we have
@c t = @c tab (~ea ~eb ) + tf b a

cf (~ea ~eb ) + taf b
cf (~ea ~eb ) (4.91)
@c t = @c tab + a fb
cf t + b af
cf t (~ea ~eb ) = rc tab ~ea ~eb (4.92)
where
rc tab = @c tab + a db
cd t + b ad
cd t ; (4.93)
is the covariant derivative.
Homework: Show that for the covariant derivatives of the mixed and covari-
ant component of a 2-nd rank tensor t are given by
rc tab = @c tab + a d
dc tb
d a
bc td (4.94)
d d
rc tab = @c tab ac tdb bc tad (4.95)
Useful relation
@c~ea = a b
bc~
e (4.96)
Homework: Show that the covariant derivative of the metric tensor is zero
rg = 0
Suppose we represent the metric tensor in terms of its controvariant components,

g ab ; then you must show that the covariant derivative expressed as
rc g ab = @c g ab + a db
cd g + b ad
cd g =0 (4.97)
Useful relations, for example, the a¢ ne connection and the metric are related
by
f gf d
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (4.98)
2
Application of the property of the metric tensor: Suppose we have a 2-nd rank
tensor, t, for which we want to …nd the covariant derivative from its components,
for example, in mixed form. That means we want to …nd rc tab from tad : We can
express the covariant components of this tensor using contraction as
tab = g bd tad :
Note that the metric tensor is symmetric (g bd = g db ). Then
tab = g bd tad
rc tab = rc g bd tad = rc g bd tad + g bd rc tad (4.99)

since
rc g bd = 0
we can express
rc tab = g bd rc tad : (4.100)
4.8 Intrinsic derivative

Like vectors (1-rank tensor), tensor of rank 2 or more can depend on a subman-
ifold instead of the entire manifold. For example, a given tensor t can depend
on a curve C on the manifold that de…ned by some parameter u. This curve
may be de…ne by the equation xa (u) : The tensor, t; expressed in terms of its
controvariant components, then in terms of this parameter that the curve, C;
depends on can be expressed as
t (u) = tab~ea (u) ~eb (u) :
The intrinsic derivative will then be

dt (u) d ab
= t ~ea (u) ~eb (u)
du du
dtab d~ea (u) d~eb (u)
= ~ea (u) ~eb (u) + tab ~eb (u) + tab~ea (u)
du du du
In terms of the coordinates xa (u) ; we can write
d~ea (u) d~ea (u) dxc d~eb (u) d~eb (u) dxb
= ; =
du dxc du du dxc du
and using the a¢ ne connection
d~ea (u) f
@c~eb = = bc e
^f (4.101)
dxc
4.8. INTRINSIC DERIVATIVE 123
we have
d~ea (u) f dxc d~eb (u) f dxb
= ac e
^f (u) ; = bc e
^f (u) (4.102)
du du du du
so that
dt (u) dtab dxc f dxb
= ~ea (u) ~eb (u) + tab f
ac e
^f (u) ~eb (u) + tab~ea (u) bc e
^f
du du du du
(4.103)
dt (u) dtab f dx
c
f dx
b
= ~ea (u) ~eb (u)+tab ac ~ef (u) ~eb (u)+tab bc ~ea (u) ~ef (u) :
du du du du
(4.104)
Replacing the dummy index a by f in the …rst term, we can write
dt (u) dtf b f dx
c
f dx
b
= ~ef (u) ~eb (u)+tab ac ~ef (u) ~eb (u)+tab bc ~ea (u) ~ef (u) :
du du du du
(4.105)
Noting that by making the following dummy index change b ! d followed by
a!b
b d d
f dx f dx f dx
tab bc ~ea (u) ~ef (u) = tad dc ~ea (u) ~ef (u) = tbd dc ~eb (u) ~ef (u)
du du du
we …nd
dt (u) dtf b f dx
c
f dx
d
= + tab ac + tbd dc ~ef (u) ~eb (u) : (4.106)
du du du du
that we expressed as
dt (u) Dtf b
= ~ef (u) ~eb (u) : (4.107)
du Du
where
Dtf b dtf b f dx
c
f dx
d
= + tab ac + tbd dc ; (4.108)
Du du du du
is called the intrinsic (absolute) derivative of the component tf b along the curve
de…ned by xa (u) : For the sake of convenience we make change of dummy indices
(f ! a) in Eq. (4.107) and (a ! d) in Eq. (4.108) as
dt (u) Dtab
= ~ea (u) ~eb (u) : (4.109)
du Du
where
Dtab dtab dxc dxd
= + tdb adc + tbd adc : (4.110)
Du du du du
We can switch the dummy indices c and d in the third term as the a¢ ne is
symmetric for Torsionless
Dtab dtab a dx
c
a dx
c
= + tdb dc + tbc cd :
Du du du du
It can be easily shown that
dt (u) Dtab Dtab a Dtab a

= ~ea (u) ~eb (u) = ~e (u) ~eb (u) = ~e (u) ~eb (u) :
du Du Du Du
(4.111)
Like vectors parallel-transported, we can say tensors are parallel-transported
when
Dtab
= 0: (4.112)
Du
Suppose we pretend that the tensor depends on the entire manifold instead of
submanifold de…ned by some curve C, we can write
dtab @tab dxc ab dx

c
= = @c t
du @xc du du
so that the intrinsic derivative can be expressed as
Dtab dxc a dx
c
a dx
c
dxc
= @c tab + tdb dc + tbc cd = @c tab + tdb a
dc + tbc a
cd
Du du du du du
Using the result in Eq. (4.93) we can write
Dtab dxc
= rc tab (4.113)
Du du
Chapter 5
Special relativity using

tensors
In this chapter we will see how tensor calculus can be used in special relativity
that introduced in chapter one.
5.1 The Minkowski spacetime in Cartesian co-

ordinates
5.1.1 The metric tensor and the A¢ ne connection
We recall the metric in the Minkowski spacetime is given by
2 2 2 2
ds2 = c2 d = dx0 dx1 dx2 dx3 ; (5.1)
where
x0 = ct; x1 = x; x2 = y; x3 = z:
For the boost, for an inertial frame moving with a velocity, v; along the positive
x-direction,
2 2 2 2
ds2 = c2 d = dx00 dx01 dx02 dx03 ; (5.2)
where the coordinates x0a ( ) parameterized by the proper time, . Then in

terms of the components of the metric tensor, gab = ab , the metric can be
expressed as
ds2 = gab dxa dxb ;
where 2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
G = [gab ] = 6
4 0
7: (5.3)
0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
125
126 CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL RELATIVITY USING TENSORS
Let’s determine the a¢ ne connections, obviously one can expect this to be zero
as we are using Cartesian coordinates. We recall the relationship between the
metric and the a¢ ne connection
a g ad
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) ; (5.4)
2
which gives
a
bc =0 (5.5)
This shows that the a¢ ne connections are zero everywhere in the Minkowski
spacetime manifold (in Cartesian coordinates).
5.1.2 The Lorentz transformation

Lorentz transformation is Cartesian coordinates transformation de…ned by, for
the boost,
x0 = x00 + x01 ; x1 = x00 + x01 ; x2 = x02 ; x3 = x03 ; (5.6)
from the xa ! x0a or
x00 = x0 x1 ; x01 = x0 x1 ; x02 = x2 ; x03 = x3 : (5.7)
from the x0a ! xa , where

v 1
= ; =q : (5.8)
c 1 v2
c2
The metric for this transformation, we have

0
ds2 = gab (x) dxa dxb = gcd (x0 ) dx0c dx0d ; (5.9)
where
@xc @xd
0 @x0a @x0b
gcd = gab ; gab = gcd : (5.10)
@x0a @x0b @xc @xd
Using Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7), one …nds
2 0 0 0 3 2 3
@x @x @x @x0
@x00 @x01 @x02 @x03 0 0
6 @x1 @x1 @x1 @x1 7 6
c @xc 6 @x00 @x01 @x02 @x03 7 6 0 0 7
7 ; (5.11)
[ a] = =6 7=4
@x0a 4 @x2 @x2 @x2 @x2 5 0 0 1 0 5
@x00 @x01 @x02 @x03
@x3 @x3 @x3 @x3 0 0 0 1
@x00 @x01 @x02 @x03
and
2 3 2 3
@x00 @x00 @x00 @x00
@x0 @x1 @x2 @x3 0 0
6 @x01 @x01 @x01 @x01 7 6
0b @x0b 6 @x0 @x1 @x2 @x3 7 6 0 0 7
7:
= =6 7=4
d
@xd 4 @x02 @x02 @x02 @x02 5 0 0 1 0 5
@x0 @x1 @x2 @x3
@x03 @x03 @x03 @x03 0 0 0 1
@x0 @x1 @x2 @x3
(5.12)
5.1. THE MINKOWSKI SPACETIME IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES127
There follows that

x0a = a
x (5.13)
or
xa = ax
0
(5.14)
In terms of the rapidity parameter de…ned by
1 v 1 v=c
= tanh ( ); = = (5.15)
c 0 v=0
we can also write

2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
@xc 6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
[ c
a] = =6
4
7 (5.16)
@x0a 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
and 2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
@x0b 6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
0b
= =6
4
7: (5.17)
d
@xd 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
Using Eqs. (5.16) and (5.17), we note that
2 32 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
c
[ a] 0b
= 6 4
76 7
d 0 0 1 0 54 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
) [ a] c 0b 6 7 c
d = 4 0 0 1 0 5 = [ d] (5.18)
0 0 0 1
Homework: We recall that the metric tensor can be used to lower or raise indices.
Using this property of the metric tensor for Lorentz transformation in Cartesian
coordinates for the boost …nd
2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
0b
d =4
6 7 (5.19)
0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
from 2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
[ a] = 6
c
4
7: (5.20)
0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
The basis and dual basis vectors:

For the coordinate transformation, xa ! x0a ; we recall that the basis vectors
transform according to
@x0a c 0 @x0c
~e0a = c
~e ; ~ea = ~ec ) ~e0a = 0ac~ec ; ~e0a = 0c
a~ec : (5.21)
@x @xa
so that using the results in Eqs. (5.11), one can easily write
~e0a = a c 0
c~
e ; ~ea = c
a~
ec (5.22)
ab
Using the index lowering and raising tensor (g ), we can also show that
~e0a = g ab~eb : (5.23)
We recall that the metric, gab ;
2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
gab = ~ea ~eb ) [gab ] = 6
4 0
7
0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
and in terms of the basis vectors in x0a coordinates, the metric similarly can be
expressed as
0
gab = ~e0a ~e0b = 0c
a~ec 0d
b~ed = 0c
a
0d
b (~ec ~ed ) = 0c
a
0d
b gcd = 0c
a gcd
0d
b
and applying the result in Eq. (5.17), one can write

0 0c 0d
[gab ]=[ a ] [gcd ] b
2 32 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 0 1 0 0 7
=6
4
76 7
0 0 1 0 54 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
6 7
4 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
2 32 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7
=6
4
76 7
0 0 1 0 54 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
0 0c
) [gab ] = [ a ] [gcd ] 0d 6
b =4 0
7 = [gab ]
0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
There follows that
0
gab = gab (5.24)
Following a similar procedure one can easily show that
a
g 0ab = g ab ; gb0a = gba = b (5.25)
5.1.3 Four vector and Lorentz transformation

The four vector: We recall that a vector (which is a geometrical entity that
remain the same independent of coordinate transformation) on a manifold in
terms of its controvariant components can be expressed as
~v = ub~eb = u0a~e0a : (5.26)
The components are determined by using

0a c
u0a = ~u ~e0a = ub~eb ~e0a = ub~eb 0a c
c~
e = ub 0a
c~eb ~ec = ub c b = 0a b
bu : (5.27)
Similarly
c c
ub = ~u0 ~eb = u0a~e0a ~eb = u0a c
a~
ec ~eb = u0a a b = b 0b
au : (5.28)
where
2 3 2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 0 0 7
[ b] = 6
0a
4
7=6
5 4
7 (5.29)
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
and
2 3 2 3
cosh ( ) sinh ( ) 0 0 0 0
6 sinh ( ) cosh ( ) 0 0 7 6 0 0 7
[ b] = 6
a
4
7=6
5 4 0
7 (5.30)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
We can also express the components as
u0a = ub~eb ~e0a = ub~eb 0c

a~ec = ub 0c
a~eb ~ec = ub gbc 0c
a: (5.31)
For the vector, ~u
~u ~u = ua~ea ub~eb = ua ub~ea ~eb = gab ua ub (5.32)
for a four vector we say the vector is time-like, null vector, or space like, when
8
< > 0; time-like
gab ua ub = = 0; null (5.33)
:
< 0; Space-like
The four velocity: In the Minkowski spacetime the trajectory of a particle

form the worldline (a curve on the manifold). This curve can be de…ned in
terms of some parameter. For a massive particle this parameter can be the
proper time, ; which is de…ned as
2
ds
= c2 ; (5.34)
d
where ds is an in…nitesimal displacement on the worldline. The worldline can

then be de…ned in terms of the proper time using the coordinates xa ( ) : The
four velocity, ua ( ), of a particle then is the tangent vector on the worldline.
dxa
~u ( ) = ua~ea = ~ea (5.35)
d
and the length of this tangent vector
2
ds
u( ) u( ) = = c2 (5.36)
d
or
dxa d (ct) dx1 dx2 dx3
[ua ] = = ; ; ; : (5.37)
d d d d d
Recalling that
d dt
dt = q )d =
u2 u
1 c2
where
1
u =q (5.38)
u2
1 c2
we can write the four velocity

dxa dx1 dx2 dx3
[ua ] = = u c; ; ; = u [c; ~u] (5.39)
d dt dt dt
2 0 3 2 3
u uc
6 u1 7 6 u ux 7
) 6
4 u2
7=6 7
5 4 u uy 5 :
u3 u uz
The 3-D velocity, ~u; is the velocity of the particle by an observer in the rest
inertial frame, S. In some other inertial from, S 0 ; the four velocity is given by
~u0 = u0a~e0a : (5.40)
The components can be determined using relation
u0a = u ~e0a = ub~eb ~e0a = 0a b
bu : (5.41)
where we used the transformation
~e0a = 0a c
c~
e : (5.42)
Applying the relation
2 3
v v 0 0
@x0a 6 0 0 7
0a
= =6
4
v v 7 (5.43)
c
@x c 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
we have 2 3 2 32 0 3
u00 v v 0 0 u
6 u01 7 6 0 0 7 6 u1 7
6 02 7 = 6 v v 76 7 (5.44)
4 u 5 4 0 0 1 0 5 4 u2 5
u03 0 0 0 1 u3
so that 2 3 2 3
u00 v u0 u1
6 u01 7 6 u0 u1 7
6 02 7 = 6 v 7 (5.45)
4 u 5 4 u2 5
u03 u3
and substituting Eq. (5.39)
2 3 2 3
u0 uc
6 u1 7 6 u ux
7
6 2 7=6 7 (5.46)
4 u 5 4 u
u y
5
u3 u
u z
in to Eq. (5.45), one …nds

2 00 3 2 0
3 2 3
u v u u1 v u (c ux )
6 u01 7 6 u0
u1 7 6 u (c ux ) 7
6 02 7 = 6 v 7=6 v 7: (5.47)
4 u 5 4 u 2 5 4 u uy
5
u03 u3 u uz
The proper time, ; is measured by a clock at the instantaneous inertial frame

(IIF) for the particle. The particle is moving with a speed u0 for an observer on
the S 0 . Then one can write
d dt0
dt0 = q )d =
u02 u0
1 c2
which means
dx0a dx01 dx02 dx03
[u0a ] = = u0 c; ; ; = u0 [c; ~u0 ] (5.48)
d dt0 dt0 dt0
Then Eq. (5.47) becomes

2 3
2 3 2 3 2 3
c u (c ux ) v u 1 uxc
u0 v u0 6 7
6 0 7
u0 ux 7
6 (u c ) 7 6 u0 7 6 v u
(ux c ) 7
6 6
0 5=4
v u x 7 ) 6 x0 7=6 u0 7:
4 u u uy
5 4 uy 5 6 u
u 7
0
u y
0
4 u0
y 5
u0 uz u u z u0z u
u z
u0
(5.49)
Using the relation for u0 from the …rst row,
ux
u0 = v u 1 ;
c
one …nds 2 3
2 3 ux c
u0x 6 1 uxc
uy 7
4 u0y 5 = 6 7
4 v (1
ux
c ) 5: (5.50)
u0z uz
ux
v (1 c )
Using
v 1
= ; =q (5.51)
c 1 v2
c2
we …nd what we derived in Chapter one for the velocity transformation.

ux v
u0x = ; (5.52)
1 cv2 ux
q
2
uy 1 vc2
u0y = v ; (5.53)
1 c2 ux
q
v2
uz 1 c2
u0z = vu0z
: (5.54)
1 c2
Homework: Following a similar procedure re-derive the four acceleration:

ax 1 uy v
a0x = ; a0y = ay + ax ;
3 vux 3 2 vux 2 2 c2 vux 3
v 1 c2 v 1 c2 v 1 c2
1 uz v
a0z = az + ax : (5.55)
2 vux 2 2 c2 vux 3
v 1 c2 v 1 c2
Hint: the four acceleration can be de…ned in terms of the four velocity as
dua dua d
[aa ] = = u = u [ u c; u~
u] (5.56)
d dt dt
which gives
d d u d d d d~u
[aa ] = u [ u c; u~
u] = u ; ( ~u) = u c u ; ~u u +
c
dt dt dt u dt dt u
dt
d d d~u d d
) [aa ] = u c u ; ~u u + u = u c u ; u~a + ~u u (5.57)
dt dt dt dt dt
5.2 The four-momentum of a particle

Suppose a particle (e.g. the Alien in Fig. 5.2) is described by the four-velocity
dxa dx1 dx2 dx3

~u = ua~ea = ~ea = u c; ; ; = u [c; ~u] (5.58)
d d d d
as measured by an observer on S frame. Let the rest mass of the particle, that
5.2. THE FOUR-MOMENTUM OF A PARTICLE 133
I prefer to call it the "proper mass", be m0 . The proper mass is the mass
measured by an observer moving with the same velocity of the particle (the
IIF). The four momentum, P~ , on the S inertial frame is de…ned in terms of the
proper mass (rest mass)
a
dx dx1 dx2 dx3
P~ = pa~ea = m0 ua~ea = m0 = u m0 c; m0 ; m0 ; m0 = u [m0 c; m0 ~u]
d d d d
(5.59)
Note that here ~u represent the three velocity. Suppose we de…ne the rest mass
energy which I also prefer to call it the "Proper energy" as
E0 = m0 c2 ; (5.60)
the four momentum can be expressed as
E0
[pa ] = u ; m0 ~u (5.61)
c
or
E
P~ = [pa ] = ; p~ ; (5.62)
c
where p~ is the three-momentum and
E0 m0 c2
E=q =q (5.63)
u2 2
1 c2 1 uc2
is the relativistic energy of the particle as measured by an observer on the S
frame and
m0 ~u
p~ = u m0 ~u = q : (5.64)
2
1 uc2
is the relativistic momentum of the particle (the three-momentum). In Eq.

(5.59), we note that the magnitude of the four momentum
2
E0
P~ P~ = pa pa = m20 ua ua = m20 c2 = : (5.65)
c
Using the metric tensor one can also write
P~ P~ = pa~ea pb~eb = pa pb ab = pa ab pb
2 32 3
1 0 0 0 p0
6 0 1 0 0 7 6 p1 7
= p0 p1 p2 p3 6 4 0 0
76 7
1 0 54 p2 5
0 0 0 1 p3
2 0 3
p
6 p1 7 0 2 2 2 2
= p0 p1 p2 p3 6 7
4 p2 5 = p p1 p2 p3
p3
2 2
E E
) P~ P~ = p~ p~ = p2 : (5.66)
c c
From these two expressions one easily …nd

2 2 q
E E0 1
p2 = )p= E2 E02 : (5.67)
c c c
This is the magnitude of the three-momentum in special theory of relativity

that you may have seen in Intro physics or modern physics classes.
5.3 Four momentum of a photon and the Doppler

e¤ect
In the case of the particle the time measured by a clock aboard the particles
frame (or by an observer at rest on IIF), the proper time , is used as our a¢ ne
parameter. The reason for this is that
r
dt u2
d = = dt 1 (5.68)
u c2
is never be zero since the particle never travel with a speed c. In the case of a
photon or other particles traveling the a speed of light (if it exists), we can not
use the proper time as our a¢ ne parameter since for, u = c;
r
dt u2
d = = dt 1 = 0: (5.69)
u c2
5.3. FOUR MOMENTUM OF A PHOTON AND THE DOPPLER EFFECT135
If t is the tangent vector de…ning the worldline of a photon to the curve de…ning
the trajectory of a photon in the Minkowski spacetime manifold
ds = td = 0; (5.70)
which con…rms the worldline of a photon is a null-curve. For a null curve we

can not use such a¢ ne parameter since it gives a null vector and that does not
de…ne the geometry of the curve on the manifold. Therefore, we need to …nd a
di¤erent a¢ ne parameter. For a photon traveling along the positive x-axis with
speed, c; in the S frame, we can de…ne an a¢ ne parameter, "; that would give
us a none null tangent vector given by.
xa = ua " (5.71)
where for a photon traveling along the x-direction
x0 = ct; x = x1 = ct; y = x2 = 0; z = x3 = 0
) xa = [ct; ct; 0; 0] = ua " = [1; 1; 0; 0] ": (5.72)
Which means the tangent vector, ua ; that de…nes the curve for the photon in
terms of this parameter is given by
dxa
~u = ua~ea = ~ea ; (5.73)
d"
where
ua = [1; 1; 0; 0] ; (5.74)
which is a none null vector. But the curve de…ned by
2
ds
u:u = = 0; (5.75)
d"
which is still a null curve. This tangent vector, which gives the four velocity of
the photon is di¤erent from that of a massive particle, where we saw
2
ds
u:u = = c2 (5.76)
d
We also note that the equation of motion for a photon can also be expressed in
terms of this parameter given by
du d
= [1; 1; 0; 0] = 0: (5.77)
d" d"
In the case of a massive particle to …nd the four momentum, we multiplied the
four velocity by the rest mass ("proper mass"). We follow a similar approach
here also. We multiply the four velocity by some parameter, ; so that
P~ = ~u ) pa = ua : (5.78)
Like the massive particle, we represent the energy of the photon by ( Ec = u0 =

), and the three momentum by (~ p = ~u) in the S frame, then the four mo-
mentum of a photon can be expressed as
E
P~ = pa~ea = ; p~ : (5.79)
c
According to De Broglie, whether it is massive or none massive particle, all

particles behave like wave as long as it has a momentum.
h
p= (5.80)
The wavelength is often expressed in terms of the magnitude of the wavevector,

~k; which is de…ned as
2 2 2 2
k= ) ~k = ; ; : (5.81)
x y y
Then the three momentum

h~k
p~ = = ~~k: (5.82)
2
For a photon the energy is given by
hc h 2
E= = c = ~kc
2
and if we express the four momentum in terms of the four wavevector
hk a
pa = = ~k a : (5.83)
2
~ can be expressed as
Then four wavevector K
!
hk a h h~k 2
= ; )K ~ = k a~ea = ; ~k (5.84)
2 2
E
~k a = ; p~ = ~k; ~~k ) K
~ = k; ~k : (5.85)
c
Note: Every quantity for the photon (wavelength, frequency, momentum) is

measured on the S frame.
Now let’s apply the four momentum to re-derive the Doppler shift we studied
in chapter one. Let’s consider an observer, O; on an inertial reference frames
S de…ned by the coordinates xa . Suppose this observer received a photon of
wave length, ; at angle, ; as measured from the positive x axis: This photon
is mounted on a spacecraft (S 0 ) moving with a velocity, v; along the positive x
direction. We de…ne a set of none rotating coordinates, x0a ; on the spacecraft.
We want to …nd the wavelength, 0 ; and the angle of emission by the laser
5.3. FOUR MOMENTUM OF A PHOTON AND THE DOPPLER EFFECT137
pointer, 0 ; on the spacecraft as measured by an observer on the S 0 frame (the

Alien). To this end, we note that the four wavevector of the photon in the S
frame is given by
~ = k u~eu = 2 2
K ; k cos ( ) ; k sin ( ) ; 0 = (1; cos ( ) ; sin ( ) ; 0) ; (5.86)
where we used
2
k= : (5.87)
In the S 0 coordinate the four wavevector is given by
~ 0 = k 0u~e0u = 2 0 0 2 0 0
K 0 ; k 0 cos ; k 0 sin ;0 = 0 1; cos ; sin ;0 :
(5.88)
We want to …nd the components, k 0u : These components can easily be de-
termined from the fact that vectors or tensors on a manifold are geometrical
properties and would remain the same. That means the four-wavevector must
be the same in S and S 0 coordinate system. Therefore, we can write
~ ~e0a = k b~eb ~e0a =

k 0u = K 0a
c~eb ~ec = 0a c
c b = 0a b
bk : (5.89)
Using
2 3
0 0
6 0 0 7
0a
=6
4
7 (5.90)
b 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
we have
2 32 3 2 3
0 0 1 cos ( )
2 6
6 0 0 7 6 7 6
7 6 cos ( ) 7 = 2 6 + cos ( ) 7 7
[k 0u ] = 4 5 4 5 4 5
0 0 1 0 sin ( ) sin ( )
0 0 0 1 0 0
(5.91)
so that 2 3 2 3
1 cos ( )
2 6 cos 0 7 2 6 + cos ( ) 7
[k ] = 0 6
0u
4 sin 0
7=
5
6
4
7:
5 (5.92)
sin ( )
0 0
From the …rst equation follows that
1
0 = (1 cos ( )) ) 0 = (1 cos ( )) : (5.93)
From the second and third equations we …nd

2 0 2 0
0 cos = (cos ( ) )) 0 cos = (cos ( ) ) (5.94)
2 0 2 0
0 sin = sin ( ) ) 0 sin = sin ( ) (5.95)
Dividing Eq. (5.95) by Eq. (5.94), we …nd the angle of emission by the laser
pointer
0
sin sin ( ) 0 tan ( )
0 = ) tan = (5.96)
cos (cos ( ) ) [1 (v=c) sec ( )]
Eq. (5.96) is a version of the relativistic aberration formula. For = 0; Eq.

(5.93) reduces to
s
1 vc 1 vc
0 = (1 )= q = (5.97)
1 v
2 1 + vc
c2
in terms of the frequencies ( = c=f ), we …nd

s
f0 1 vc
= : (5.98)
f 1 + vc
On the other hand, for = ;

s s
v v v
1+ c 1+ c f 1 c
0 =q = v ) 0 = v ; (5.99)
1 v2 1 c f 1+ c
c2
which is the same as what we derived in Chapter one.

5.4. RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS FOR A MASSIVE PARTICLE 139
Note: In our derivation of the Doppler e¤ ect even though the emission and
observation of the photon occurs at two di¤ erent events that took place at dif-
ferent time, we took the four momentum to be constant. This is because the
equation of a photon in terms of the a¢ ne parameter, "; we used for the world-
line is a constant
dP~
=0 (5.100)
d"
5.4 Relativistic mechanics for a massive particle

The equation of motion for a massive particle is given by "Newton’s second law"
in terms of the four-momentum
dP~
F~ = = f a~ea = f 0a~e0a ; (5.101)
d
which gives the four-force. We recall the intrinsic derivative of a vector in terms
of it controvariant components on a curve, C; on a manifold is given by
Dv a dv a a c dx
b
= + cb v : (5.102)
Du du du
For the Minkowski spacetime, we have shown that the a¢ ne connection is zero
everywhere in Cartesian coordinates. Therefore, the four-momentum
dP~ dpa
F~ = = ~ea (5.103)
d d
and the components of the four-force can be expressed as
dpb dpb dpa
f a = F~ ~ea = ~eb ~ea = a
b = : (5.104)
d d d
We recall for a particle traveling with a speed, u, the proper time is given by
dt
d =
u
and we may write the four force as

dpa dpa d E 1 dE d~
p
[f a ] = = u = u ; p~ = u ; : (5.105)
d dt dt c c dt dt
We recall the work energy theorem
dE = dW = f~ dD;
~ (5.106)
where dD ~ is the in…nitessimal displacement of the massive particle in the S

frame. In this frame if the particle has moved this displacement in a time
interval, dt, we can write
dE dW ~
dD
= = f~ = f~ ~u; (5.107)
dt dt dt
where ~u is the three-velocity and
d~
p
f~ = ; (5.108)
dt
is the three-force. Thus we can write the four-force as
" #
~ f~ ~u ~
F = u ;f : (5.109)
c
We recall the energy and the three-momentum of the massive particle moving
with a velocity, ~u;
E0 m0 c2 m0 ~u
E=q =q ; p~ = u m0 ~
u =q (5.110)
u2 2 2
1 c2 1 uc2 1 uc2
and the four-momentum

E
P~ = ; p~ : (5.111)
c
Pure force: a force that does not alter the rest mass of a particle. Consider
the inner product of the four-velocity and the four-force of a massive particle
dP~
~u F~ = u : (5.112)
d
If we write the four-momentum in terms of the mass, m; and the four-velocity
as
P~ = m~u = mua~ea ; (5.113)
where m is the relativistic mass, then we have
dP~ d d~u dm
~u F~ = ~u = ~u (m~u) = m~u + ~u ~u : (5.114)
d d d d
and noting that for the four-velocity
d~u
~u ~u = c2 ) 2~u =0
d
one can write
d~u dm dm
~u F~ = m~u + c2 = c2 : (5.115)
d d d
If the force is pure, the mass does not change and we have
dm
= 0 ) m = m0
d
and we …nd
~u F~ = 0: (5.116)
5.4. RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS FOR A MASSIVE PARTICLE 141
Noting that for pure force

dE d
= mc2 = 0 (5.117)
d d
and
d~
p d~u
= m0 (5.118)
dt dt
the four acceleration
[f a ] 1 dpa dpa d E d~
p
[aa ] = = = u = u ; p~ = u 0; (5.119)
m0 m0 d m0 dt m0 dt c m0 dt
Using the three-momentum
p~ = m0 ~u
we …nd
d~u
[aa ] = u 0; u : (5.120)
dt
This means the four acceleration becomes three-acceleration for a pure force.
Generally, for none pure force the acceleration is given by
d u d u
[aa ] = u c ; u~
a + ~u (5.121)
dt dt
Free particles: For a free massive particles, where the force is zero, the
equation of motion is given by
dP~
= 0; (5.122)
d
where the proper time, ; is the a¢ ne parameter along the particles worldline.
Similarly for photons, we have
dP~
=0 (5.123)
d
where is the a¢ ne parameter along the photon worldline.
We learned that on a curve C on a manifold, when the intrinsic derivative
of a vector vanishes
Dva dva b dxc
= ac vb = 0; (5.124)
Du d d
where is the parameter along the curve, we said the vector is parallel trans-
ported along the curve. In the case of a free particle or a photon in the
Minkowski spacetime where the a¢ ne connection, bac = 0, in Cartesian co-
ordinates, the four momentum becomes
Dpa dpa Dpa dpa
= = 0; = =0 (5.125)
D d D d
along the respective worldlines. Thus, in special relativity the worldlines of free
particles and photons are non null and null geodesics in Minkowski spacetime,
respectively.
5.5 Relativistic collision and Compton scatter-

ing
The collision of an electron and a photon known as compton scattering can
be described using relativistic four momentum. Consider a photon with four
momentum, P~ ; collides with an electron that is at rest at the origin on an
inertial S frame that is at rest. Suppose the photon has a frequency, ; and the
electron has a rest mass, m0 ; in the S frame. Before the photon collides with
the electron, the four-momentum for the the photon can be expressed as
h h hk h h
P~ph = paph~ea = ; p~p = ; ; 0; 0 = ; ; 0; 0
c c 2 c c
h
) P~ph = (1; 1; 0; 0) : (5.126)
c
where we used
2 2
k= : = (5.127)
c
For the electron, noting that the 3-velocity of the electron, ~v = 0; the four-
momentum before the collision can be expressed as
P~el = pael~ea = (m0 c; p~el ) = m0 c (1; 0; 0; 0) : (5.128)
After the collision as shown in Fig. 5.1, the electron would transfer some of
its momentum to the electron. As a result the photon frequency changes to
and the electron velocity to, ~v = ~u.Thus for the photon, the four momentum
becomes
h h cos ( ) h sin ( ) h
P~ph = paph~ea = ; ; ;0 = (1; cos ( ) ; sin ( ) ; 0) :
c c c c
(5.129)
for the electron
P~el = pael~ea = u (m0 c; m0 ~u) = u (m0 c; m0 u cos ( ) ; m0 u sin ( ) ; 0) (5.130)
where
1
u =q :
u2
1 c2
Note that we need to …nd u. The total four momentum before and after the
collision must be the same which leads to
h
(m0 c; 0; 0; 0) + (1; 1; 0; 0) = u (m0 c; m0 u cos ( ) ; m0 u sin ( ) ; 0)
c
h
+ (1; cos ( ) ; sin ( ) ; 0)
c
h m0 c2
) 1+ ; 1; 0; 0
c h
h m0 c2 c c
= 1+ u ; cos ( ) + m0 u cos ( ) ; sin ( ) m0 u sin ( ) ; 0 :
c h h u h u
(5.131)
5.5. RELATIVISTIC COLLISION AND COMPTON SCATTERING 143
Figure 5.1: Compton scattering
There follows that
h h h
m0 c + = u m0 c + ) u =1+( ); (5.132)
c c m0 c2
h h h h
= cos ( ) + u m0 u cos ( ) ) u m0 u cos ( ) = cos ( ) (5.133)
c c c c
c c
0 = sin ( ) u m0 u sin ( ) ) m0 u sin ( ) = sin ( ) (5.134)
h h u
Combining the last two equations, we have

" #
2
cos ( ) 2 cos ( )
cos ( ) = sin ( ) ) sin ( ) 1 + =1
sin ( ) sin ( )
1
) sin2 ( ) = 2 (5.135)
cos( )
1+ sin( )
Substituting this into the Eqs. (5.133) and (5.134) and also using Eq. (5.132),
we can show that
1
h
= 1+ (1 cos ( )) (5.136)
m0 c2
Homework: Show Eq. (5.136)

5.6 Accelerating observers and the tetrads

So far what we have considered are observers on an inertial frame (a frame
moving with a constant velocity). When the observer is in a none inertial frame
(accelerating frame), we have for the four-acceleration
d~u ( )
~a ( ) = ;
d
where u ( ) is the four-velocity
dxa ( )
~u ( ) = ~ea ;
d
which is tangent to the world line. Recalling that for the four velocity
~u ( ) ~u ( ) = c2
we note that
d~u ( ) 1 d 1 d 2
~a ( ) ~u ( ) = ~u ( ) = [~u ( ) ~u ( )] = c = 0: (5.137)
d 2d 2d
Eq. (5.137) shows that the four acceleration is orthogonal to the four veloc-
ity. The parameter (the proper time) we used to de…ne the worldline in the
Minkowski space time is measured by an observer that is at rest frame at all
the time. An accelerating observer is not at rest at all time. However, we can
…nd for such an observer what is known as instantaneous reference frame (IRF)
S 0 on which the accelerating observer is at rest momentarily. We recall that the
basis vectors on the worldline de…ned by
dxa
d~s = ~ea ( ) dxa = ~ea ( ) d = ua ( ) ~ea ( ) d
d
d~s
) = ua ( ) ~ea ( ) = ~u; (5.138)
d
where ~u is the four velocity on the S frame. Similarly for another frame (ac-
clerating), S 0 ; we can write
dx0a d~s0
d~s0 = ~e0a ( ) dx0a = ~e0a ( ) d = u0a ( ) ~e0a ( ) d ) = u0a ( ) ~e0a ( ) :
d d
(5.139)
If this reference frame is an IRF, where the observer is momentarily at rest, we
must have
d~s0
u01 ( ) = u02 ( ) = u03 ( ) = 0 ) = u00 ( ) ~e00 ( ) : (5.140)
d
We know that vectors are geometrical enteties, whether is accelerating or none
accelerating it must remain the same independent of the reference frame. There-
fore
d~s d~s0
= ) ~u = ua ( ) ~ea ( ) = u00 ( ) ~e00 ( ) (5.141)
d d
5.6. ACCELERATING OBSERVERS AND THE TETRADS 145
This means the timelike basis vector ~e00 in the IRF frame is parallel to the
four velocity of the accelerating observer ~u ( ) : The remaining spacelike basis
vectors (~e01 ; ~e02 ; ~e03 ) are orthogonal to ~e00 and to one another and will depend on
the relative velocity of S and S 0 and the relative orientation of their spacial
axes. Therefore observation made by an observer at event, p; on the worldline
whether accelerating or none accelerating corresponds to the instantaneous rest
frame (IRF) S 0 at p. An observer carries along four orthogonal unit vectors,
~e0a ( ) ; (or tetrad) which vary along his worldline but always satisfy
~e0a ( ) ~e0b ( ) = ab : (5.142)
Normalizing the four-velocity of the observer with the speed of light
d~s ua ( )
= ~ea ( ) = u
^: (5.143)
d c
the timelike unit vector which is parallel to the four-velocity of the accelerating
observer can be expressed as
~e00 ( ) = u
^ (5.144)
At any event P along the observer’s worldline, the tetrad comprises the basis
vectors of the Cartesian IRF at the event P and de…nes a time direction and
three space directions to which the observer will refer all measurements. Thus,
the results of any measurement made by the observer at the event P are given
by projections of physical quantities (tensors) onto those tetrad vectors.
Example 1 The worldline of an observer in an accelerating frame intersects

with the worldline of some particle at the event P. If P~ is the 4-momentum of
the particle at this event, …nd the energy and 3-momentum of the particle as
measured by the accelerating observer.
Solution: The 4-momentum measured by the accelerating observer is just

the projection of the 4-momentum of the particle along the tetrad ~e0i . That
means
E0
= P~ ~e00 = P~ u
^ (5.145)
c
and the components of the 3-momentum (the spacial part)
p0i = P~ ~e0i (5.146)

Chapter 6
Electromagnetism
In this chapter by applying what we have learned about tensor calculus, we will
develop the entire theory of relativistic electromagnetism from one equation, the
Lorentz force equation
6.1 The Lorentz force

In introductory physics II you were introduced that a particle with charge, q;
~
moving with a velocity, ~v ; in a region where there is both an electric …eld, E;
~
and magnetic …eld, B, experiences an electrical force
f~E = q E
~ (6.1)
and a magnetic force

f~B = q~v ~
B: (6.2)
The total force
f~ = q E
~ + q~v ~
B: (6.3)
is known as the Lorentz force. We recall that the four-force is given by
dpa dpa d E 1 dE d~
p
[f a ] = = v = v ; p~ = v ; : (6.4)
d dt dt c c dt dt
We recall the work energy theorem
dE = dW = f~ dD;
~ (6.5)
~ is the in…nitessimal displacement of the particle. If the particle has

where dD
moved this displacement in a time interval, dt, we can write
dE dW ~
dD
= = f~ = f~ ~v ; (6.6)
dt dt dt
147
148 CHAPTER 6. ELECTROMAGNETISM
where ~u is the three-velocity and

d~
p
f~ = ; (6.7)
dt
is the three-force. Thus we can write the four-force as
" #
~
v ~
f
F~ = v ; f~ (6.8)
c
For Lorentz force
~v f~ = q ~v E
~ + q~v ~v ~ = q ~v E
B ~ (6.9)
one can write 2 3

~
q ~v E
F~ = [F a ] = v
4 ~ + q~v
; qE ~5
B (6.10)
c
Using the four velocity
dx1 dx2 dx3

~u = ub = v c; ; ; = v [c; ~v ]
dt dt dt
we …nd
2 3
~
q ~v E
~u F~ = ua F a = gab ub = v [c; ~v ] v
4 ~ + q~v
; qE ~5
B
c
n h io
= 2
v
~
q ~v E ~ + q~v
q ~v E ~v ~
B =0 (6.11)
This shows that Lorentz force is a pure force. Consequently, we …nd

d d~u dm m d dm
~u F~ = (m~u) = m~u
~u + (~u ~u) = (~u ~u) + (~u ~u)
d d d 2 d d
2
m dc dm dm
) ~u F~ = + c2 = c2 = 0 ) m = m0 : (6.12)
2 d d d
that shows the mass of the particle does not not change.
From tensor calculus we know that you can get a vector (a 1st-rank tensor)
from the inner product of a second-rank tensor and a …rst-rank tensor. For
example, we have seen that the four-wave vector of a photon in Doppler e¤ect
in the S 0 frame is determined from four-wave vector in the S frame using
k 0u = ~ ~e0a = k b~eb ~e0a = 0ac~eb

K ~ec = 0a c
c b= 0ab k b (6.13)
2 00 3 2 32 3
k 0 0 k0
6 k 01 7 6 0 0 7 6 k1 7
) 6 02 7 = 6 76 2 7: (6.14)
4 k 5 4 0 0 1 0 54 k 5
k 03 0 0 0 1 k3
6.2. THE CHARGE AND THE CURRENT DENSITY 149
2 3
0 0
6 0 0 7
0a
=6
4
7 (6.15)
b 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
where [ 0ab ] is a second-rank tensor and k b is a …rst-rank tensor. Generally,

Lorentz force shows the force depends on the velocity and the …eld. So let’s
assume that both the electric and magnetic …elds can be expressed in terms
!
of some second-rank electromagnetic …eld tensor, , and the velocity by a 4-
velocity, ~u, in the four-dimensional manifold (Minkowski spacetime). Then we
can express the Lorentz 4-force as
!
F~ = q ~u : (6.16)
!
If we express the EM …eld tensor, ; in terms of its covariant components
and the 4-velocity in terms of its controvariant components, we may write the
components of the four force as
b
Fa = q ab u : (6.17)
As we have shown earlier, Lorentz force is a pure force and we have
F~ ~u = 0 ) Fa ua = q b a
ab u u =0 (6.18)
or
F~ ~u = 0 ) Fb ub = q a b
ba u u =0 (6.19)
which leads to
b a
q( ab + ba ) u u = 0: (6.20)
There follows that
ab = ba ; (6.21)
which means the EM tensor is antisymmetric tensor. The mixed and con-
trovariant component of the EM tensor can be obtained from the metric tensor
for Minkowski spacetime
b
a = g bc ac ;
ab
= g ad b
d = g ad g bc dc (6.22)
6.2 The charge and the current density

Let’s consider a cube with side length, l0 ; be the proper length of a cube with
a uniform charge density. The proper number density for the charges in this
cube, n0 , can be written as
N
n0 = 3 ; (6.23)
l0
where N is the total number of charges in the cube. Note that the proper
length and the proper number density are measured on a rest frame. Then for
the proper charge density, 0 ; and current density, ~j0 ; on can write
0 = qn0 ; ~j0 = 0:
where we assumed that each particle carries a charge, q: Now let’s consider an
Figure 6.1: A cube with length l0 ; and uniform charge density on an inertial
frame S moving with a velocity u in the positive x-direction. The number of
charges per unit volume in the cube, n0 as measured by an observer on S 0 .
observer on a di¤erent inertial frame, S 0 ; moving with a velocity, ~u; along the
positive x-axis. For an observer on the S frame since the length of the cube
along the x-direction is Lorentz contracted
r
u2 l0
l = l0 1 = (6.24)
c2 u
and the charges are moving with a velocity ~u; we have

N ~ = ~u;
n= u 3 = u n0 ; j (6.25)
l0
so that the charge and current densities becomes
= u 0; j
~= u 0~
u: (6.26)
From Eqs. (??) and (??), we note that the transformation for the charge and
current densities from the S to S 0 from is
( 0 ; j0 ) ! ; ~j (6.27)
This suggests that the 3-current can be replaced by a 4-current. If we de…ne

the zero-component of the 4-current in any inertial reference frame as
j0 = c (6.28)
6.3. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EQUATIONS 151
we can write the 4-current as
J~ = c ; ~j (6.29)
Recalling that tensors are geometrical properties to the manifold it would remain
the same in any reference frame. Therefore, noting that in the S 0 frame
2
J~0 = (c 0 ; 0) ) J~0 J~0 = (c 0 ) (6.30)
we must have in any other reference frame

2
J~ J~ = J~0 J~0 = (c 0 ) : (6.31)
In terms of the 4-velocity, the controvariant components of the 4-current density

can be expressed as
[J a ] = u 0 (c; ~u) = c ; ~j :
Note that is the charge density of a volume of charge moving with a velocity
~u in the S frame.
6.3 The electromagnetic …eld equations

I am sure, you are familiar with Gauss’s law,
O E
~ = (6.32)
0
where E~ is the electric …eld vector. But let’s pretend we do not know Gauss’s
law. But we do know that EM …elds are a result of charges and/or current. We
have seen that both the charge and current densities can be described in terms
of the 4-current density in the Minkowski spacetime manifold. In EM theory
!
we have 2-nd rank tensor, which is the …eld and 1-st rank tensor which is
the 4-current density. We do not have any other 1-st rank tensor that we can
contracted with the EM …eld tensor to get the 1-st rank tensor (the 4-current
density). But we do have the 4-gradient that we can use to contract the …eld
tensor and get the 4-current density. That means
!
r = k J~ (6.33)
where k is some constant that we do not know yet. If the …eld is expressed in
terms of its controvariant components, we may write Eq. (6.33) as
ab
@a = kJ b : (6.34)
The law of conservation of charge (the continuity equation): Let’s …nd @b of Eq.
(6.34)
@b @a ab = k@b J b : (6.35)
We have shown that the EM …eld tensor is antisymmetric, that means we can
write
@b @a ab = @b @a ab = @a @b ab = @b @a ab (6.36)
Homework: Show that
ab ab
@b @a = @b @a (6.37)
for a,b=1,2.
There follows that
@ (c ) @
@b J b = 0 ) + r J~ = 0 ) + r J~ = 0 (6.38)
@ (ct) @t
Taking into account the antisymmetricity of the EM …eld tensor

ab ab
=
we can write 8 9
01 02 03
>
> 0 >
>
< 01 12 13 =
ab 0
= 02 12 23 : (6.39)
>
> 0 >
>
: 03 13 23 ;
0
Note that the diagonal elements are zero because aa = aa
only when
aa
= 0: This means that there are 6 independent components that we need to
determine. But so far we have only four …led equations given by
ab
@a = kJ b
00 10 20 20
) @0 + @1 + @2 + @2 = kJ 0
01 11 21 21
@0 + @1 + @2 + @2 = kJ 1
02 12 22 22
@0 + @1 + @2 + @2 = kJ 2
03 13 23 23
@0 + @1 + @2 + @2 = kJ 3 (6.40)
Therefore we need to …nd two more equations in order to completely determine

the EM …eld tensor. To this end, we express the covariant components of the
EM tensor in terms of some 4-vector potential as
bc = @ b Ac @c Ab : (6.41)
Since the …eld equation involves the derivative of the EM …eld tensor, let’s …nd
@a of this equation
@a bc = @a @b Ac @a @c Ab : (6.42)
Applying the property of the metric tensor gab for Minkowski spacetime in
Cartesian coordinates, we can write
g ab (@a bc ) = g ab (@a @b Ac @a @c Ab ) : (6.43)

6.3. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EQUATIONS 153
We recall that the metric tensor for Minkowski spacetime in Cartesian coordi-
nates is a constant and therefore, we can write
@a g ab bc = g ab (@a @b Ac @a @c Ab ) ) @a a
c = g ab (@a @b Ac @a @c Ab ) (6.44)
Using the controvariant components, one can also write the
ab
@a = kJ b ) @c gab cb
= kgab J b ) @c c
a = kJa ) @a a
c = kJc : (6.45)
Combining Eqs. (6.44) and (6.45), we can write
g ab (@a @b Ac @a @c Ab ) = kJc : (6.46)
Homework: Show that in terms of the …eld tensor, Eq. (6.46) this can be written
as
@c ab + @a bc + @b ca = 0 (6.47)
Solution:
@a bc = @a @b Ac @a @c Ab (6.48)
switching the indices a and b
@b ac = @b @a Ac @b @c Aa
) @b ca = (@b @a Ac @b @c Aa ) = @b @a Ac + @b @c Aa (6.49)
and the indices a and c
@c ba = @c @b Aa @c @a Ab
) @c ab = (@c @b Aa @c @a Ab ) = @c @b Aa + @c @a Ab (6.50)
Note that in Eqs. (6.49) and (6.50) we used the antisymmetric property of the
…eld tensor. Now adding Eqs. (6.48)-(6.50), we …nd
@c ab + @a bc + @b ca = @c @b Aa + @c @a Ab + @a @b Ac @a @c Ab
+ @b @a Ac + @b @c Aa ) @c ab + @a bc + @b ca =0
Therefore the complete EM …eld equations are
@c ab + @a bc + @b ca =0
ab b
@a = kJ (6.51)
where the constant, k = 0; in SI unit. Using the notations for antisymmetric
permutation
1
t[a1 a2 :::aN ] = (Alternating subtraction and addition over
N!
all permutations of the indices a1 a2 :::aN ) (6.52)
one can write
@[c ab] = 0;
so the EM …eld equations
ab b
@[c ab] = 0; @a = 0J
very simple equation!

6.4 Electromagnetism in the Lorentz gauge

You will learn in E&M that you can chose a four vector potential, [Ab ]; such
that the divergence is zero
@ b Ab = 0 (6.53)
This is called Lorentz gauge. In Lorentz gauge
g ab @a @b Ab = @a @b g ab Ab = @a @b Ab = 0 (6.54)
Then the …eld equation
g ab (@a @b Ac @a @c Ab ) = kJc : (6.55)
becomes
g ab @a @b Ac = @a g ab @b Ac = @a @ a Ac = kJc (6.56)
For Minkowski spacetime in Cartesian coordinates, we have
1 @ @ @ @
[@a ] = ; ; ; ;
c @t @x @y @z
2 32 1 @ 3 2 1 @ 3
1 0 0 0 c @t c @t
6 0 1 0 0 7 6 @ 7 6 @ 7
@a = ab
g @b = 46 76 @x 7=6 @x 7
0 0 1 0 5 4 @ 5 4 @ 5
@y @y
0 0 0 1 @ @
@z @z
so that one …nds

0 1 @ 1
c @t
1 @ @ @ @ B @ C 2
@2 @2 @2
= @ a @a = ; ; ; B @x C= 1 @
c @t @x @y @z @ @ A c2 @t2 @x2 @y 2 @z 2
@y
@
@z
which is known as the d’Alembertian operator. Using the d’Alembertian opera-

tor, one can the put the …eld equation in the form
Ac = 0 Jc ) g ac Ac = 0g
ac
Jc ) Aa = 0g
ac
Jc = 0J
a
(6.57)
We now invoke some of the symbols we got introduced in Theoretical Physics

III (E & M II) to denote the electric potential, V; and of course the 3-vector
~ If we express the four-vector potential in terms of these V and A
potential, A: ~
as
V ~ V
[Ab ] = ;A = ; Ax ; Ay ; Az (6.58)
c c
In Lorentz gauge
@ V ~ 1 @V ~ = 0:
@a Aa = 0 ) ;r A =0) +r A (6.59)
c@t c c2 @t
6.4. ELECTROMAGNETISM IN THE LORENTZ GAUGE 155
The four …eld equations, we …nd
1 @ 2 A0 @ 2 A0 @ 2 A0 @ 2 A0 0
= 0J ; (6.60)
c2 @t2 @x2 @y 2 @z 2
1 @ 2 A1 @ 2 A1 @ 2 A1 @ 2 A1 1
= 0J ; (6.61)
c2 @t2 @x2 @y 2 @z 2
1 @ 2 A2 @ 2 A2 @ 2 A2 @ 2 A2 2
= 0J ; (6.62)
c2 @t2 @x2 @y 2 @z 2
1 @ 2 A3 @ 2 A3 @ 2 A3 @ 2 A3 3
= 0J : (6.63)
c2 @t2 @x2 @y 2 @z 2
First let’s consider Eq. (6.60) Using the component J 0 = c ; from the four-
current density,
[J a ] = c ; ~j ; (6.64)
Eq. (6.60) can be put in the form
1 @2V
r2 V = c 0J
0
: (6.65)
c2 @t2
~ (electric …eld vector) de…ned by
Introducing a vector …eld, E;
~
@A @
~ =
E rV ~ =
); r E r2 V ~
r A (6.66)
@t @t
one can express the Lorentz gauge, in terms of this vector …eld as
2
~= 1 @V ~ = 1 @ V
r A ) r E r2 V (6.67)
c2 @t c2 @t2
Upon substituting this into Eq. (6.65), we …nd
~ =
r E ; (Gauss’s law!)
0
Adding Eqs.(6.61)-(6.63) and noting that
~ = A1 ; A2 ; A3 ; ~j = J 1 ; J 2 ; J 3
A
one …nds
1 @2A~
~ = 0~j
r2 A (6.68)
2
c @t 2
~ (the magnetic …eld) de…ned by

Introducing a second vector …eld, B;
~ =r
B ~
A: (6.69)
we have
r ~ =r
B r ~ =r r A
A ~ ~
r2 A: (6.70)
so that using Lorentz gauge

2
~= 1 @V ~ = 1 @ V
r A 2
)r E r2 V (6.71)
c @t c @t2
2
one can write
~ 1 @V ~= 1 @ (rV ) ~
r B = r r2 A r2 A
c2 @t c2 @t
~= ~ 1 @ (rV )
) r2 A r B : (6.72)
c2 @t
Using this relation, Eq. () can be rewritten
" #
2~ ~
~ + 1 @ A + 1 @ (rV ) =
r B ~ ~ 1
0j ) r B + 2
@
rV +
@ A
= ~ (6.73)
0j
c2 @t2 c2 @t c @t @t
and recalling that

~
@A
~ =
E rV
@t
one …nds
~
1 @E ~
@E
r ~
B = ~)r
0J
~ =
B 0 a0 + ~ (Ampere’s law!).
0J (6.74)
2
c @t @t
The other two Maxwell’s equation easily obtained using properties of vector
calculus
!
@ ~
A @
r E ~ = r rV = r rV r A ~
@t @t
~
@B ~
@B
= r (rV ) )r ~ =
E (Faraday’s law!)(6.75)
@t @t
where we used the relation
r (rV ) = 0: (6.76)
For the magnetic …eld,

~ =r
r B r ~
A (6.77)
~
since for any vector A
r r ~ =0
A (6.78)
we can easily see that
~ = 0 (No name law!)

r B (6.79)
6.4. ELECTROMAGNETISM IN THE LORENTZ GAUGE 157
We now proceed to determine the elements of the covariant components of

the …eld tensor
8 9
>
> 0 01 02 03 >
>
< =
01 0 12 13
[ ab ] = : (6.80)
>
> 02 12 0 23 >
>
: ;
03 13 23 0
in terms of the electric and magnetic …elds. To this end, using
~
@A
~ =
E rV (6.81)
@t
one can write
@A1 @A2 @A3
E1 = @1 V + ; E2 = @2 V + ; E3 = @3 V +
@t @t @t
(6.82)
and using
@
c@0 = ; cA0 = V (6.83)
@t
we may write
E1 = c @1 A0 + @0 A1 ; E 2 = c @2 A0 + @0 A2 ; E 3 =
c @3 A0 + @0 A3 :
(6.84)
Using the metric tensor one can determine the covariant components for the
four-vector potential
0 1 0 10 0 1
A0 1 0 0 0 A
B A C B 0 1 0 0 C B 1 C
Aa = gab Ab ) B 1 C
= B C B A2 C
@ A2 A @ 0 0 1 0 A@ A A
A3 0 0 0 1 A3
0 1 0 1
A0 A0
B A1 C B A1 C
)B C B
@ A2 A = @ A2 A :
C (6.85)
3
A3 A
Applying this result in Eq. (6.84), we have
E1 = c (@1 A0 @0 A1 ) ; E 2 = c (@2 A0 @0 A2 ) ; E 3 = c (@3 A0 @ 0 A3 )

i ij
) E = c (@i A0 @ 0 Ai ) = c (@j A0 @0 Aj ) : (6.86)
We recall that the elements of the …eld tensor is related to the components of
the four-vector potential by
ab = @a Ab @ b Aa : (6.87)
and using this equation, one can write

ij
Ei = c j0 : (6.88)
There follows that

E1 E2 E3
10 = ; 20 = ; 30 = : (6.89)
c c c
From the magnetic …eld
~ =r
B ~
A (6.90)
we have
B 1 = @ 2 A3 @3 A2 ; B 2 = @3 A1 @1 A3 ; B 3 = @1 A2 @2 A1 : (6.91)
Noting that for the controvariant components for spacial part of the four-vector
can be determined from the corresponding covariant component by using the
metric tensor
Aa = g ab Ab = Aa (6.92)
one can write
B 1 = @2 A3 @3 A2 ; B 2 = @3 A1 @1 A3 ; B 3 = @1 A2 @2 A1 (6.93)
and comparing this with

ab = @a Ab @b Aa : (6.94)
we note that
23 = B1; 31 = B2; 12 = B3: (6.95)
We have determined three electric …eld components and three magnetic …eld
components. Using the antisymmetric property of the …eld tensor one can write
the EM …eld tensor in terms of its covariant components as
8 9
> E1 E2 E3 >
> 01
> c c c >
>
< E 3 2 =
c 0 B B
[ ab ] = 2 : (6.96)
> Ec
> B3 0 B1 > >
>
: E3 >
;
c B2 B1 0
In an another inertial reference frame S 0 the EM …eld tensor can easily be

determined from the vector potential or the EM …eld tensor in the S frame using
A0a = a b
bA ;
0ab
= a
c
b
d cd : (6.97)
Homework:
6.5 Electromagnetism in arbitrary coordinates

The …eld equations: for Cartesian coordinates we recall the …eld equations are
given by
@c ab + @a bc + @b ca = 0 or g ab (@a @b Ac @a @c Ab ) = 0 Jc
ab b
@a = 0J (6.98)
6.5. ELECTROMAGNETISM IN ARBITRARY COORDINATES 159
Figure 6.2: A cube with length l0 ; and uniform charge density on an inertial
frame S moving with a velocity u in the positive x-direction. The number of
charges per unit volume in the cube, n0 as measured by an observer on S 0 .
In any other coordinates the metric tensor @a should also be replaced by the
covariant derivative ra :
Homework # 1: Show that for the covariant derivatives of the mixed and
covariant component of a 2-nd rank tensor t are given by
rc tab = @c tab + a d
dc tb
d a
bc td (6.99)
d d
rc tab = @c tab ac tdb bc tad (6.100)
Useful relation
@c~ea = a b
bc~
e (6.101)
Homework # 2: Show that the covariant derivative of the metric tensor is zero
rg = 0
Suppose we represent the metric tensor in terms of its controvariant components,

g ab ; then you must show that the covariant derivative expressed as
rc g ab = @c g ab + a db
cd g + b ad
cd g =0 (6.102)
Useful relations, for example, the a¢ ne connection and the metric are related
by
f gf d
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (6.103)
2
Then the …eld equations should be written as
rc ab + ra bc + rb ca = 0 or g ab (ra rb Ac r a r c Ab ) = 0 Jc
ab b
@a = 0J (6.104)
Gauge transformation: still we can chose a new vector potential
Anew
a = Aa + r a = Aa + @a (6.105)
such that, for example, in Lorentz gauge
r a Aa = 0 (6.106)
and we still …nd

A = a0 J (6.107)
but this time the d’Alembertian operator is given by
= g ab ra rb
Charge conservation:
ra J a = 0 (6.108)
The EM …eld tensor and the 4-vector potential : When we transform from an
inertial from S to S 0 for arbitrary coordinates should be determined from
@x0a b @x0a @x0b

A0a = A ; 0ab
= cd
(6.109)
@x0b @xc @xd
6.6 Equation of motion for a charged particle

Consider a particle of rest mass, m0 ; in a region where there is an EM …eld. We
recall that EM force is a pure force and it does not alter the rest mass of the
particle. Thus the equation of motion for the particle can be written as
dpa dua
Fa = = m0 : (6.110)
d d
We recall the force in terms of the …eld tensor
b
Fa = q ab u ) F b = g ba Fa ) F b = qg ba ac u
c
=q b c
cu (6.111)
and the equation of motion becomes

dua a b
m0 =q bu
d
This equation of motion is in Cartesian coordinates. We recall, generally for
any coordinates, we have the intrinsic derivative for the controvariant component
given by
Dua dua dxb
= + acb uc (6.112)
D d d
and the covariant component
Dua dua b dxc
= ac ub : (6.113)
D d d
6.6. EQUATION OF MOTION FOR A CHARGED PARTICLE 161
For an arbitrary coordinates, one can then write the controvariant component
of the force in terms of the corresponding components for the momentum
Dpa Dua dua a c dx

b
Fa = = m0 = m0 + cb u ; (6.114)
D D d d
where still EM force is pure. Then the equation of motion in terms of the
controvariant components can be written as
dua a c dx
b
a b
m0 + cb u =q bu (6.115)
d d
In terms of only the four-velocity
dxb
= ub (6.116)
d
we may write
dua a b c a b
m0 + cb u u =q bu : (6.117)
d
Or in terms of only the coordinates
d2 xa a dx
b
dxc a dx
b
m0 + bc =q b (6.118)
d 2 d d d
which we can put in the form
d2 xa a dx
b
dxc q a dx
b
+ bc = b (6.119)
d 2 d d m0 d
a
In the absence of EM …eld or for none charged particle (i.e. b = 0 or q = 0),
we …nd
d2 xa b
a dx dx
c
+ bc =0 (6.120)
d 2 d d
which means the motion of the particle is Geodesic!
Homework # 3: Problem 6.3
Homework # 3: Problem6.5
Chapter 7
The equivalence principle

and spacetime curvature
7.1 Newtonian gravity and the equivalence prin-

ciple
Before we discuss Newtonian gravity, let’s talk about the force on a test charge,
q, due to an electric …eld. This force is given by
F~ (~r) = q E
~ (~r) : (7.1)
~ is usually determined from the electrostatic potential V (~r)
This electric …eld E
as
~ (~r) = rV (~r)
E (7.2)
~ is due to some volume charge distribution with
Suppose this electric …eld E
charge density, ;, we know from the divergence theorem that
~ (~r) = 1
r E (~r) (7.3)
0
and in terms of the potential, this can be written as

1
r2 V (~r) = (~r) : (7.4)
0
Now let’s consider a test particle of gravitational mass mG at some position,

the gravitational force on this particle is given by
F~ (~r) = mG~g (~r) (7.5)
where ~g (~r) is the gravitational …eld determined from the gravitational potential,
;
~g (~r) = r (~r) : (7.6)
163
164CHAPTER 7. THE EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE AND SPACETIME CURVATURE
Like the electric …eld, the gravitational …eld is due to some mass distribution
in space that can be described a mass density, (~r). Then in view of Eq. (7.3),
the gravitational …eld, ~g ; can be expressed as
r ~g (~r) = (4 G) (~r) ; (7.7)
or in terms of the gravitational potential,
~g (~r) = r ) r2 (~r) = (4 G) (~r) ; (7.8)
where G is the universal gravitational constant. The result in Eq. (7.8) is not
consistent with special theory of relativity since it does not display any time
dependence. This means the gravitational …eld due to some mass distribution
in space is instantaneously felt by another mass in the universe billion light
years away. This requires a travel speed greater than the speed of light which is
in contradiction with special theory of relativity. There is a second fundamental
di¤erence between electromagnetic and gravitational forces. The equation of
motion for a particle with inertial mass, mI ; is given by the 3-force
d2 ~x d2 ~x mG mG
mI = F~ = mG~g ) = ~g = r : (7.9)
dt dt mI mI
However, it is a well-established experimental fact that m
mI is the same for all
G
particles and by an appropriate choice of units we can set m mI = 1: Thus the

G
equation of motion is given by
d2 ~x
= r ; (7.10)
dt2
which is independent of the nature of the particle. This result is di¤erent from
the equation of motion for charged particle where it depends on the mqI which
varies from particle to particle.
The result in Eq. (7.10) shows there is an equivalence between the inertial
mass, mI ; of a particle that determines the particle resistance to an applied
force and gravitational mass, mG ; the quantity that determines the magnitude
of the gravitational force.
The equivalence principle: In a freely falling (non-rotating) laboratory oc-
cupying a small region of spacetime, the laws of physics are those of special
relativity.
7.2 Gravity as spacetime curvature and local

Cartesian coordinates
Einstein proposal: Gravity should no longer be regarded as a force in the con-
ventional sense but rather as a manifestation of the curvature of the spacetime,
this curvature being induced by the presence of matter. This is the central idea
underpinning the theory of general relativity. Then according to Einstein the
7.2. GRAVITY AS SPACETIME CURVATURE AND LOCAL CARTESIAN COORDINATES165
equation of motion of a particle

dP~
F~ = (7.11)
d
in a gravitational …eld becomes
dP~
= 0; (7.12)
d
as the gravitational force is not part of the 4-force. Note that F~ is the 4-force
on the particle excluding the gravitational force (which is zero), P~ is the 4-
momentum of the particle, and the proper time measured along the particle’s
worldline. We recall from the previous chapter, when the 4-force is zero
dP~ d2 xa dxb dxc
F~ = = 2
+ abc = 0; (7.13)
d d d d
which means the motion of a freely falling particle is geodesic in the curved
spacetime!
The equivalence principle restricts the possible geometry of the curved space
time to pseudo-Riemannian. Mathematically this means at any event point, p,
in the spacetime manifold we must be able to de…ne a local coordinate system
x0a = X a such that in the neighborhood of point p, the line element of spacetime
takes the form
ds2 ' gab dX a dX b ; (7.14)
where 2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
[gab ] = =6
4 0
7
ab 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1
At the exact event point p, we have
ds2 = gab dX a dX b : (7.15)
We recall that at the local coordinates the a¢ ne connection vanishes
a
(p) ' 0 (7.16)
and the geodesic
d2 X a a dX
b
dX c
+ bc =0
d 2 d d
becomes
d2 X a
' 0;
d 2
where a = 0; 1; 2; 3 and X 0 is replaced by ct. This means X a de…ne a local
Cartesian inertial frame in which the laws of special relativity hold locally. We
can then construct such a system, spacetime is pseudo-Riemannian manifold
where the metric is given by
ds2 = gab dxa dxb (7.17)
The curvature of spacetime means that it is not possible to …nd coordinates in

which the metric, gab = ab ; at all points on the manifold. From the equiv-
alence principle, however, we can always make a transformation at any event
point, p, in the curved spacetime, to a local inertial coordinate, X a ; which in a
limited region of spacetime about point p, corresponds to a freely falling, non-
rotating, Cartesian frame over a short time interval. This means from what we
introduced in chapter 2, at the event point, p
gab (p) = ab and (@c gab )p = 0:
This means
a
b (p) = 0 (7.18)
and the coordinates basis vectors form an orthonormal set at point, p
eâ (p) e^b (p) = ab (7.19)
There follows that,

X 0a = a b
bX (7.20)
where ab de…nes the Lorentz transformation 2-rank tensor. Thus, local Carte-
sian freely falling (non-rotating) frames at an event point, p are related to one
another by boosts, spacial rotations or combination of the two. For any of these
coordinates
e^0 (p) ! u
^ (p) -Time like, eî (p) for i = 1; 2; 3 -Spacelike
7.3. OBSERVERS IN A CURVED SPACETIME 167
For points near to the event at point p, the metric in a local inertial coordinate
system, X a
1
gab (X) = gab (p) + (@c @d gab )p X c X d + ::: (7.21)
2
or
1
gab (X) = ab (p) + (@c @d gab )p X c X d + ::: (7.22)
2
where we used
gab (p) = ab and (@c gab )p = 0:
7.3 Observers in a curved spacetime

We recall that an observer trace out some general (timelike) worldline xa ( )
through spacetime whether it is on accelerating or non-accelerating reference
frame. His local laboratory, where he measured the physical observables, is the
IRF described by the four orthonormal basis vectors (the tetrads) eâ ( )
eâ ( ) e^b ( ) = ab ; (7.23)
where
u
^( )
e^0 ( ) ! -Time like, eî ( ) for i = 1; 2; 3 -Spacelike, (7.24)
c
which are unrelated to ~ea ( ) that we used to label the curved spacetime. If the
observer has the four acceleration
d~u
~a ( ) = ; (7.25)
d
but not rotating, the tetrad basis vectors are Fermi-Walker-transported along
the observer’s worldline satisfying the equation
d^
ea ( ) 1 d~u
= 2 (~u eâ ) (~a eâ ) ~u : (7.26)
d c d
For a non-rotating freely falling observer, we have

d~u
~a = =0 (7.27)
d
so that
d^
e0 ( ) dêi ( )
= 0; =0 (7.28)
d d
This means the tetrad basis vectors are parallel transported along the observers
worldline. Hence in an arbitrary coordinate system xa with dual basis vectors.
~ea ; the components of the tetrad vectors e^b ( ) along the ~ea ; which we denote
by eâb ( ) is given by
eâb ( ) = e^b ( ) ~ea (7.29)
Figure 7.1: Parallel transport of a vector ~v (Shown by the yellow parallel arrows)
on a manifold.
and its evolution is determined by the equation
eab ( )
D^ ea ( )
d^ a
= b + cd ecb ( )) ud = 0
(^ (7.30)
D d
This equation is useful for determining what a freely falling observer would
measure at a given event in spacetime.
7.4 Weak gravitational …elds and the Newtonian

limit
We have seen that in general relativity the role of gravitational …eld is not to
create a force in a conventional way but rather to curve the Minkowski spacetime
which is ‡at otherwise. It is obvious that our description of gravity in terms
of spacetime curvature reduces to special relativity in the local inertial frames.
However, we have to show that the description of gravity in terms of spacetime
curvature gives Newtonian gravity. In Newtonian gravity the spacetime is ‡at!
The metric tensor in Cartesian coordinates is given by
2 3
1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7
gab = ab = 64 0 0
7: (7.31)
1 0 5
0 0 0 1
This means if we want to see if the description of gravity in terms of spacetime

reduces to Newtonian gravity, we must consider the case where the gravitational
…eld is weak and the curvature is small. Then the metric can be approximated
as
gab ' ab + hab ; (7.32)
7.4. WEAK GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS AND THE NEWTONIAN LIMIT169
where jhab j << 1: Let’s assume that in the coordinates system where Eq. (7.32)
is valid, the metric is stationary. That means
@gab
@0 gab = =0 (7.33)
c@t
In other words this mean that the basis vectors do not change with time. An
example is a Cartesian coordinates on a none-rotating earth. We recall that the
worldline of a freely falling object is geodesic
d2 xa a dx
b
dxc
+ bc = 0: (7.34)
d 2 d d
In a weak gravitational …eld we can say the speed of the particle is much smaller
than the speed of light. This requires each components of the three velocity of
the particle must be smaller compared to the speed of light.
dxi dxi d (ct) dxi dx0

<< c ) dxi << d (ct) ) << ) << ; (7.35)
dt d d d d
where i = 1; 2; 3. Applying Eq. (7.34), we …nd
2 2
d2 xa a dx0 d2 xa dt
+ 00 =0) = c2 a
00 : (7.36)
d 2 d d 2 d
Let’s determine the connection. We recall that the connection is related to the
metric by
a g ad
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (7.37)
2
so that
a g ad
00 = (@0 g0d + @0 gd0 @d g00 ) : (7.38)
2
Since the metric is assumed to be stationary
@0 g0d = @0 gd0 = 0
which leads to
a g ad g a0 g ai g ai
00 = @d g00 = @0 g00 + @i g00 = @i g00 : (7.39)
2 2 2 2
where i = 1; 2; 3. Using Eq. (7.32), we may write

ai
a + hai
00 = @i ( 00 + h00 ) : (7.40)
2
Noting that the metric for Minkowski spacetime is a constant
@i 00 = 0;
we …nd
1 ai a 1
@i h00 + hai @i h00 '
00 = ai
@i h00 : (7.41)
2 2
where we made the approximation
hai @i h00 ' 0
for small curvature, where jhab j << 1: Noting that

ai ai
=
for i = 1; 2; 3; we …nd for the connection
a 1 ai
00 = @i h00 : (7.42)
2
and for a = 0; 1; 2; 3, we have
0 1 0i 1 1 1i 2 1 2i 3 1 3i
00 = @i h00 ; 00 = @i h00 ; 00 = @i h00 ; 00 = @i h00 ; (7.43)
2 2 2 2
which leads to
0 1 1 2 1 3 1
00 = 0; 00 = @1 h00 ; 00 = @2 h00 ; 00 = @3 h00 : (7.44)
2 2 2
From the result in Eq. (7.44) one can easily see that
a 1
00 = rh00 : (7.45)
2
Substituting this result into Eq. (7.36), we …nd
2 2
d2 xa dt d2 ~x c2 dt
= c2 a
00 ) = rh00
d 2 d d 2 2 d
d2 ~x c2 c2
= rh00 = r h00 : (7.46)
dt2 2 2
We recall in Newtonian gravity
d2 ~x mG mG
= r =r (7.47)
dt mI mI
Now comparing Eqs. (7.46) and (7.47), we can easily see that
c2 mG
h00 = (7.48)
2 mI
which gives
2 mG
h00 =
c2 mI
7.4. WEAK GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS AND THE NEWTONIAN LIMIT171
and for mG =mI = 1;

2
h00 = (7.49)
c2
Therefore, the metric in the weak …eld limit can be approximated as
2
g00 = 00 + h00 = 1 + : (7.50)
c2
We recall the solution to Poisson’s equation, from EM
(~r)
r2 V (~r) = ; (7.51)
0
is given by Z
1 1 Q
V (~r) = (r0 ) dr03 = : (7.52)
4 0 4 0 r
Then for
r2 = (4 G) : (7.53)
one can write
GM
(~r) = (7.54)
r
so that
2 GM 1
= : (7.55)
c2 c2 r
Let’s look at the values of this on a surface of the earth, the sun, and a white
dwarf star.
2
Object radius, r = R in m Mass, M in Kg c2
6 24
Earth 6:37 10 5:97 10 10 9
Sun 6:96 108 1:99 1030 10 6
white dwarf star 10 4
where we used for the universal gravitational constant, G
11 m3
G = 6:67408 10 (7.56)
kg:s2
Homework: …nd the value for 2c2 the white dwarf star.
Consider a freely falling massive particles in a weak gravitational …eld pro-
duced by another particle. In each of these particles there are two clocks at
rest,
dxi
=0 (7.57)
dt
Suppose an observer on the freely falling particle frame measures a proper time
interval, d ; between two clicks (two events), is given by
2 2
(ds0 ) = c2 (d ) : (7.58)
This interval must be the same as the interval measured on the reference frame
of the second massive particle that creates the gravitational …eld,

2
(ds) = gab dxa dxb : (7.59)
In the weak …eld approximation, we found that
2 2 2 2
(ds) = g00 dx0 = 1+ c2 (dt) : (7.60)
c2
as dxi ' 0 for i = 1; 2; 3. Using

2 GM 1
= ; (7.61)
c2 c2 R
where R is the radius of the massive object responsible for the gravitational
"disturbance", we have
2 GM 1 2 2
(ds) = 1 c (dt) : (7.62)
c2 R
Eqs. (7.58) and (7.62) must be the same since the interval is independent of the
coordinates system. Therefore
s
GM 1 2 2 2 2 GM 1
1 2
c (dt) = c (d ) ) d = 1 dt
c R c2 R
This shows that d < dt: If we introduce the speed as

GM
v2 = (7.63)
R
we may write r
v2
d = 1 dt (7.64)
c2
7.5. ELECTROMAGNETISM IN CURVED SPACETIME 173
Time dilation in a weak gravitational …eld! For example for a particle accelerated
by earth graviational …eld, using the result we eastimated
2 GM 1 9 GM
= = 10 ) v2 = = 10 9 2
c (7.65)
c2 c2 R R
we …nd
d ' dt: (7.66)
7.5 Electromagnetism in curved spacetime

We recall that EM in uncurved spacetime (Minkowski spacetime) the governing
equations for the …elds are
ab
@c ab + @a bc + @b ca = 0; @a = kJ b : (7.67)
The di¤erence is that since now spacetime is curved and the basis vectors are no
longer constant, instead of partial derivatives, @b ; is replaced by the covariant
derivative, rb such that
rb J a = @b J a + a c
cb J ;
a a a d d a
rc b = @c b + dc b bc d; (7.68)
d d
rc ab = @c ab ac db bc ad ; (7.69)
that changes the …eld equations to
ab
rc ab + ra bc + rb ca = 0; ra = kJ b : (7.70)
The equation of motion for a charged particle will also be the same
Dua q a b
= bu (7.71)
D m0
where Fba is the electromagnetic …eld tensor and
Dua dua a c dx
b
= + cb u : (7.72)
D d d
But the particle is moving under the in‡uence of gravitational and EM …elds.
The e¤ect of the gravitational …eld is just to change the curvature of the space-
time. This can also be put in terms of the coordinates variables, xa ; as
d2 xa a dx
b
dxc q a dx
b
+ bc = b : (7.73)
d 2 d d m0 d
7.6 The curvature tensor

If the geometry of a manifold or a region of manifold is de…ned by Riemannian
geometry, this geometry is determined by the equation for the metric
2
If this geometry is not curved (if it is has a plane geometry), the metric takes
the form
2 2 2
ds2 = 1 dx1 + 2 dx2 + ::: n dxN ; (7.75)
where n = 1: Next we want to generally quantify the curvature of a Rie-
mannian geometry de…ned by
2
It is not always easy to …nd out a coordinate transformation exists that allows
us to write the metric in the form of Eq. (7.75) so that one can …nd out whether
the manifold is curved or not. Therefore, we need to seek a way we can measure
the curvature of a manifold or a region of manifold. The curvature tensor (or
Riemann tensor) is a tensor that we use to measure the curvature of a manifold.
We next derive this tensor. We recall for a vector, ~v ; expressed in terms of its
covariant components
~v = va~ea (7.77)
the covariant derivative is given by
@b~v = @b (va~ea ) = @b (va ) ~ea +va @b (~ea ) = (@b va e

â
ab ve ) e = (rb va ) eâ : (7.78)
where
e
rb va = @b va ab ve : (7.79)
Then taking the covariant derivative one more time for this vector, one can also
write
e e
rc r b va = rc (@b va ab ve ) = rc (@b va ) rc ( ab ve ) (7.80)
e e
= rc (@b va ) ab rc ve rc ( ab ) ve : (7.81)
Noting that
rb va = tba
is a second rank tensor and for a second rank tensor the covariant derivative is
given by
d d
rc tba = @c tba bc tda ac tbd
one can write

d d
rc (rb va ) = @c (rb va ) bc rd va ac rb vd : (7.82)
In applying the relation in Eq. (7.79), we have

e e e
r b va = @ b va ab ve ; rd va = @d va ad ve ; rb vd = @b vd db ve (7.83)
7.6. THE CURVATURE TENSOR 175
so that using these expressions one …nds

e d e d e
rc (rb va ) = @c (@b va ab ve ) bc (@d va ad ve ) ac (@b vd db ve )
e d e d e
= @c @b va @c ( ab ve ) bc (@ v
d a ad ve ) ac (@ v
b d db ve ) (7.84)
Which can be evaluated to give

e e d e d e
rc rb va = @c @b va (@c ab ) ve ab @c ve bc (@d va ad ve ) ac (@b vd db ve )
(7.85)
Homework: Derive Eq. (7.85)
Swapping the indices b and c, one can also express
e e d e d e
rb rc va = @b @c va (@b ac ) ve ac @b ve cb (@d va ad ve ) ab (@c vd dc ve )
(7.86)
Subtracting Eq. (7.86) from (7.85), we …nd
e e e e
rc rb va rb rc va = (@b ac @c ab ) ve + ac @b ve ab @c ve
d e d e
+ ab (@c vd dc ve ) ac (@b vd db ve )
e e e e
= (@b ac @c ab ) ve + ac @b ve ab @c ve
+ dab @c vd d e
ab dc ve
d
ac @b vd +
d e
ac db ve
= (@b eac e d e
@c ab ) ve + ac db ve d e
ab dc ve
+ eac @b ve e e
ab @c ve + ab @c ve
e
ac @b ve (7.87)
Swapping the indices b and c, one can write

e e e e
ac @b ve = ab @c ve ; ab @c ve = ac @b ve (7.88)
so that we …nd
e e d e d e d
rc rb va rb rc va = @b ac @c ab + ac db ab dc ve = Rabc vd ;
where
d d d e d e d
Rabc = @b ac @c ab + ac eb ab ec ;
is the curvature tensor. In a ‡at region of a manifold we can chose coordinates

xa such that
2 2 2
ds2 = 1 dx1 + 2 dx2 + ::: n dxN ; (7.89)
where n = 1: We recall the relation between the a¢ ne connection and the
metric,
gf d f
(@b gcd + @c gdb
bc = @d gbc ) (7.90)
2
Noting that for the ‡at region of the manifold
f
gcd = cd c ) bc =0 (7.91)
the connections in the curvature tensor vanishes, which leads to

d
Rabc = 0: (7.92)
Conversely, if Eq. (7.92) is true, then we can …nd coordinates xa such that the
interval can be expressed as Eq. (7.89).
The symmetry: In order to …nd out the symmetry of the curvature tensor,
we lower the index. Using the metric tensor
e e e f e f e
Rabcd = gae Rbcd = gae @c bd @d bc + bd f c bc f d : (7.93)
Homework: Applying
a g ad
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (7.94)
2
show that
1
Rabcd = (@d @a gbc @d @b gac + @c @b gad @c @a gbd )
2
g ef ( eac f bd ead f bc ) : (7.95)
We recall that tensor equation is invariant under coordinate transformation.

Then if we determine the symmetries of the curvature tensor in one coordinate
system then it must be the same in another. So let’s consider a Geodesic coor-
dinate at some arbitrary point on the manifold so that the connection be zero,
e
bd = 0; but not necessarily of its derivative. Then the curvature tensor in Eq.
(7.95) becomes
1
Rabcd = (@d @a gbc @d @b gac + @c @b gad @c @a gbd ) : (7.96)
2
There follows that
1
Rbacd = (@d @b gac @d @a gbc + @c @a gbd @c @b gad )
2
1
= (@d @a gbc @d @b gac + @c @b gad @c @a gbd )
2
) Rbacd = Rabcd (7.97)
Similarly, one can show that
Rabcd = Rabdc (7.98)
which leads to
Rabcd = Rcdab (7.99)
Homework: Show Eqs. (7.98) and (7.99)
The cyclic identity: the curvature tensor satis…es the cyclic identity for the
last three indices
Rabcd + Radbc + Racdb = 0; (7.100)
or using the symmetries in Eqs. (7.98) and (7.99) along with the notation we
introduced to, we can write
Ra[bcd] = 0; (7.101)
7.6. THE CURVATURE TENSOR 177
Homework: Show that
Ra[bcd] = Rabcd + Radbc + Racdb = 0; (7.102)
Taking into account the symmetry and cyclic properties, for N dimensional
manifold, the components of the curvature tensor are N 2 (N 2 1)=12 instead of
N 4 . For example for
N = 2 ! 1 component
N = 3 ! 6 components
N = 4 ! 20 components (7.103)
The di¤ erential identity: the curvature tensor also satis…es the di¤erential
identity at a point, p, where the metric is a constant and diagonal and the a¢ ne
connections vanish
gae = ae a ; fbc = 0 (7.104)
we have
e e e f e f e
Rabcd = gae Rbcd = gae @c bd @d bc + bd f c bc f d
e e f e f e
= @c (gae bd ) @d (gae bc ) + bd gae f c bc gae f d
) Rabcd = @c abd @d abc (7.105)
so that
(re Rabcd )p = (@e Rabcd )p = (@e @c abd @e @d abc )p (7.106)
re Rabcd + rc Rabde + rd Rabec = 0 (7.107)
This is known as the Bianchi identity and using the antisymmetry relation
r[e Rab]cd = 0 (7.108)
Raising the …rst index in the curvature tensor Rabcd

e
Rbcd = g ea Rabcd (7.109)
and then contracting on the …rst two indices, we have

b
Rcd = Rbcd = g ba Rabcd : (7.110)
Similarly for Rbacd ; we have

e
Racd = g eb Rbacd ) Rcd = Racd
a
= g ab Rbacd (7.111)
so that applying the antisymmetric properties of the curvature tensor
Rbacd = Rabcd
we have
a
Rcd = Racd = g ab Rabcd : (7.112)
Combining Eqs. (7.110) and (7.112), we can easily see that

a
Rcd = Racd =0 (7.113)
This shows that raising the …rst index and then contracting the …rst and second
indices of the curvature tensor gives a zero tensor. However, rasing the …rst
index and then contracting the …rst and the last indices gives a none zero tensor
which is known as the Ricci tensor.
e
Rbcd = g ea Rabcd ) Rbc = Rbcd
d
= g da Rabcd (7.114)
or
e
Rbcd = g ea Rabcd ) Rab = Rabd
d
= g de Reabd (7.115)
The Ricci tensor is symmetric. We can prove this using the cyclic identity in
Eq. (7.100). Raising the index a
g f a Rabcd + g f a Racdb + g f a Radbc = 0; (7.116)
and contracting with the index d
g da Rabcd + g da Racdb + g da Radbc = 0; (7.117)
which we may write as

d d d
Rbcd + Rcdb + Rdbc =0 (7.118)
Applying the relation in Eq. (7.113), we have
d
Rbc = Rdbc =0 (7.119)
so that
d d
Rbcd + Rcdb = 0: (7.120)
Noting that
g f a Rabcd = g f a Rabdc ) g da Rabcd = g da Rabdc ) Rbcd

d
= d
Rbdc
we can write Eq. (7.120) as

d d
Rbdc = Rcdb ) Rbc = Rcb (7.121)
which shows that the Ricci tensor is symmetric. By raising the …rst indices on
both side of Eq. (7.121), we can write
Rca = Rac (7.122)
A further contraction of the curvature tensor leads to the curvature scalar. From
Eq.(7.115), we have
d
Rab = Rabd = g de Reabd (7.123)
upon contracting this, the curvature scalar is given by
R = g ab Rab = Raa (7.124)

7.7. THE EINSTEIN TENSOR 179
7.7 The Einstein Tensor

We recall the Bianchi identity
re Rabcd + rc Rabde + rd Rabec = 0 (7.125)
raising a and contracting it with d (d = a)leads to

a a a a
re Rbca + rc Rbae + ra Rbec = re Rbc + rc Rbe + ra Rbec = 0: (7.126)
From the antisymmetric property of the curvature tensor
Rabcd = Rabdc (7.127)
we may write
a a a a
Rabde = Rabed ) Rbde = Rbed ) Rbae = Rbea = Rbe (7.128)

a
re Rbc rc Rbe + ra Rbec = 0; (7.129)
Now raising b we have
re Rcb rc Reb + ra Rec

ab
=0 (7.130)
so that contracting with e (e = b), we …nd
rb Rcb rc Rbb + ra Rbc

ab
= 0: (7.131)
In terms of the curvature scalar
R = Rbb
we can write
rb Rcb ab
rc R + ra Rbc = 0: (7.132)
Once more invoking the antisymmetric properties of the curvature tensor
Rbacd = Rabcd ; Rabcd = Rabdc ; Rabcd = Rcdab (7.133)
we have
ba ab ab ab ab cd
Rcd = Rcd ; Rcd = Rdc ; Rcd = Rab (7.134)
ba ab
) ra Rcd = ra Rcd ; (7.135)
contracting b and d
ba ab ab ab
ra Rcb = ra Rcb ) ra Rcb = ra Rcb = ra Rca
where we contracted d. The indices are dummy indices and we can write
ab
ra Rbc = ra Rca = rb Rcb (7.136)
Substituting this into Eq. (7.132) gives
rb Rcb rc R + rb Rcb = 0 ) 2rb Rcb rc R = 0 (7.137)
Noting that
b
rc = c rb (7.138)
we may write Eq. (7.137) as
b b
2rb Rcb c rb R = rb 2Rcb cR =0 (7.139)
Raising the index c by multiplying with the metric tensor, we have

h i
rb 2g cd Rdb g cd bd R = 0 (7.140)
which leads to
rb Gab = 0 (7.141)
where
1 cb
Gab = Rbc g R (7.142)
2
is known as the Einstein tensor. We have proved earlier that the Ricci tensor
is symmetric and we already know the metric tensor is symmetric. Therefore,
the Einstein tensor is a symmetric tensor.
7.8 Curvature and parallel transport

We recall that suppose we have a curve C parametrized with the variable, u; on
a given manifold, a vector …eld
~v = va (u) eâ (u) (7.143)
parallel transported along this curve is when the intrinsic derivative of this
vector is zero
Dva dva b dxc
= ac vb = 0: (7.144)
Du du du
or in terms of its controvariant components
Dv a dv a a c dx
b
= + cb v =0 (7.145)
Du du du
Thus when a vector is parallel transported, we must have
dva b dxc
= ac v b (7.146)
du du
7.8. CURVATURE AND PARALLEL TRANSPORT 181
or
dv a a b dx
c
= bc v (7.147)
du du
Let’s consider a parallel transported vector along a closed curve C on a manifold.
Before we derive the condition for a parallel transport of a vector …eld on a
curved manifold, it is helpful if we refresh our memory about Stoke’s theorem
from Theoretical Physics I.
Stokes’ Theorem: Stokes theorem states that
I Z
~ d~r =
D r D ~ n^ dA:
Curve Surf ace A
bounding A
where the surface is any surface that has C, as its boundary. It could be an
a cyclic shown in the …gure or a hemisphere If the vector is constant (both its
magnitude and direction), we have
r ~ =0
D
which leads to
I I
~ d~r = 0 ) D
D ~ d~r = 0
Curve Curve
bounding A bounding A
Now let’s say that this curve C is on some manifold instead of the Euclidean
space in which we know the Stoke’s theorem is valid. Also let’s consider a vector
…eld
~v = va (u) eâ (u) (7.148)
that is being parallel transported in this closed curve. When this vector is being
parallel transported in curve C, it is transported by dividing the area bounded
by the curve C into small areas each bounded by a small curve cN : Suppose
we assume there is a change v a in the components of the vector during the
transportation of the vector along this curve. This change can be expressed as
X
va = ( v a )N ;
N
where ( v a )N is the change resulting from the transportation of the vector

along the tiny curve cN :
If the vector is parallel transported along the tiny curve cN ; we must have
dv a a b dx
c
= bc v (7.149)
du du
at all point on the curve. Suppose the transportation took from some point p
on cN to another point which we may describe by the coordinate xc (u) ; then
we may write
Z u a Z u c
dv a b dx
du = bc v du (7.150)
up du up du
which gives
Z u c
a a a b dx
v (u) = v (up ) bc v du: (7.151)
up du
Noting that we can make cN as small as we want, a series expansion about point
p allows us to make the approximations
v b (u) ' v b (up ) b

ef (up ) v e (up ) xf (u) xf (up ) : (7.152)
a a a
bc (u) ' bc (up ) + (@d bc )up xd (u) xd (up ) (7.153)
Homework: derive Eq. (7.152)

Substituting Eqs. (7.152) and (7.153) into Eq. (7.151), we have
Z u h i
v a (u) = v a (up ) a
bc (up ) + (@d a
bc )up xd (u) xd (up ) (7.154)
up
dxc
v b (up ) b
ef (up ) v e (up ) xf (u) xf (up ) du:(7.155)
du
so that keeping terms up to the …rst order in (xc (u) xc (up )), we can write
v a (u) = v a (up )
Z u Z u
a
bc (up ) v b (up ) dxc + a
bc (up ) b
ef (up ) v e (up ) xf (u) xf (up ) dxc
up up
Z u
a
(@d bc )up xd (u) xd (up ) v b (up ) dxc (7.156)
up
v a (u) = v a (up )
Z u Z u
a
bc (up ) v b (up ) dxc + a
bc (up ) b
ef (up ) v e (up ) xf (u) xf (up ) dxc
p p
Z u
(@d abc )up b
v (up ) x (u)d
x (up ) dxc
d
(7.157)
p
Now if we close the tiny loop, we have

Z u I
dxc = dxc = 0:
p
cn
I I I I
f c f c d c d
x (up ) dx = x (up ) dx = 0; x (up ) dx = x (up ) dxc = 0
cn cn cn cn
so that for a closed curve Eq. (7.157) reduces to

I
va = v a (u) v a (up ) = a
bc (up ) b
ef (up ) v e (up ) xf dxc (7.158)
cn
I
a
(@d bc )up v b (up ) xd dxc :
cn
Changing the dummy indices f to d; and swapping the places of e and b, we

can write
I I
a b e f c a e b
bc (up ) ef (up ) v (up ) x dx = ec (up ) bd (up ) v (up ) xd dxc
cn cn
so that Eq. (7.158) can be expressed as

h i I
a
v = (@d abc )up a
ec (up ) e
bd
b
(up ) v (up ) xd dxc : (7.159)
cn
Swapping the indices d and c, we can also write Eq. (7.159) as

h i I
va = (@c a
bd )up
a
ed (up ) e
bc (up ) v b (up ) xc dxd : (7.160)
cn
Noting that for the closed loop

I I I I I
c d c d d c d c
d x x = x dx + x dx = 0 ) x dx = xc dxd (7.161)
cn cn cn cn cn
we may rewrite Eq. (7.159)

h i I
a a a e
v = (@d bc )up ec (up ) bd (up ) v (up ) xc dxd :
b
(7.162)
cn
Upon adding Eqs. (7.160) and (7.162),

h i I
2 v a = (@d a
bc )up
a
ec (up ) e
bd (up ) (@c a
bd )up + a
ed (up ) e
bc (up ) v b (up ) xc dxd :
cn
(7.163)
and simpli…cation of this leads to
I
a 1h a
i
v = (@c bd )up (@d abc )up + a
ec (up ) e
bd (up ) a
ed (up ) e
bc
b
(up ) v (up ) xc dxd :
2
cn
(7.164)
Applying the curvature tensor
d d d e d e d
Rabc = @b ac @c ab + ac eb ab ec ; (7.165)
we …nd I
a 1 a
v = (R ) v b (up ) xc dxd : (7.166)
2 bcd p
cn
where
a a a a e a e
(Rbcd )p = (@c bd )up (@d bc )up + ec (up ) bd (up ) ed (up ) bc (up ) :
For a parallel transport of a vector in the tiny loop cN the components must
remain unchanged. This requires that for a vector …eld to be parallel transported
on cN we must have
I
a 1 a
v = (R ) v b (up ) xc dxd = 0 (7.167)
2 bcd p
cn
This is possible if and only if the curvature tensor vanishes at point p

a
(Rbcd )p = 0: (7.168)
Then for a parallel transport of the vector …eld on a closed curve C on the
manifold, the components must not change over the entire area bounded by the
curve C so that
0 1
X X I
va = ( v a )N = @ 1 (Rbcd
a
)p v b (up ) xc dxd A = 0:
2
N N cn N
This can be satis…ed if an only if the curvature tensor vanishes

a
(Rbcd )p = 0: (7.169)
over the area A bounded by the curve C.

Homework: Show that a vector can be parallel transported on a cylindrical
surface but not on a spherical surface. (Refer to Appendix 7A in the text book)
Chapter 8
The gravitational …eld

equations
In our discussion of electromagnetism we saw that the …elds are created by

some changes in some charge distribution (i.e. the four-current density) happens
somewhere close by or light-years away from the place of the …elds are detected.
We determined the …eld equations that governs how the …elds are related to
this four-current density. In this chapter we will see how the gravitational
…elds are related to matter (mass). When we determined the …eld equations
in electromagnetism we …rst found the four-current (1-rank tensor) the zero
component of which is just the charge density. So we follow a similar approach
here.
8.1 The energy-momentum tensor

Unlike electromagnetism where the current responsible for the …elds is repre-
sented by a 1-st rank tensor (a vector), the mass responsible for the creation of
the gravitational …eld is a 2-nd rank tensor known as the energy-momentum ten-
sor (or the stress-energy tensor). Next we will see how this tensor is obtained.
To this end, let’s consider time-dependent distribution of non-interacting par-
ticles, each with rest mass m0 in a cube of length l0 commonly known as dust.
At each event p in space-time we can characterize the mass distribution of this
particle using the density and the 3-velocity ~u as measured in some inertial
reference frame. This means basically we have a ‡uid of density ‡owing with
a velocity ~u: Suppose the inertial reference frame is the instantaneous reference
frame (IRF) S at p in which ~u = 0: In the IRF the number density of the ‡uid is
n0 and the mass of each particle that make up the ‡uid is m0 : Then the proper
mass density 0 can be expressed as
m0 N
0 = m0 n0 = ; (8.1)
l03
187
188 CHAPTER 8. THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EQUATIONS
where N is the number of particles in the cube of length l0 : In some other frame
S 0 , moving with speed v relative to S we recall that
r
v2 l0
l = l0 1 2
= ; (8.2)
c v
m0
m = q = v m0 ; (8.3)
v2
1 c2
so that the mass density, ; in S 0 would be
2 m0 N 2
= mn = v = v 0: (8.4)
l03
So what would this suggest about how we represent the mass responsible for
the gravitational …eld? Well to answer this let’s go back to our discussion about
electromagnetism. In electromagnetism, we saw that the charge and current
densities transformed as
0
= u 0; J
~0 = u 0~
v: (8.5)
which is …rst-order in u : This has lead us to representing the charge and current
densities with 4-current density (a vector-1st rank tensor)
[J a ] = u 0 (c; ~v ) = a
u 0u : (8.6)
in terms of the 4-velocity ua . In the case of mass density as we can see from Eq.
(8.4), the mass density is second order in u : This suggests that we can make
a similar argument and express the mass density as tensor product of the four
velocity ua (x) so that we can at least sure that the 00 component will lead to
the right mass density transformation. Therefore, one can then de…ne a 2-nd
rank tensor (the energy-momentum tensor ) T (x) for the mass responsible for
the existence of the gravitational …eld as
T (x) = ~u (x) ~u (x) (8.7)
where we denoted is the proper density of the ‡uid 0 by and ~u (x) is its
4-velocity.Then the covariant components of the energy-momentum tensor are
given by
T ab = ua ub : (8.8)
Using
ua = u (c; ~u) = u c; ui (8.9)
it is not hard to make the interpretation given in the table below.

8.2. A PERFECT FLUID 189
Components Interpretation
T 00 = u0 u0 = 2u c2 0 Energy density
ui Energy 1
T 0i = u0 ui = 2 i
u cu 0 = 2 2
uc 0 c = area:time eî c the Energy ‡ux in
the i-direction 1c
M omentumi
T i0 = u0 ui = 2 i
u cu 0 = 2 i
u 0u c = vol me c the momentum
density in the
i-direction c
M omentumi uj M omentumi
T ij = ui uj = 2 i j
u 0u u = vol me c c = area:time e^j the rate of ‡ow
of the i-component
of momentumin per
unit area the jth di-
rection
8.2 A perfect ‡uid

For a real ‡uid the controvariant components of the energy-momentum tensor
represents the quantities described in the table below:
Components Representation
T 00 potential energy from forces be-
tween particles and KE from the
random thermal motion
T 0i no bulk motion, energy might
transform by heat conduction
T i0 if heat is being conducted then
the energy will carry momentum
ij
T the random thermal motions of
the particles will give rise to
momentum ‡ow so that T ii is
the isotropic pressure in the i-
direction and T ij (with i6= j) are
the viscous stresses in the ‡uid.
For a perfect ‡uid we have
Components Representation
T 00 no forces between particles
0i
T no heat conduction
T i0 no heat conduction then no momentum carried by the energy
T ij no viscous stresses in the ‡uid.
so that the none zero elements of the energy-momentum tensor would be
2 2 3
c 0 0 0
6 0 u1 u1 0 0 7
T =6 4 0 2 2
7
5 (8.10)
0 u u 0
3 3
0 0 0 u u
We have stated that the random thermal motions of the particles will give rise
to momentum ‡ow and T ii is the isotropic pressure in the i-direction. This

means
Change in momentum
T ii = ui ui = = Pressure (8.11)
change in time area
and we can express Eq. (8.10) as
2 3
c2 0 0 0
6 0 p 0 0 7
T ab =6
4 0
7 (8.12)
0 p 0 5
0 0 0 p
HW Homework: show that

p
T ab = + ua ub p ab
(8.13)
c2
Sol:
2 3 2 32 3
c2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 p 0 0 0
6 0 p 0 0 7 6 0 1 0 0 7 6 0 p 0 0 7
T ab =6
4 0
7+6 76 7
0 p 0 5 4 0 0 1 0 54 0 0 p 0 5
0 0 0 p 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 p
(8.14)
2 32 3
1 0 0 0 p 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7 6 0 p 0 0 7
6 76 7 (8.15)
4 0 0 1 0 54 0 0 p 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 p
2 3 2 3
c2 0 0 0 p 0 0 0
6 0 p 0 0 7 6 0 p 0 0 7
) T ab =6
4 0
7+6 7 (8.16)
0 p 0 5 4 0 0 p 0 5
0 0 0 p 0 0 0 p
2 32 3
1 0 0 0 p 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 7 6 0 p 0 0 7
6 76 7 (8.17)
4 0 0 1 0 54 0 0 p 0 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 p
2 p
3 2 3
c2 c:c 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 7 6 0 1 0 0 7
) T ab = 6
4
7 p6 7
0 0 0 0 5 4 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
There follows that
p
T ab = + ua ub pg ab : (8.18)
c2
8.3. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 191
Eq. (8.13) is obtained for a local Cartesian coordinates. The expression

of the energy-momentum tensor for a perfect ‡uid in an arbitrary coordinate
system is given by simply replacing ab by g ab :
p
T ab = + ua ub pg ab (8.19)
c2
Note that the energy-momentum tensor for a perfect ‡uid is symmetric. In the
limit p ! 0; the tensor becomes
T = uab (8.20)
and a perfect ‡uid becomes dust.
8.3 Conservation of energy and momentum

By analogy with conservation of the 4-current
@a J a = 0 (8.21)
we can write conservation of energy and momentum
@a T ab = 0 (8.22)
Instead of deriving this relation, we will prove that this is the right equation for
conservation of energy and momentum by reproducing the conservation laws for
a Newtonian perfect ‡uid. Substituting Eq. (8.13) into (8.22), we have
h p i
@a T ab = @a + 2 ua ub p ab = 0 (8.23)
c
Generally, the density, the pressure, and the velocity are all depend on the
coordinate xa ; thus
p p p
@a + ua ub + + (@a ua ) ub + + ua @a ub @a (p) ab
=0
c2 c2 c2
(8.24)
We recall that for the 4-velocity
ub ub = c2 (8.25)
so that
@a ub ub + ub (@a ub ) = @a ub ub = @a c2 = 0
) 2 @a ub ub = 0 ) @a ub ub = 0: (8.26)
Contracting Eq. (8.24) by ub ; we have

h p i p p
@a + 2 ua ub ub + + 2 (@a ua ) ub ub + + ua @a ub ub
c c c2
@a (p) ab ub = 0 (8.27)
so that for the …rst and second terms applying Eq. (8.25) and for the third term
using Eq. (8.26), one …nds
h p i h p i
@a + 2 ua ub ub = @a + 2 ua c2
c c
p a b p
+ 2 (@a u ) u ub = + 2 (@a ua ) c2
c c
p a b
+ 2 u @a u ub = 0 (8.28)
c
which leads to
h p i a 2 p
@a + u c + + 2 (@a ua ) c2 @a (p) ab
ub = 0
c2 c
) @a c2 + p ua + c2 + p @a (ua ) @a (p) ab
ub = 0
2 a ab
) @a c +p u @a (p) ub = 0 (8.29)
Noting that
ab
ub = ua (8.30)
we …nd
@a c2 + p ua @a (p) ua = @a c2 + p ua @a (pua ) + p@a (ua ) = 0

) @a c2 ua + pua pua + p@a (ua ) = 0
p
) @a ( ua ) + 2 @a ua = 0 (8.31)
c
Eq. (??) is the relativistic equation of continuity. Now we rearrange Eq. (8.24)
as
p p p
@a + 2 ua ub + + 2 (@a ua ) ub + + 2 ua @a ub @a (p) ab
= 0
n c c o c
p p p
@a + 2 ua + + 2 (@a ua ) ub + + 2 ua @a ub @a (p) ab
= 0
c c c
a a p a 1 a b p
(@a ) u + (@a u ) + 2 @a u + 2 (@a p) u u + + 2 ua @a ub @a (p) ab
= 0
c c c
p 1 p
@a ( ua ) + 2 @a ua + 2 (@a p) ua ub + + 2 ua @a ub @a (p) ab
(8.32)
= 0
c c c
so that upon using the relativistic equation of continuity in Eq. (??), we …nd
1 p
(@a p) ua ub + + ua @a ub @a (p) ab
=0 (8.33)
c2 c2
which we may write as
p ua ub
+ @a ub ua = ab
@a p: (8.34)
c2 c2
Eq. (8.34) is the relativistic equation of motion for a perfect ‡uid.

8.4. CLASSICAL LIMIT 193
8.4 Classical limit

In the classical (Newtonian) limit the ‡uid is a slowly moving (i.e. u=c << 1 )
u ' 1). In this limit the four velocity
ua = u (c; ~u) = u c; ui (8.35)
would be approximated to be
ua ' (c; ~u) : (8.36)
Moreover, in the classical limit

i
pi Fi m0 du
dt m0 d ui
= = = '0
c2 A:c2 A:c2 A:c dt c
)p'0 (8.37)
Thus the relativistic continuity equation Eq. (??) would reduce to
@a ( ua ) = 0 ) @0 u0 + @i ui = 0
@ @ ( ux ) @ ( uy ) @ ( uz )
) ( c) + + + =0 (8.38)
c@t @x @y @z
which gives
@
+ r ( ~u) = 0 (8.39)
@t
which is the classical equation of continuity for a ‡uid. In low pressure limit the
relativistic equation of motion in Eq. (8.34) reduces to
ua ub
@a ub ua = ab
@a p: (8.40)
c2
Noting that for a = 0 this equation gives
u0 ub ui
@0 ub u0 = 0b
@0 p ) @i ui u0 = 0i
@0 p: (8.41)
c2 c
where we used
@c u0 c
@0 u0 = = 0; 00
=1 = 0:
c@t c c
Noting that in the classical limit, ui =c << 1;
0i 0i ui ui
= 1) = 1+ ' 1;
c c
Eq. (8.41) reduces to

@p
c @i ui = @0 p = : (8.42)
c@t
In the classical limit we have a slowly moving ‡uid where

@p m0 d u
= '0 (8.43)
c@t A: dt c
and also
@u1 @u2 @u3
1
@i ui =
+ 2
+ '0 (8.44)
@x @x @x3
Therefoere both sides of the equation
@p
c @i ui =
' 0 for i = 1; 2; 3: (8.45)
c@t
are zero. Therefore, in the classicla limit
@0 ub u0 = 0
Furthermore, noting that in the classical limit one can write
ui ub ib
@i ub ui = ib
@i p ' ib
@i p = @i p; (8.46)
c2
where we used the classical limit
ui ub
' 0; (8.47)
c2
and also
ib ib
= for i = 1; 2; 3: (8.48)
which we may rewrite as
ji
@a ui ua = @j p: (8.49)
There follows that
ji
@0 ui u0 + @1 ui u1 + @2 ui u2 + @3 ui u3 = @j p
which leads to
@0 u1 u0 + @1 u1 u1 + @2 u1 u2 + @3 u1 u3 = @1 p; (8.50)
2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3
@0 u u + @1 u u + @2 u u + @3 u u = @2 p; (8.51)
3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3
@0 u u + @1 u u + @2 u u + @3 u u = @3 p; (8.52)
Upon adding Eqs. (8.50) - (8.52), we have
@0 u1 x
^ + @0 u2 y^ + @0 u3 z^ u0 + @1 u1 x
^ + @1 u2 y^ + @1 u3 z^ u1
+ @2 u1 x
^ + @2 u2 y^ + @2 u3 z^ u2 + @3 u1 x
^ + @3 u2 y^ + @3 u3 z^ u3
= @1 p^
x @2 p^
y @3 p^
z;
) u (@0 ~u) + u @1 (~u) + u @2 (~u) + u3 @3 (~u) =
0 1 2
rp;
0 1 2 3
) u (@0 ~u) + u @1 + u @2 + u @3 (~u) = rp;
@~u
) c + (~u r) ~u = rp; (8.53)
c@t
8.5. THE EINSTEIN EQUATIONS 195
so that
@
+ ~u r ~u = rp; (8.54)
@t
Eq. (8.54) is Euler’s classical equation of motion for a perfect ‡uid. Note that
the conservation of energy and momentum
@a T ab = 0 (8.55)
for an arbitray coordinates is expressed as
ra T ab = 0
Homework: derive the expression for
ra T ab = 0:
8.5 The Einstein equations

In order to deduce the gravitational …eld equations proposed by Einstein, it is
important to recall some of the results we obtained in the sections
(a) Newtonian gravitational …eld equation:
r2 = (4 G) : (8.56)
(b) Weak gravitational …eld -for weak …eld space-time is "slightly" curved, the
metric can be approximated as
gab ' ab + hab (8.57)
and static
@gab
@0 gab = =0 (8.58)
c@t
and …eld and the metric are related by
2
g00 = 1+ (8.59)
c2
(c) Perfect ‡uid in the IRF:

T00 = c2
Consider the weak gravitational and low velocity limit. In this limit we can
combine the results (a) to (c) and the …eld equation that relates the …eld to the
source (mass) as
r2 c2 = (4 G) c2 = (4 G) T00 (8.60)
2 8 G 2 8 G
) r2 = T00 ) r2 1+ 2 = T00 (8.61)
c2 c4 c c4

8 G
r2 g00 = T00 (8.62)
c4
Note that we used
r2 (1) = 0: (8.63)
The result for this limit suggest that the gravitational …eld must be some 2-nd
rank tensor Kab that is linearly proportional to the energy-momentum tensor
Tab ;
Kab = Tab (8.64)
where
8 G
= : (8.65)
c4
We also recall that curvature of the Minkowski space time that is determined
by curvature tensor Rabcd : How strongly or weakly the space-time is curved
determined by how the gravitational …eld be strong or weak. Therefore, the
…eld tensor, Kab ; must be constructed from the curvature tensor. Furthermore,
this …eld tensor must satisfy the following two conditions:
(a) The Newtonian limit: According to Eq. (8.62)
Kab (in the Newtonian limit) = r2 g00 (8.66)
This suggests that Kab should contain terms no higher than linear in the
second-order derivative of the metric tensor.
(b) Symmetricity: since Kab is proportional to the energy momentum tensor
Tab which is symmetric, the …eld tensor must also be symmetric.
We recall that the curvature tensor
1
Rabcd = (@d @a gbc @d @b gac + @c @b gad @c @a gbd )
2
g ef ( eac f bd ead f bc ) : (8.67)
is linear in the second derivative of the metric. We also know that the Ricci
tensor, Rab ; is obtained from the curvature tensor by rasing the …rst index and
followed by contraction with the fourth index
e
Rbcd = g ea Rabcd ) Rbc = Rbcd
d
= g da Rabcd : (8.68)
We have also seen that a further contraction of the curvature tensor leads to
the curvature scalar
R = g ab Rab = Raa (8.69)
Therefore the …eld tensor, Kab ; that satisfy the above two stated conditions
can be expressed in terms of the Ricci tensor, the curvature scalar which are
constructed from the curvature tensor and the metric tensor as
Kab = Rab + Rgab + gab ; (8.70)
where ; ; and are constants to be determined. The requirement stated in

(a) leads to = 0 but this will be relaxed later only when we introduce the
cosmology constant. For now we use
Kab = Rab + Rgab = Tab (8.71)
and …nd the constants and . To this end, we recall the energy-momentum
conservation
ra T ab = 0
so that
ra Rab + Rg ab = 0: (8.72)
ab
In the previous chapter, we have shown that for the Einstein tensor, G ;
1 ab
ra Gab = ra Rab Rg = 0: (8.73)
2
Multiplying this equation by , we have
ra Rab Rg ab = 0 (8.74)
2
so that upon subtracting Eq. (8.74) from Eq. (8.72), we …nd
1 1
+ ra Rg ab = + Rra g ab + g ab ra R = 0: (8.75)
2 2
We have shown that (in one of the homework problem) that the covariant deriv-
ative of the metric is zero
ra g ab = 0:
Employing this result in Eq. (8.75), we …nd
1
+ g ab ra R = 0: (8.76)
2
In Eq. (8.76) we note that
(a) g ab can not be zero, generally

(b) ra R is zero only when the spacetime is is not curved (no gravitational
…eld)
Therefore, the only way that Eq. (8.76) can be true is

1
+ =0) =
2 2
and the …eld equation, Eq. (??), becomes
1
Rab Rgab = Tab (8.77)
2
Homework: show that consistency with Newtonian gravity requires that = 1:

Einstein’s gravitational …eld equations, which forms the mathematical basis
of the theory of general relativity is given by
1
Gab = Rab gab R = Tab ; (8.78)
2
where
8 G
= :
c4
Gab is the Einstein tensor we saw in the previous chapter. By multiplying Eq.
(8.78) by g ca ; we have
1 ca 1 c
g ca Rab g gab R = g ca Tab ) Rbc bR = Tbc (8.79)
2 2
and contracting Eq. (8.79) by setting c = b; we have
1 b
Rbb bR = Tbb (8.80)
2
so that noting that
b
Rbb = R; Tbb = T; b =4 (8.81)
we …nd
R 2R = T )R= T (8.82)
Applying Eq. (8.82) into Eq. (8.78), we …nd
1
Rab gab T = Tab ; (8.83)
2
which can be put in the form
T
Rab = Tab gab : (8.84)
2
Eq. (8.84) is an alternative form of the Einstein gravitational …eld equation.

In general Tab contains all forms of energy and momentum that belongs to not
only matter but also to electromagnetic radiation.
8.5.1 The Einstein …eld equations in vacuum

A region of space in which all components of the energy-momentum tensor are
zero (Tab = 0) is called empty (vacuum). This region of space is devoid of
matter and charge. Therefore, for an empty region of space, we have
Tab = 0 ) T = Taa = g a T a =0
and the Einstein …eld equation becomes
Rab = 0: (8.85)
The following tables show the …eld and the curvature equations resulting from
N = 2; 3 and 4 sapcetime dimension.
N Rab Rabcd
2 R00 ; R01 ; R11
3 R00 ; R01 ; R02 ; R10 ;
R11 ; R12 ; R20 ; R21 ; R22
4 R00 ; R01 ; R02 ; R03 ; R10 ; R11 ; R12 ;
R13 ; R20 ; R21 ; R22 ; R23 ; R30 ; R31 ; R32 ; R33
N # of Rab Independent R # of # of Rabcd # of Indp. Rabcd
Indp.
Rab
2 3 R00 ; R01 ; R11 3 1
3 9 R00 ; R01 ; R02 ; R11 ; R12 ; 6 6
R22
4 16 R00 ; R01 ; R02 ; R03 ; R11 ; 10 20
R12 ; R13 ; R22 ; R23 ; R33
Homework: …nd Rabcd and the total # of Rabcd
We recall that the Ricci tensor, Rab ; is obtained from the curvature tensor
by rasing the …rst index and then contracting the …rst and the last indices
e
Rbcd = g da Rabcd : (8.86)
As we can see from these tables for N = 2 or 3; in an empty part of space the
number of independent …eld equations (which are zero) is greater or equal to
the corresponding independent number of the curvature equations (i.e 3 > 1 for
2-D and 6 = 6 for 3-D) guarantee that the full curvature tensor must vanish for
2-D and 3-D spacetime. This means spacetime in 2-D and 3-D for an empty
part of space is ‡at. On the other hand for 4-D spacetime since the number
of independent …eld equations (10) is greater than the number of independent
curvature equations (20), spacetime is still curved for an empty part of space
even if it is devoid of matter and charge. Therefore, we can make the conclusion
that gravitational …eld exists only in dimension equal or greater than 4-D.
Question: so can we create a 2-D or 3D spacetime (i.e 1-D and 2-D space) in
a laboratory where the gravitational …eld is zero and objects become weightless?
8.5.2 The Einstein …eld equations in the weak-…eld limit

We recall that for a weak gravitational …eld spacetime is "slightly" curved, the
metric is given by
gab ' ab + hab (8.87)
where jhab j << 1and it is static,
@gab
@0 gab = = 0: (8.88)
c@t
In this limit we have shown that …eld and the metric are related by
2
g00 = 1+ : (8.89)
c2
Taking these into consideration, we can write the Einstein …eld equation as
T
R00 = T00 g00 : (8.90)
2
Recall that the curvature tensor is given by

d d d e d e d
Rabc = @b ac @c ab + ac eb ab ec ; (8.91)
and Ricci tensor, Rab ; is obtained from the curvature tensor by rasing the …rst
index (Eq. (8.91)) and then contracting the …rst and the last indices, we have
c c c e c e c
Rab = Rabc = @b ac @c ab + ac eb ab ec ; (8.92)
so that
c c e c e c
R00 = @0 0c @c 00 + 0c e0 00 ec : (8.93)
Note that the connections are related to the metric by
a g ad
bc = (@b gcd + @c gdb @d gbc ) (8.94)
2
For the …rst term in Eq. (8.93) we …nd
c g cd g cd
@0 0c = (@0 gcd + @c gd0 @d g0c ) = (@c gd0 @d g0c ) ' 0;
2 2
where we have used the metric is static and the space is slightly curved in the
weak-…eld limit. For the same reason, for the last two terms of Eq. (8.93), we
can make the approximation
e c e c
0c e0 = 00 ec ' 0: (8.95)
Thus Eq. (8.93) becomes

c
R00 = @c 00 (8.96)
Since
0
@0 00 =0 (8.97)
for a static metric, we have
j
R00 = @j 00 (8.98)
where j = 1; 2; 3: Using the result we obtained in the previous chapter, in the
Newtonian limit,
j 1 ji
00 = @i h00 ; (8.99)
2
we may write
1 ji 1 ji
R00 = @j @i h00 = @j @i h00 (8.100)
2 2
Applying Eq. (8.100), we …nd for the …eld equation Eq. (8.90) becomes
1 ji T
@j @i h00 = T00 g00 : (8.101)
2 2
In the weak …eld limit, we can make the approximation
g00 ' 1
so that
1 ji T
@j @i h00 = T00 : (8.102)
2 2
We will consider the gravitational …eld is due to some perfect ‡uid for which
energy-momentum tensor is given by
p h p ua ub p i
Tab = + 2 ua ub p ab = + 2 c2 (8.103)
c c c2 c2 ab
For most classical matter distribution
p
<<
c2
so that
Tab = ua ub : (8.104)
There follows that
T00 = u0 u0 = c2 (8.105)
and also
T = Tbb = g ba Tab = ub ub = c2 (8.106)
Then the …eld equation becomes
ji
@j @i h00 ' c2 ) @12 + @22 + @32 h00 ' c2 (8.107)
2 2
) r h00 ' c (8.108)
Recalling that for slightly curved spacetime
2
g00 = 1+ = 00 + h00 = 1 + h00 (8.109)
c2
2
) h00 = 2 (8.110)
c
and
8 G
= :
c4
we …nally …nd that
2 8 G 2
r2 ' c ) r2 '4 G (8.111)
c2 c4
If the …eld is a result of some perfect ‡uid in a volume of sphere somewhere in

the universe, we may write
Z Z
[r (r )] d3 x ' 4 G d3 x = 4 GM (8.112)
V
V
Using the divergence theorem

Z I I
[r (r )] d3 x = (r ) d~a = ~g d~a (8.113)
V S S
where g is the gravitational …eld vector like the electric …eld vector. For a very
spherical surface of radius r enclosing the perfect ‡uid, we may write
I
~g d~a = g4 r2 (8.114)
S
so that
GM
g4 r2 = 4 GM ) g =
r2
Then the gravitational …eld vector can be expressed as
GM
~g = r^
r2
Newton’s law of gravitational force on an object of mass, m at a distance r from
the center of the perfect ‡uid can then be written as
GM m
F~G = m~g = r^
r2
Suppose the perfect ‡uid is our planet earth, ME and the object is you or me
on earth (r = RE ), you will …nd
GM m
~g = r^ = 9:8 2
r2 s
and the force
m
F~G = your (or my) mass 9:8 r^:
s2

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Theoretical physics IV-Introduction to General

April 23, 2018

1 The spacetime of special relativity 1

3 Vector Calculus on manifolds 69

3.11 The calculus of variation-(a review from Theoretical Physics I) . 96

4 Tensor Calculus on manifolds 109

5 Special relativity using tensors 125

7 The equivalence principle and spacetime curvature 163

8 The gravitational …eld equations 187

The spacetime of special

1.1 Inertial frames, Galilean and Lorentz trans-

accelerating frame of references

relative to O. Obviously, reference S is moving with the same magnitude of

For y 0 and z 0 , obviously

Since we require that for x0 = 0;

so that an inertial reference frames, we may write

Galilean Transformation: in the Galilean transformation time is absolute that

If we take the time derivative of the x coordinate, we …nd

which is an equation that can be obtained from a common sense of relative

Using Eqs. (1.25)-(1.28), we may write

ct0 = c (At + Bx) = c t x ) ct0 = (ct x) ; (1.37)

the Lorentz transformation reduces to

which agrees with the Galilean transformation.

is invariant under the Lorentz transformation squared.

Eqs. (1.46)- (1.49) are Lorentz transformation from the S 0 frame to S:

1.2 Axes rotation vs Lorentz transformation

y0 = x sin ( ) + y cos ( ) ; (1.50)

Let’s replace y 0 by ct0 and y by ct so that

ct0 cos ( ) sin ( ) ct

We recall the "boost" (Lorentz transformation) from Eqs. (1.37)- (1.38),

ct0 = (ct x) ; (1.54)

that can be put, using matrices, in the form

So let’s say that

so that one …nds

The parameter is called the rapidity parameter. Note that for

ct0 cosh ( ) sinh ( ) ct

ct0 = ct cosh ( ) x sinh ( ) ;

Figure 1.3: Rotation in Minkowski space.

ct0 = ct cosh ( ) x sinh ( ) ;

which is the Lorentz transformation.

Figure 1.4: An inertial frame S 0 moving with a constant velocity ~v in arbitrary

Homework Problem 3 : Using the Lorentz transformation

1.3 The interval and the lightcone

(x, y, z) in cylindrical coordinates is de…ned by

Introducing the constant

Figure 1.7: Spacetime diagram illustrating the lightcone of Event 1 in relation

Figure 1.8: Spacetime diagram

1.4 Length contraction and time dilation

Figure 1.9: Inertial from S is station on Earth (assuming earth is stationary)

height (proper length) and found it to be l0 , that we may express it as

l0 = x02 x01 ; (1.80)

l0 = x02 x01 = (x2 c t2 ) (x1 c t1 )

so that for, T = t = t2 t1 ; one …nds

x02 = x01 = x; (1.86)

1.5 Invariant hyperbolae

in the S frame and also

Figure 1.10: The invariant hyperbolae.

Figure 1.11: Length contraction and time dilation.

an observer on the S 0 frame). For an observer on the S frame, the length l is

1.6 Worldline and proper time

From our discussion in the previous sections, we recall

and the invariant interval in the Minkowski spacetime would become

so that the proper time becomes